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BSSU 


THE  MOITN  IfOlID 

alOie 

J}yA"t--"fl"--'r'"^'riiiuiiiiFllj;S 
Thi'  Jounipj's  fit'  Uio  AposUe  Hiul 


THE 


BIBLE  HAND-BOOK: 


AN    INTRODUCTION 


TO 


[tuty  at  §Mxiti  §txipuxt. 


BY 


JOSEPH   ANGUS,   D.D., 


REVISED  EDITION   WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
JAMES    S.    CLAXTON, 

SUCCESSOE    TO    WM.    S.    &   ALFRED    MARTIEN, 

606  CuKSTNUT  Street. 

1865. 


Stereotyped  and  Printed  by 

Alfred  Maktie?i. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  pages  are  intended  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  Scripture,  and  are  written  with  the  view  of  being 
used  by  all  classes  of  intelligent  readers.  On  a  first  perusal 
by  younger  readers,  it  is  suggested  that  the  sections  marked 
("■)  in  the  table  of  contents,  be  omitted,  together  with  such 
paragraphs  as  may  be  thought  too  abstruse.  The  attempt  to 
adapt  the  work  to  both  young  and  advanced  students,  renders 
such  a  selection  at  the  outset  desirable ;  and  the  whole  has 
been  written  so  as  to  make  the  portions  read,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, easily  intelligible  and  complete  in  themselves.  On 
the  other  hand,  any  who  wish  to  consult  the  book  on  particular 
subjects — as  on  the  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  or  on  the 
proof  of  particular  doctrines — can  easily  do  so  by  the  help  of 
the  index. 

If  any  wish  to  connect  the  study  of  these  pages  with  the 
study  of  Theological  Science  generally,  he  will  find  the  fol- 
lowing classification  important. 

Theology  is  Exegetical,  Historical,  Systematic,  and  Pas- 
toral : — 

Under  the  head  of  Exegetical  Theology  are  placed — 

Philology,  or  the  study  of  the  languages  of  Scripture,  with  their 
cognate  dialects,  see  ch.  i.  sees.  2,  4;  ch.  iv.  sec.  5. 

Criticism,  which  aims  first  to  establish  a  correct  text,  and  secondly, 
to  explain  the  peculiarities  of  the  style,  etc.,  of  the  several 
books,  see  ch.  i.  sees.  1,  3,  5,  6 ;  ch.  vi.  sec.  1,  and  Introduction8 
to  Pent.,  Gospels,  Epistles,  etc. 

Hermeneutics,  or  the  theory  and  practice  of  interpretation,  ch.  i. 
sec.  6;  ch.  iv.,  and  ch.  vi. 

(iii) 


iv  PREFACE. 

Under  the  head  of  Histoeical  Theology  are  placed— 
Akch^ology,  with  its  two  divisions :  Biblical  Archaeology,  which 
treats  of  ancient  customs,  etc.,  see.  ch.  iv.  sec.  6,  and  Ecclesiastical, 
which  treats  of  the  opinions  of  early  Jewish  and  Christian  sects 
and  writers,  see  ch.  iv.  sec.  6;  Part  ii.  ch.  iv.  sec.  2;  ch.  vi.  sec. 
1 ;  ch.  vii.  sec.  1. 
HisTOBY  OF  DocTBiNE,  of  which  this  volume  does  not  treat. 

Under  the  head  of  Systematic  Theology  are  placed — 
Dogmatic  Theology,  which  treats  of  matters  of  faith,  etc. 
Peactical  Theology,  which  treats  of  practice. 

See  chaps,  iii.,  v.,  vii.,  and  Introduction  to  Cor.,  Romans,  etc. 

Under  the  head  of  Pastoral  Theology  are  placed — 
HoMiLETics,   of  which    this  volume    treats    but    indirectly,    see 

ch.  vii. 
The  Pastoral  Case  and  Ecclesiastical  Law,  of  which  nothing 

is  said  here. 

The  Evidence  of  Christianity,  and  the  External 
History  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  are  distinct  branches  of 
inquiry.  Of  the  first,  the  following  pages  treat  at  some  length, 
chap.  i.  sec.  1 ;  chap.  ii.  sec.  1-4,  etc. 

To  some  of  the  subjects  enumerated  in  this  list,  this  volume 
is  only  an  introduction  intended  to  guide  the  advanced  reader 
to  larger  works;  but  on  most,  it  will  be  found  sufficiently  full 
to  enable  earnest-minded  inquirers  to  study  and  master  the 
evidences,  facts,  and  doctrines  of  Scripture  for  themselves. 
Its  aim  is  to  teach  men  to  understand  and  appreciate  The 
Bible,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  give  such  information  on 
ancient  literature  and  history  as  may  aid  the  work  of  general 
education  among  all  classes. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Preface        .^ 3 

PART  I. 

Introductory      11 

CHAPTER  I. 

On  the  Genuineness  of  Scripture  :  or  the  Bible  as  Inspired 

Men  wrote  it 15 

Sec.  1.  Genuineness  defined  and  proved,  §  6-24, 

Sec.  2.*  The   original   languages  of  Scripture.  Hebrew  and  the 

Shemitish  languages  generally  ;  Hellenistic  or  Hebrew 

Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  LXX,  §  25-41. 
Sec.  3.^  The  manuscripts  of  Scripture,  §  42-64. 
Sec.  4.»  The  ancient  versions  of  Scripture,  §  65-74. 
Sec.  5.*  The  various  readings  of  Scripture:  rules  for  determining 

the  text,  §  75-112. 
Sec.  6.  The  English  version   on   the  whole   identical  with  the 

original  text,  g  113-134. 


CHAPTER  II. 

On  the  Authenticity  and  Authority  of  Scripture        .        .      83 
Sec.  1.  Scripture  claims  to  be  regarded  as  an  inspired  teacher, 

and  as  the  only  inspired  teacher,  §  135-145. 
Sec.  2.  Inspiration,  ^  146-150. 
Sec.  3.  The  canon,  ?  151-166. 
Sec.  4,  Scripture  evidences,  §  167-213. 

1*  (v) 


Vi  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Pagb. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Bible  as  a  Revelation  from  God  .        .     141 
Sec.  1.  A  revelation  of  God,  of  Christ,  and   of  human  nature, 

§  214-218. 
Sec.  2.  A  revelation  of  spiritual  religious  truth,  ^  219-227. 
Sec.  3.  A  gradual  and  progressive  revelation,  ^  228-238. 
Sec.  4.  The  unity  of  the  Bible,  I  239-245. 
Sec.  5.  Not  a   revelation  of  systematic  truth  or  specific  rules, 

§  246-253. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

On  the  Interpretation  of  Sceipture 167 

Sec.  1.  Of  the  necessity  for  care  in  the  study  of  Scripture, 
§  25-^269. 

Sec.  2.  Of  the  spirit  in  which  the  Bible  should  be  studied, 
§  270-273. 

Sec.  3.   Of  rules  of  interpretation,  ^  274-309. 

Sec.  4.  Of  the  utility  and  application  of  rules  in  interpretation, 
§  310,  311. 

Sec.  5."  Of  the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  study  of  the 
original  Scriptures,  ^  312-338. 

Sec.  6.  Of  the  use  of  external  helps  in  interpretation  ;  Jewish 
and  heathen  opinions ;  history,  profane  and  ecclesi- 
astical ;  chronology ;  natural  history  ;  manners  and  cus- 
toms ;  geography,  historical  and  physical,  §  339-404. 

Sec.  7.  Of  the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  interpretation  of 
allegories,  parables,  types,  and  symbols,  §  405-433. 

Sec.  8.»  Of  the  interpretation  of  prophecy,  g  434-454. 


CHAPTER  V. 

On  the  Systematic  and   Inferential  Study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures        352 

Sec.  1.  Of  the  study  of  the  doctrines  of  Scripture,  §  455-464. 
Sec.  2.  Of  the  study  of  the  precepts  of  Scripture,  §  465-472. 
Sec.  3.  Of  the  study  of  the  promises  of  Scripture,  §  473-480. 
Sec.  4.  Of  the  study  of  the  examples  of  Scripture,  §  481-487. 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Paqb. 

Peinciples  and  Rules  illustrated  in  the  Quotations  of  the 
New  Testament  fkom  the  Old,  and  applied  to  the  So- 
lution OF  Scripture  Difficulties       ....        378 
Sec.  1.*  Quotations  classified  and  examined  with  reference  to  the 
•         state  of  the  text,  the  truths  and  evidences  of  Scripture, 
and  principles  of  interpretation,  §  489-500. 
Sec.  2.    Scripture  difficulties,  §  501-523. 

CHAPTPJR  VII. 
Oh  the  Ihfebential  and  Practical  Reading  of  the  Bible  .        408 

PART  II. 

THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE.       ' 
Inteoductoey 423 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Job 428 

Sec.  1.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  §  7-1^. 

Sec.  2.  The  Book  of  Job,  g  14-17. 

Sec.  3.  Of  Hebrew  poetry  and  the  Poetical  Books,  §  18. 

Sec.  4.  The  Books  of  the  Pentateuch,  arranged  and  epitomized 
with  occasional  helps,  ^  19-24. 

Sec.  5.  The  design  of  the  Law  ;  summary  of  its  religious  institu- 
tions, §  25-31. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Historical  and  Poetical  Books  to  the  Death  o^  Solomon     .        473 
Sec.  1.  The  Historical  Books  of  Scripture  generally,  |  32-35. 
Sec.  2.  Brief  Outline  of  these  Historical  Books,  §  36. 
Sec.  3.  The  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth,  g  37-42. 
Sec.  4.  The  Books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  |  43-51 
Sec.  5.  The  Poetical  Book.? — Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon,  Proverbs, 
and  Ecclesiastes,  ^  52-62. 


via  CONTENTS. 

Paoe. 
Sec.  6.  The  whole   arranged   and   epitomized,  with   occasional 
helps,  I  63-68. 


CHAPTER  III. 

HiRTORinAL  Books  fhom  the  Death  of  Solomon  to  the  Close 

OF  THE  Old  Testament  Canon 523 

Sec.  1.  Brief  historical  view  of  this  period;  the  Prophets  in  con- 
nection with  history,  §  69-73. 
Sec.  2.  The  natu're  of  Prophecy  during  this  period;  Predictions 

arranged  according  to  time  and  according  to  subjects, 

^  74-76. 
Sec.  3.  The  Books  of  Jonah,  Joel,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah, 

Nahum,  |  77-87. 
Sec.  4.  The  Books  of  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk,  Daniel, 

Ezekiel,  and  Obadiah.     The  Captivity,  §  88-94. 
Sec.  5.  The  Books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Esther,  Nehemiah, 

and  Malachi,  §  95-102. 
Sec.  6.  The  whole  arranged  and  epitomized,  §  103-106. 
Sec.  7.  Chronology  of  Scripture  and  early  profane  history  from 

the  Deluge  to  the  close  of  the  Canon,  g  107. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Civil  and  Moral  History  of  the  Jews  from  Malachi  to  John 

THE  Baptist .         .         .        599 

Sec.  1.  Sketch  of  the  Civil  History  of  the  Jews  between  the  two 

Testaments  §  108-115. 
Sec.  2.  Sketch  of  the  Moral  and  Religious  History  of  the  Jews 

between  the  two  Testaments,  §  116-128. 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Gospels ^  .         .        613 

Introductory,  §  129-134. 

Sec.  1.  The  Gospels  in  their  mutual  relations,  §  135,  136. 

Sec.  2.  The  genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  |  137. 

Sec.  3.  Introduction  to  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  §  138-141. 

Sec.  4.  The  Chronology  of  the  Gospels,  §  142. 

Sec.  5.  The  Gospels  Harmonized,  §  143-150. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Page. 

Sec.  6.  Topics  to  be  noticed  in  reading  the  Gospels.  Lessons  to 
be  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  passages,  ^  151-152. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Book  of  Acts 636 

Sec.  1.  The  Gospel  and  the  Gentiles,  §  153-161. 

Sec.  2.  Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Acts,  |  162,  163. 

Sec.  3.  Chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  arranged,  |  164-166. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Epistles  and  the  Book  op  Revelation  ....        647 

Sec.  1.  On  the  study  of  the  Epistles,  ^  167-169. 

Sec.  2.  On  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles,  g  170. 

Sec.  3.  Helps  to  study  of  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  1  and 
2  Corinthians,  Romans,  James,  Ephesians,  Colossians, 
Philemon,  Philippians,  Hebrews,  1  Peter,  1  Timothy, 
Titus,  2  Peter,  2  Timothy,  Jude,  and  precepts  given 
in  each,  with  epitome  of  Doctrines,  §  171-195. 

Sec.  4.  Helps  to  the  study  of  1,  2,  and  3  John,  and  to  the  Book 
of  Revelation,  §  196-204. 

Index 717 


THE  BIBLE  HAND-BOOK. 


PART  I. 


The  Sesterttos  or  Vespasian  :  A.  D.  69.    Actuai  Size. 
It  commemorates  the  conquest  of  Judaea.    The  country  is  represented  by  the  Palm 
Teee,  beneath  which  is  a  sitting  figure,  the  "captive   daughter  of  Zion,"  in  an 
attitude  of  dejection.    The  emperor  stands  by,  holding  a  lance,  and  v^ith  his  foot 
on  a  helmet.    Judtea  capta  (Judaea  taken):  S.  C.  (by  decree  of  the  Senate). 


INTRODUCTORY. 

"  I  use  the  Scriptures  not  as  an  arsenal  to  be  resorted  to  only  for  arms 
and  weapons  .  .  .out  as  a  matchless  temple,  where  I  delight  to  contem- 
plate the  beauty,  the  symmetry,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  structure; 
and  to  increase  my  awe  and  excite  my  devotion  to  the  Deity  there 
preached  and  adored." — Boyle  :   On  the  Style  of  Scripture,  3d  obj.  8. 

"  Scarcely  can  we  fix  our  eyes  upon  a  single  passage  in  this  wonderful 
book  which  has  not  afforded  comfort  or  instruction  to  thousands,  and 
been  met  with  tears  of  penitential  sorrow  or  grateful  joy  drawn  from 
eyes  that  will  weep  no  more." — Payson  .-   The  Bible  above  all  Price. 

"This  lamp,  from  oft"  the  everlasting  throne, 
Mercy  took  down,  and  in  the  night  of  time 
Stood,  casting  on  the  dark  her  gracious  bow, 
And  evermore  Vje-seeching  men  with  tears 
And  earnest  sighs,  to  hear,  believe,  and  live." — Pollok. 

1.  Even  as. a  literary  composition,  the  sacred  Scriptures 
form  the  most  remarkable  book  the  world  has  ever  ,„,    „ . , 

I  he  Bible: 

seen.     They  are  of   all  writings  the  most  ancient,  'ts  claims. 


12  THE   BIBLE — HOW    TO    BE   STUDIED. 

They  contain  a  record  of  events  of  the  deepest  interest.  The 
history  of  their  influence  is  the  history  of  civilization  and 
happiness.  The  wisest  and  best  of  mankind  have  borne  wit- 
ness to  their  power  as  an  instrument  of  enlightenment  and  of 
holiness ;  and  having  been  prepared  by  "  men  of  God  who 
spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"*  to  reveal  "  the 
only  true  God  and  Jesus  Christ  whom  he  has  sent,"^  they 
have  on  this  ground  the  strongest  claims  upon  our  attentive 
and  reverential  regard. 

The  use  of  a  hand-book  of  Scripture  requires  one  or  two 
cautions,  which  both  writers  and  readers  need  to  keep  before 
them. 

2.  First.  We  are  not  to  contemplate  this  glorious  fabric  of 
To  be  stud-  Divine  truth  as  spectators  only.  It  is  not  our  busi- 
fauh^nd  iness  to  stand  before  Scripture  and  admire  it ;  but 
obedience,  ^q  stand  within,  that  we  may  believe  and  obey  it. 
In  the  way  of  inward  communion  and  obedience  only  shall 
we  see  the  beauty  of  its  treasures.  It  yields  them  to  none 
but  the  loving  and  the  humble.  We  must  enter  and  unite 
ourselves  with  that  which  we  would  know,  before  we  can 
know  it  more  than  in  name." 

3.  Secondly.  Nor  must  the  study  of  a  help  to  Scripture  be 
All  helps  of  confounded  with  the  study  of  Scripture  itself.    Such 

value  onlyas 

they  lead  to  helps  may  teach  us  to  look  at  truth  so  as  to  see  its 
itself.  position  and  proportions,  but  it  is  the  entrance  of 

truth  alone  which  gives  light.  The  road  we  are  about  to 
travel  may  prove  attractive  and  pleasing,  but  its  great  attrac- 
tion is  its  end.  It  leads  to  the  "wells  of  salvation."  To 
suppose  that  the  journey,  or  the  sight  of  the  living  water — 
perhaps,  even  of  the  place  whence  it  springs — will  quench 
our  thirst,  is  to  betray  most  mournful  self-deceit  or  the  pro- 
foundest  ignorance.  Our  aim — "  the  sabbath  and  port  of  our 
labors" — is  to  make  more  clear  and  impressive  the  Book  of 
God,  "  the  god  of  books,"*^  as  one  calls  it,  the  Bible  itself. 

»2  Pet.  i.  21.  *>  joha  xvii.  3;  Ps.  x. 

«Prov.  ii.  2-5:  John  vii.  17.  "^The  Synagogue,  No.  ziv. 


THE    BIBLE — ITS    TITT,ES.  13 

4.  The  names  by  which  this  volume  is  distinguished  are 
not  wanting  in  significance.  It  is  called  the  Bible,  ^^^  n^mes 
or  the  book,  from  the  Greek  word  ^i/3Ao?,  book,  a  The  Bible, 
name  given  originally  (like  liher  in  Latin)  to  the  inner  bark 
of  the  linden,  or  teil-tree,  and  afterwards  to  the  bark  of  the 
papyrus,  the  materials  of  which  early  books  were  sometimes 
made. 

It  is  called  the  Old  and  New  Testament  (that  is,  covenant 
or  appointment),  the  term  by  which  God  was  pleased  „. ,     , 
to  indicate  the  relation  or  settled  arrangement  be-  Testament. 
tween  himself  and  his  people.     The  term  was  first  applied  to 
the  relation  itself,*  and  afterwards  to  the  books  in  which  the 
records  of  the  relation  are  contained. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  Old  Testament  was -called  "The  Law,  ' 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Writings."     Sometimes  therp^^, 
writings,  or  (as  the  Greek  name  is)  the  Sagiographa  *^®  ^j°t?^' 
were  called,  from  the  first  book  under  the  division,  Writings. 
the  Psalms.'' 

What  books  were  included  in  these  divisions  we  gather 
from  ancient  Jewish  authorities.  Josephus  reckons  two-and- 
twenty  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  whole 
may  be  thus  divided  : — 

The  five  books  of  Moses  [n:i|Pi],     Torah.     The  Law. 

The  Prophets  [iD^s'i^i].     Nebiim. 

The  historical  division  £ii3\ffi!A7i  tsi^'^aD.  Nebiim  Rishonim 
namelv — 


1. 

Joshua. 

6. 

Daniel. 

2. 

Judges  and  Paith. 

7. 

Ezra  and  Nehemiah 

3. 

Samuel,  1  and  2. 

8. 

Esther. 

4. 

Kings,  1  and  2. 

9. 

Job. 

5. 

Chronicles,  1  and  2. 

«Ex.  xxiv.  7:  2  Kings  xxiii.  2:  2  Cor.  iii.  6-14.  S/aflwx)),  in  classic 
Greek  is  disposition,  or  a  will ;  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  it  is  often  equiva- 
lent to  <rovfi««)t,  a  covenant.     Gen.  xxi.  27-32 :  xxvi.  28  :  xxxi.  44, 

''Luke  xxiv.  44. 


14  THE   BIBLE — ITS   TITLES. 

The  Prophets,  properly  so  called,  Q'lDpns  ti'^iii'iiaJ.    Nebiim 
Acharonim. 
10.  Isaiah,  11.  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations. 

12.  Ezekiel.  13.  The  twelve  minor  Prophets. 

And  the  Hagiographa,  i'^a/riS.  Cethubim,  namely — 
The  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and 
Ecclesiastes. 
In  modern  copies  the  following  are  also  placed  among  the 
Hagiographia : — 

Job,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah  and  Chronicles. 
And  this  is  the  arrangement  now  in  use  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. 

The  terms,  "the  Scripture,"*  "the  Scriptures,""  and  "the 
oth  r  word  of  God,""  are  also  applied  in  the  Bible  itself  to 

names.  the  sacred  books;  as  is  the  expression,  "the  oracles 
of  God;"*  though  this  last  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  the 
-place  where,  under  the  old  dispensation,  the  will  of  God  was  , 
revealed.®  "The  Law"'  and  "the  Prophets"*^  are  each  em- 
ployed, and  sometimes  unitedly"*  by  a  common  figure  of  speech, 
to  designate  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  sacred  writings  were  sometimes  called  the  canon  of 
Canon  of  Scripture,  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  straight 
Scripture,  ^od,  and  heuce  a  rule  or  law.  Gal.  vi.  16 :  Phil.  iii.  16. 
This  term  was  employed  in  the  early  age  of  Christianity  with 
some  indefiniteness,  though  generally  denoting  a  standard  of 
opinion  and  practice.  From  the  time  of  Origen,  however,  it 
has  been  applied  to  the  books  which  are  regarded  by  Chris- 
tians as  of  Divine  authority.  The  Bible,  therefore,  is  the  canon 
that  is,  the  authoritative  standard  of  religion  and  morality. 
5.  Of  all  these  titles,  the  "  word  of  God"  is  perhaps  the  most 

»  John  X.  35 :  Jas.  iv.  5.  ^  Luke  xxiv.  27. 

"^  Luke  xi.  28  :  Prov.  xxx.  5.    "i  Acts  vii.  38  :  Rom.  iii.  2 :  Heb.  v.  12. 

'  1  Kings  viii.  6;  2  Chron  iv.  20;  Ps.  xxviii.  2. 

'Mat.  V.  18:  John  x.  34:  1  Cor.  xiv.  21. 

K  Mat.  xxvi.  56  :  Acts  iii.  18-21 :  xxviii.  23.     >.  Mat.  xi.  13  :  xxii.  40. 


THE   BIBLE — ITS   GENUINENESS. 


15 


impressive  and  complete.     It  is  sufficient  to  justify  „, 
the  faith  of  the  feeblest  Christian,  and  it  gathers  up  °^  ^°'^ 
all  that  the  most  earnest  search  can  unfold.     We  may  say 
more  at  large  what  this  title  involves,  but  more  than  this  we 
cannot  say.     It  teaches  us  to  regard  the  Bible  as  the  utterance 
of  Divine  wisdom  and  love. 


The  Jewish  Shekel.    Actu.ii,  Size— Silver. 
The  earliest  Jewish  coined  money  (B.  C.  125).     On  one  side  is  "Aaron's  rod  that 
budded,"  on  the  other  the  "  pot  of  manna."    The  inscription,  in  Samaritan  char- 
acters, is  "Shekel  of  Israel,"  and  "Jerusalem  the  Holy."    The  date  (the  "second 
year,"  i.  e.  of  Simon)  is  written  over  the  pot  of  manna. 


-M*~ 


CHAPTER   I. 


ON    THE    GENUINENESS    OF   SCRIPTURE :     OR   THE   BIBLE,  AS 
INSPIRED    MEN    WROTE    IT. 

"  The  integrity  of  the  records  of  the  Christian  faith  is  substantiated 
by  evidence,  in  a  tenfold  proportion,  more  various,  copious  and  con- 
clusive than  that  which  can  be  adduced  in  support  of  any  other  ancient 
writings." — Isaac  Tayloe. 

Sec.  1. — Genuiness  Defined  and  Proved. 

6.  If  a  MS.  of  each  book  of  the  Bible  in  the  author's  hand- 
writing were  still  extant,  and  if  the  fact  of  its  being  .     „„.  „ 

o  >  o  A  genuine 

such  could  be  proved,  every  copy  that  agreed  with  ^^-  ^h**- 
the  MS.  would  be  perfectly  genuine.     There  are  now,  how- 


16  GENUINENESS — PRINTED    COPIES. 

ever,  no  sucli  autographs  of  any  ancient  books;  and  yet  there 
are  circumstances  attending  the  preservation  and  transmission 
of  the  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures,  which  prove  their  genuineness 
with  nearly  as  much  certainty  as  if  the  first  copies  were  still 
in  existence. 

7.  A  book  is  said  to  be  genuine  if  it  be  as  it  was  written  by 
Genuine-  ^"^^  author  whose  name  it  bears :  if  the  present  text 
ness  defined.  Qf  ^];^a,t  book  varies  from  the  text  he  wrote,  it  is  said 
to  be  corrupt,  and  if  the  book  was  not  written  by  the  pre- 
tended author,  it  is  said  to  be  forged  or  spurious. 

8.  The  question   of  the   genuineness  of  Scripture   is  much 

simplified  by  the  invention  of  printing.     That  art 

Printing  '•  ... 

shortens  an  fixes  the  dates  of  books,  and  by  multiplying  copies 

inquiry.  ,,..  ii,,f  ,-a 

and  editions  secures  the  text  irom  corruption.  As 
printed  books  cannot  be  altered  by  the  pen,  any  material 
change  of  the  text  becomes  impossible  or  nugatory.  The 
MSS.  of  printed  books  are  now  committed  therefore  without 
fear  of  falsification  "to  the  immortal  custody  of  the  press." 

9.  There  are  still  extant,  for  example,  printed  copies  of  the 

Old  Testament  in  Hebrew,  dated  Soncino,  A.  D. 

Printed  .    . 

copies  of  1488,  and  Brixise,  A.  D.  1494.  A  copy  of  the  year 
tures,  A.D.  1488  is  in  the  library  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  the  Eoyal  Library  at  Berlin  is  the  identical  copy 
(dated  1494)  from  which  Luther  made  his  German  translation. 
There  are  extant  also  copies  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
dated  Basil,  1516,  edited  by  Erasmus,  and  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
dated  Alcala  or  Complutum  (in  Spain),  1514.  On  being  com- 
pared with  each  other,  and  with  modern  editions,  these  copies 
are  found  to  agree  in  the  main.  They,  therefore,  prove  by  a 
single  step,  the  existence  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury. They  prove,  also,  that  the  text  of  modern  editions  has 
not  been  materially  impaired  during  the  last  350  years. 

10.  These  two  editions  of  the  New  Testament  which  are 
Textus  founded  upon  a  very  partial  examination  of  MSS. 
Receptus.  fo^.^^  ^j^g  i^^gis  of  the  Received  Text.  The  first 
edition  of  that  text  was  printed  in  1624,  by  Elzevir.     Besides 


GENUINENESS — MANUSCRIPTS.  17 

the  two  editions  just  named,  he  had  the  advantage  of  consulting 
the  editions  of  Stephens  (Paris,  1546),  and  of  Beza  (Gen.  1565), 
but  did  not  introduce  from  them  many  important  readings. 

11.  At  the  time  these  volumes  were  printed,  there  were 
MS.  copies  of  the  Scriptures  in  most  of  the  public 

T-l  P    -rn  mi  .  -11  •    •  MSS.of  the 

libraries  of  Europe.     They  form,  with  the  writings  Scriptures, 
of  the  Fathers,  or  of  other  ecclesiastical  authors  of  1457  to  the' 
the  middle  ages,  the  bulk  of  most  library  catalogues 
of  the  15th  century.    Dr.  Kennicott  collated  630  of  these  MSS. 
for  his  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.    De  Rossi  collated 
734  more.     And  upwards  of  600  MSS.  have  been  examined 
for  recent  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament. 

12.  In  the  case  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  twenty,  or 
ten  MSS.  are  deemed  amply  sufficient  to  form  an 

Compared 

accurate  text :  fifteen  MSS.  of  Herodotus  are  known  sw  to  num- 

,       ,  .   ,      ,  .  ,       bers  with 

to  critics,  of  which  the  most  ancient  belonErs  to  the  mss.  of 

Classics. 

10th  century:  and  this  is  a  fair  average  of  the  an- 
cient MSS.  of  classic  authors.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 
the  advantage  in  this  respect  is  greatly  on  the  side  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  number  of  MSS.  has  afforded  ample  pro- 
vision for  restoring  the  text  to  its  original  purity,  and  at 
the  same  time  gives  absolute  security  against  extensive  cor- 
ruptions. 

13.  The  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  now  extaiit,  were 
most  of  them  written  between  the  years  A.  D.  1000 

•'  Age  of  Heb. 

and  A.  D.  1457.     Some,  however,  belong  to  the  8th  mss.  and  of 

Greek. 

and  9th  centuries,  among  which  are  two  of  the  MSS. 
(Nos.  634,  603),  lately  in  the  possession  of  M.  de  Rossi,  by 
•whom  the  various  readings  they  contain  were  published. 
The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  Septuagint,  or 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old,  are  earlier  still.  The  Alexan- 
drian MS.  (Codex  Alexandrinus,  called  A  by  Wetstein,  Gries- 
bach,  and  other  critics),  now  in  the  British  Museum,  compris- 
ing, in  four  volumes,  small  folio,  botluOld  and  New  Testaments, 
must  have  been  written  before  the  close  of  the  5th  century. 
The  Vatican  MS.  (called  B),  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
2* 


18  GENUINENESS — QUOTATIONS. 

Vatican,  at  Rome,  belongs  to  the  4tli,  as  does  probably  the 
Codex  Cottonianus  (I),  the  remains  of  which  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  the  various  readings  of  the  whole  being  pre- 
served in  the  works  of  Archbishop  Usher.  The  Codex  Regius, 
or  Ephremi  (C),  so  called  from  the  author  whose  works  were 
written  over  it,  the  parchment  being  w  hat  is  called  a  rescript 
(or  "twice-written,"  in  Greek  palimpsest,  or  "rubbed  again,") 
belongs  to  the  6th  century.  The  Codex  Bezae  (D),  given  by 
the  reformer  Beza  to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  belongs 
(in  the  opinion  of  Wetstein)  to  the  5th  century ;  critics  who 
give  it  least  antiquity  assigning  it  to  the  6th  or  7th. 

14.  A  Virgil  in  the  Vatican  claims  an  antiquity  as  high  as 

the  4th  century ;  but  generally  the  MSS.  of  the  clas- 

Compared       .  j  '  a  j 

with  MSS.    sics  belong  to  periods  between  the  10th  and  the  15tn 

of  Classics.  .  _  .       . 

centuries.  In  antiquity,  therefore,  as  m  numbers, 
they  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  MSS.  of  Scriptures. 

15.  As  we  reach  the  time  of  the  earliest  MSS.  of  the  Scrip- 

tures, another  kind  of  evidence  presents  itself  no 

Quotations  .  .  ^.  i-  a      ■ 

from  Scrip-  less  impressive :  namely,  the  quotations  of  Scripture, 

ture  ill  ee-  .  t  ■   t  r  t   ■        ^  ■   ■ 

ciesiasticai  and  references  to  it,  which  are  found  m  the  writings 
Their  of  the  early  Fathers,  and  in  the  Rabbinical  para- 

phrases. The  references  of  classic  authors  one  to 
another,  though  sufficient  to  establish  the  antiquity  of  the 
works  quoted  from,  form  a  very  inadequate  provision  for  cor- 
recting the  text  of  each.  They  are  generally  in  the  way  of 
allusion  only  to  some  fact  or  passage.  Even  when  the  refer- 
ences are  more  pointed,  they  are  generally  so  loosely  made 
as  to  be  of  little  critical  value.  In  quotations  from  the  Scrip- 
tures the  case  is  entirely  different.  They  are  generally  made 
with  the  utmost  care,  the  very  words  of  the  Sacred  writers 
being  introduced,  and  forming  the  subject  of  lengthened  dis- 
cussion, or  of  important  practical  teaching. 

16.  Looking  first  at  quotations  from  the  New  Testament,  we 

have  in  the  5th  century  the  writings  of  Theodoret 

Quotations  r>i  •  •  i       -n    •     i  p   -r->      i  i 

in  Cent.       of  Cyprus,  in  Syria,  on  the  Epistles  of  raul,  and  on 
most  of  the  Old  Testament.     Still  earlier,  Cyril  of 


GENUINENESS — VERSIONS.  19 

Alexandria  wrote  on  the  Prophets,  and  on  John.  In  the  4th 
century,  Chrysostom  wrote  commentaries  on  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament.  To  the  same  century  belongs  also  the  writ- 
ings of  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  In  the  2d  and  3d  centuries,  we 
have  the  writings  of  Origen  and  Theophilus,  of  Antioch : 
fragments  of  each  remain  (though  the  second,  in  Latin  only), 
and  are  often  quoted  by  later  writers.  In  the  2d  century,  we 
have  the  writings  also  of  Irenseus,  and  of  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria. Not  less  important  are  the  writings  of  Jerome,  who 
wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture  in  the  4th  century.  To  the 
same  century  belong  also  the  voluminous  writings  of  Augus- 
tine.    For  a  complete  list,  see  page  86. 

These  are  a  few  only  of  the  authors  of  the  early  age  of  the 
Christian  Church.  In  not  less  than  one  hundred  Number  of 
and  eighty  ecclesiastical  writers  (whose  works  are  q"''*'^*'°"^ 
still  extant),  are  quotations  from  the  New  Testament  intro- 
duced ;  and  so  numerous  are  they,  that  from  the  works  of 
those  who  flourished  before  the  7th  century,  the  whole  text 
of  the  New  Testament  (it  has  been  justly  said)  might  have 
been  recovered,  even  if  the  originals  had  since  perished.  The 
experiment  was  tried  by  Dr.  Bentley,  and  he  confirms  this 
statement. 

17.  A  similar  process  of  investigation  into  the  Hebrew  text 
carries  us  to  the  era  of  our  Lord.  The  Targum,  or  Targums. 
interpretation  of  Onkelos,  translates  the  Pentateuch  into  Chal- 
daic  Hebrew  (though  of  the  purest  order),  and  was  written 
about  sixty  years  before  Christ.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  on 
the  Prophets  and  historical  books  was  written  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  In  the  4th  century,  Joseph 
the  Blind  wrote  a  Targum  on  the  Hagiographa ;  and  a  little 
later,  various  simila'-  versions  of  other  parts  of  Scripture  were 
published.  These  Targums,  ten  in  all,  are  of  great  value  in 
determining  the  text  of  Scripture,  being,  for  the  most  part, 
very  literal  paraphrases  of  the  original  Hebrew. 

18.  To  corroborate  this  evidence  of  the  correctness  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  to  carry  still  further  back  the  evidence 


20  GENUINENESS — VERSIONS. 

on  the  old,  we  have  the  ancient  versions  of  the  Scriptures. 
Versions  In  the  9th  century,  a  version  of  the  Bible  into  the 
stnemury  Slavonic,  or  old  Russian  language  (of  great  critical 
to  the  1st.  ^^|^^g)_  ^Yf^s  pirblished.  In  the  6th  century  was  com- 
pleted a  version  of  the  whole  Bible  into  Georgian.  In  the 
5th,  a  version  into  Armenian,  under  the  care  of  Miesrob,  the 
inventor  of  the  Armenian  alphabet:  and  also  into  Gothic, 
under  Ulphilas.  In  the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  all  the  New 
Testament,  and  parts  of  the  Old,  were  translated  into  Coptic 
(or  Memphitic),  the  language  of  Lower  Egypt,  the  Copts 
being  Egyptian  Christians :  and  also  into  Sahidic  (or  Tho- 
baic),  the  language  of  Upper  Egypt.  In  the  4th  century  a 
translation  was  made  into  Ethiopic,  the  language  spoken  in 
Ethiopia,  the  country  of  Candace  and  the  modern  Abyssinia. 
Several  of  these  versions  were  made  from  the  Septuagint, 
some  from  the  Syriac,  and  a  few  from  the  Latin  Vulgate. 

The  Peshito  (or  literal)  Syriac  version  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Peshito.  Greek  Scriptures  belongs  probably  to  the  1st  century. 
It  was  in  general  use  among  the  Syrian  churches  in  the  year 
378,  and  is  then  quoted  by  Ephrem  the  Syrian  as  the  version 
generally  received,  and  so  ancient  as  to  require  frequent  ex- 
planation. The  true  Philoxenian,  or  New  Syrian,  belongs  to 
the  6th  century,  and  the  Haraclean  (commonly  called  the 
Philoxenian)  to  the  7th.  Both  versions  take  their  name  from 
the  persons  under  whose  sanction  they  were  made.  The 
Peshito  being,  as  its  name  implies,  very  literal,  is  of  great 
value  in  determining  the  original  text. 

Nor  for  this  purpose  is  the  Vulgate  itself  of  small  import- 
Vnigate.  ance.  The  text  it  contains  was  made  by  Jerome 
about  the  vear  385.  Part  of  it,  including  the  New  Testa- 
ment,  he  took  from  an  older  Latin  version,  called  the  old 
Italic,  which  is  quoted  by  Tertullian  in  the  year  220;  but  the 
greater  part  he  himself  translated  from  the  original  of  the 
Old  Testament.  This  version  was  gradually  adopted  by  the 
Latin  Church,  and  was  the  first  book  ever  printed.  The  pre- 
sent text  is  very  corrupt. 


GEINUINENESS — VERSIOKS.  21 

Still  more  ancient  than  most  of  these  are  the  versions  of 
the  Old  Testament  by  Symmachus,  Aquila,  Theo-  Greek 
dotion,  and  the  Seventy.  The  whole  were  in  the  'versions. 
hands  of  Origen  in  the  year  228  A.  D.,  and  were  used  by  him 
in  revising  the  text  of  the  Septuagint.  He  afterwards  pub- 
lished them  all,  with  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew  and  Greek 
letters,  in  what  was  hence  called  his  Hexapla,  or  six-columned 
Bible.  The  version  of  Aquila  was  made  about  the  year  160 
for  the  use  of  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  is  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr 
(A.  D.  160)  and  Irenseus  (A.  D.  176).  It  is  extremely  literal, 
and  was  read  by  the  Jews  in  their  synagogues.  The  version 
of  Theodotion  appeared  about  the  same  time,  and  is  quoted 
by  the  same  authors.  The  version  of  Symmachus  is  of  later 
date,  and  is  expressed  in  plain,  elegant  language,  without 
being  a  literal  translation.  These  three  texts  are  now  lost, 
but  thair  important  variations  are  preserved  in  the  Hexa- 
plarian  text  of  the  Seventy,  published  by  Montfaucon  at 
Paris,  1713. 

The  version  of  the  Seventy  (so  called,  perhaps,  from  the  num- 
ber of  translators  supposed  to  have  been  engaged  Septuagint. 
in  making  it)  is  the  most  ancient  of  all.  It  has  generally 
been  received  by  both  Jews  and  Christians,  is  more  frequently 
quoted  in  the  New  Testament  than  the  Hebrew,  and  was  in 
common  use  both  in  the  Synagogues  and  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian churches.  The  first  reference  to  it  is  by  Aristobulus,  who 
lived  in  the  2d  century  before  Christ.  The  most  probable 
date  of  the  completion  of  the  translation  is  about  the  year  285 
B.  C,  when  Ptolemy  Lagus  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  were 
kings  of  Egypt.* 

19.  Such  is  a  sample  of  the  evidence  by  which  it  is  proved 
that  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era  (and  in         Result. 

»  Hody  (on  the  authority  of  Clement  and  Eusebius),  Usher,  Walton, 
Eichhorn,  and  others,  do  not  materially  differ  in  tlie  date  they  assign 
to  it.  Some  (De  Wette  and  others)  suppose  that  it  was  written  by 
diilerent  authors  and  at  different  times ;  though  it  is  agreed  that  the 
whole  was  extant  in  the  time  of  the  son  of  Sirach,  B.  C.  130. 


22  GENUINENESS — SUMMARY. 

the  case  of  the  Old  Testament,  two  centuries  earlier),  there 
existed  and  were  known  throughout  the  Roman  world  books 
called  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  written  by  inspired  men,  and 
that  the  present  text  of  the  Bible  is  identical  with  the  text 
which  these  books  contained. 

20.  These  remarks  apply  without  exception  to  the  books 

of  the  Old  Testament,  and  to  twenty  out  of   the 

Horaolo- 

goumena.  twenty-seven  of  the  New.  ihese  twenty  are  the 
Antiiego  four  Gospels,  the  Acts,  the  Epistles  of  Paul  (except 
that  to  the  Hebrews),  and  the  first  Epistles  of  John 
and  Peter.  These  twenty  books  were  universally  received  as 
genuine,  and  were  therefore  called  Homologoumena  (i.  e. 
acknowledged).  The  other  seven  books  were  disputed  for  a 
time  by  particular  churches,  and  were  therefore  styled  Anti- 
legomena  (or  disputed).  After  a  deliberate  examination, 
however,  they  were  at  last  received  as  genuine,  the  very 
delay  proving  the  closeness  of  the  scrutiny  which  their  claims 
had  undergone. 

21.  Decisive  as  these  facts  are,  they  give  a  very  inadequate 

idea  of  the  amount  of  proof  of  which  the  genuineness 

Facts  more  .  .  , 

deoisive  of  the  Scriptures  is  susceptible.  The  MSS.  are  in- 
numerable. They  belong  to  all  ages ;  and  many  of 
them  are  very  ancient.  They  have  been  kept  for  centuries  in 
distant  parts  of  the  world,  under  the  custody  of  opposing  sects, 
and  in  circumstances  that  made  extensive  or  important  altera- 
tions impossible.  The  possessors  of  these  MSS.  deemed  them 
of  the  highest  value,  and  professed  to  live  under  the  influence 
of  the  truths  contained  in  them.  Copyists  preserved  them  with 
the  utmost  reverence,  counting  every  letter  of  every  book, 
and  registering  the  very  tittles  of  the  law.  How  remarkable, 
how  decisive  as  an  evidence  of  Divine  care,  that  while  all  the 
libi-aries  of  Europe  and  of  the  world  containing  copies  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  have  been  examined,  all  ancient  versions 
extant  compared,  the  MSS.  of  all  countries  from  the  3d  to  the 
16th  century  collated,  the  commentaries  of  all  the  Fathers 
again  and  again  investigated,  nothing  has  been  discovered, 


GENUINENESS — VARIOUS   READINGS.  23 

not  even  a  single  general  reading  which  can  set  aside  any  im- 
portant passage  hitherto  received  as  genuine.  This  negative 
conclusion,  that  our  Bible  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the 
Bible  of  the  Primitive  Church  is  indeed  an  ample  recompense 
for  all  the  labor  and  time  which  have  been  devoted  to  these 
pursuits. 

22.  To  give  the  reader  a  just  conception  of  the  expression 
that  our  Bible  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  'Effect  of 
Bible  of  the  Primitive  Church,  we  may  notice  what  readings. 
the  various  readings  of  the  New  Testament  involve. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  for  example,  which  contains 
433  verses,  there  are  at  most  four  passages,  the  mean-     ^  .  „   , 

.  °  Epistle  to 

ing  of  which  is  modified  bv  readings  which  Griesbach    Romans, 
deems  of  weight: — 

In  ch.  vii.  6,  for  "  that  being  dead  in  which  we  were  lield,"  he  reads 
"  We  being  dead  to  that  in  which  we  were  held :"  a  difference  in  the 
original  between  o  and  e.     So  some  editions  of  the  tex.  rec. 

In  ch.  xi.  6,  he  omits  the  latter  half  of  the  verse. 

In  ch  xii.  11,  he  reads  "time"  for  "Lord;"  aip  for  vpt. 

In  ch.  xvi.  5,  he  reads  the  first  fruits  of  Asia  for  Achaia. 

These  are  the  only  corrections  that  affect  the  sense,  and  they 
are  all  unimportant.  To  make  them  he  examined  all  the  prin- 
cipal MSS.  already  named,  110  others,  and  30  from  Mount 
Athos  collated  by  Matthaei,  who  travelled  over  a  great  part  of 
Russia  and  Asia  for  this  purpose. 
'     In  Galatians  the  important  corrections  are  three     Epistle  to 

QrAy  .  Galatians. 

In  ch.  iv.  17,  for  you  in  the  second  clause  he  reads  us:  a  change  in 
the  original  of  one  letter. 

In  ch.  iv.  26,  he  omits  the  word  "  all." 

In  ch.  V.  19,  he  omits  the  word  "adultery." 

Corrections  which  make  no  difference  in  the  sense. 

In  the  7959  verses  of  the  New  Testament  there  are  not  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  various  readings  of  great  impor-  ^^^ 
tance,  and  these  affect  not  the  doctrines  of  Scripture,  Testament. 


24  GENUINENESS — VAUIOUS   READINGS. 

but  only  the  number  of  proof  passages  in  whicb  the  doctrines 
are  revealed. 

The  important  various  readings  sanctioned  by  Griesbach  are 
the  following : — 

In  Acts  viii.  37,  lie  omits  the  verse. 

In  Acts  ix.  6,  he  omits  the  first  part  of  the  verse. 

In  Acts  XX.  28,  for  "the  church  of  Ood"  he  reads  "the  church  of 
the  Lord,"  a  change  depending  on  one  letter  K  for  0. 

In  Pliih  iv.  13,  for  "through  Christ,"  he  reads  "through  Him." 

In  1  Tim.  iii.  16,  for  "  God  manifest,"  he  reads  "who  was:"  a  differ- 
ence arising  from  the  supposed  omission  of  a  mark  in  one  of  the  two 
letters  of  the  word — O  for  0. 

In  Jas.  ii.  18,  for  "by  thy  works,"  he  reads  "without  thy  works,"  as 
do  many  copies  of  the  EngUsh  version. 

In  1  John  V.  7,  8,  he  omits  from  "in  heaven"  to  "in  earth." 

In  Jude  iv.  he  omits  "  God." 

In  Rev.  viii.  13,  for  "angel,"  he  reads  "eagle." 

These  corrections  are  all  sanctioned,  except  Act-s  xx.  28,  and 
1  Tim.  iii.  16,  by  Scholz  and  Habn.  In  these  two  passages 
both  writers  agree  with  the  common  text,  as  they  do  much  more 
frequently  than  Griesbach  in  other  unimportant  readings. 

Several  of  the  readings  of  Griesbach,  though  not  theologically 
important,  removed  difficulties  from  the  present  text. 

23.  Of  the  Old  Testament,  a  careful   examiner   has  noted 

1314  various  readings  of  value.     Of  these,  566  are 

Old  ° 

Testament,  adopted  in  the  English  version ;  147  of  the  whole 
affect  the  sense,  but  none  can  be  regarded  as  theologically  im- 
portant :  generally  they  correct  a  date  or  complete  the  sense. ' 
See  Hamilton's  Codex  Criticus,  Lond.  1821. 

24.  The  writings  of  Terence  (six  pieces  only)  contain  30,000 

variations,  and  they  have  been  copied  many  times 
less  frequently  than  the  New  Testament.  We  may 
well  accj[uiesce,  therefore,  in  the  language  of  Bengel,  who,  after 
laborious  research  into  these  topics,  wrote  to  his  scholar,  Reuss, 
"  Eat  the  Scripture  bread  in  simplicity,  just  as  you  have  it,  and 
do  not  be  disturbed  if  here  and  there  you  find  a  grain  of  sand 
which  the  mill-stone  may  have  suffered  to  pass.     If  the  Holy 


LANGUAGE    OF    THE    BIBLE — HEBREW,  25 

Scriptures,  which  have  been  so  often  copied,  were  absolutely 
without  variations,  this  would  be  so  great  a  miracle  that  faith 
in  them  would  be  no  longer  faith.  I  am  astonished,  on  the 
contrary,  that  from  all  these  transcriptions  there  has  not  resulted 
a  greater  number  of  vai'ious  readings."* 


But  many  expressions  have  already  been  employed  which 
need  to  be  explained.  If  their  meaning  be  clear,  yet  is  there 
much  to  be  said  in  relation  to  them  before  the  reader  is  thor- 
oughly prepared  to  understand  all  they  involve.  The  general 
conclusion  that  our  Bible  is,  on  the  whole,  as  inspired  writers 
left  it,  is  undoubted ;  but  the  Bible-student  often  requires  ma- 
terials for  closer  inquiry.  We  proceed,  therefore,  to  give  a 
brief  account  of  the  original  languages  of  the  sacred  volume — 
Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  Greek — of  the  manuscrijDts,  versions, 
and  various  readings  of  the  sacred  text. 

••Sec.  2. — The  Original  Languages  of  Scripture. — He- 
brew AND   THE   ShEMITISH   LANGUAGES    GENERALLY. 

25.  The  Hebrew  language,  in  which  nearly  all  the  Old  Tes- 
tament is  written,  was  the  languasre  of  the  Hebrews 

.  .     .  DO  Hebrew. 

or  Israelites  during  their  independence.     The  people 
themselves  were  known  among  other  nations  by  the  name  of 
Hebrews  and  Jews,  not  by  the  name  of  Israelites. 
The  epithet  of  Hebrew,  however,  was  not  applied  to 
their  language  till  the  days  of  the  son  of  Sirach,  (B.  C.  130.) 
It  occurs  first  in  the  Apocrypha,  where  it  means,  not  the  old 
Hebrew,  but  the  Aramaean,  or  Syro- Aramaean.     This  is  also  the 
meaning  of  the  term  in  the  New  Testament.     Josephus  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  who  applied  the  name  Hebrew  language 
{VXioaa-ce.  tuiv  'EfSoai&Jv)  to  the  old  Hebrew,  and  this  is  the  unifoi'm 
meaning  of  the  phrase  in  his  writings.     The  Targums  call  the 
Hebrew  "the  holy  tongue,"  and  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is 

"Quoted  by  Ganssen  in  his  "  Theopneustia."         bgee  Preface. 
3  •  ' 


26  LANGUAGE   OF   THE   BIBLE— HEBREW. 

called  the  language  of  Canaan,  or  the  Jews'  language.     Isa. 
xix.  18:  xxxvi.  13. 

26.  That  the  Hebrew  language  was  the  common  tongue  of 
Rcaiiv  Canaan  and  Phoenicia  is  generally  admitted ;  a  cou- 
Phoenician.  clusion  supported  by  several  facts. 

(1.)  The  Canaanitish  names  of  persons  and  places  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture are  genuine  Hebrew,  as  Abimelech,  Melchizedek,  Salem,  &c. 

(2.)  Fragments  of  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  tongues  which 
still  remain  on  coins  and  in  inscriptions  preserved  in  Roman  and  Greek 
writers,  are  Hebrew.  Augustine  and  Jerome  both  testify,  moreover, 
that  the  Carthaginian  spoken  in  their  time  was  made  up  chiefly  of 
Hebrew  words,  while  there  is-  evidence  that  Carthage  was  founded  by 
Phoenicians,  who  left  Canaan  before  the  Jews  could  have  resided  long 
in  their  country. 

(3.)  The  silence  of  Scripture  respecting  any  difference  between  the 
language  of  Canaanites  and  Hebrews  is  also  remarkable.  They  both 
dwelt  in  the  land,  and  yet  no  difference  of  speech  is  noticed,  though  the 
difference  between  the  language  of  Hebrew  and  Egyptian  (Psa.  Ixxxi. 
5 :  cxiv.  1)  is  noticed,  and  even  between  the  Hebrew  and  cognate  lan- 
guages, as  in  the  case  of  the  Aram^an  used  by  the  Assyrians  (Isa. 
xxxvi.  11);  and  of  the  Eastern  Aramaean  used  by  the  Chaldees  (Jer.  v. 
15).  It  may  be  added  that  the  Hebrew  of  Abraham's  day  was  probably 
closely  allied  to  the  original  tongue,  if  it  were  not  itself  identical  with 
it.  This  conclusion  is  based  chiefly  on  the  proper  names  of  the  early 
chapters  of  Genesis.  These  names  are  all  significant  in  Hebrew,  and  the 
meaning  in  that  tongue  ahvays  explains  the  reasons  why  they  were 
given.  See  Havernick's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  p.  134 :  see 
also  Gesenius's  Monum.  Phoenicia. 

27.  The  Hebrew,  or  modern  Phcenician,  as  we  may  call  it, 
belongs  to  the  Shemitish  family  of  languages,  and  is  most 
closely  connected  with  the  other  members  of  that  family,  both 
in  matter  and  in  form.     The  other  members  are  the  following. 

28.  The  Arameean.  Of  the  old  Aramsean,  as  spoken  while 
,  Hebrew  was  a  living  tongue,  we  have  no  remains. 

But  there  have  been  discovered,  near  Palmyra,  some 
inscriptions  in  this  language,  which  were  written  about  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  language  was  spoken 
in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.     See  Gen.  xxxi.  47,  and  Jer.  x.  11. 


LANGUAGE    OF   THE    BIBLE — DIALECTS.  27 

29.  From  this  common  root  sprang  the  Chaldee  or  Eastern 
Aramsean,  spoken  in  Chaldea  and  Babylon,  and  the  cjjj^ijeeand 
Syriac,  or  Western  AramsBan,  spoken  in  Northern  Syriac. 
Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and  perhaps  the  Hebrew  itself.  The 
Chaldee  is  known  only  from  Jewish  memorials — the  Scriptures 
and  the  Targums.  The  purer  style  of  Onkelos  is  called  the 
Babylonian  dialect,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  language  of  the 
later  Targums,  which  has  been  called  the  Jerusalem  or  Pales- 
tine dialect,  and  which  is  really  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and 
Aramaean  or  Syriac.  What  is  now  called  Syriac  is  new  Ara- 
msean, as  formed  or  spoken  by  the  Christians  of  Emessa  and 
its  neighborhood.  This  tongue  early  produced  a  literature  rich 
in  ecclesiastical  history  and  theology,  and  is  still  the  ecclesi- 
astical language  of  Syrian  Christians.  Chaldee  is  the  language 
of  part  of  Ezra  and  Daniel,"-  as  Syriac  was  the  language  of  the 
Jews  in  the  days  of  our  Lord. 

30.  The  Samaritan  is  a  mixture  of  the  Hebrew  and  Western 
Aramaean.    All  the  ecclesiastical  matter  in  this  tongue 

.  11-  Samaritan. 

IS  m  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  m  some  poems 

edited  by  Gesenius  (Leipsic,  1824),  from  MSS.  in  the  British 

M 


useum 


b 


31.  Of  all  the  languages  yet  named,  the  Arabic  has  by  far  the 
richest  modern  literature  :  and  next  to  the  Hebrew  it 

■  Aribic 

is  the  most  important  of  the  Shemitish  tongues.     It 

is  still  spoken  in  a  large  portion  of  Asia,  and  in  part  of  Africa. 

The  two  chief  dialects  of  it  are  the  Himyaritic,  for- 

1  ^  ■      ~ir  ^  •  n    i  Hiinyaritic. 

merly  spoken  m  Yemen,  and  now  extmct,  and  the  Co- 

reitic   spoken  in  the  north-west  of  Arabia,  and  especially  at 

Mecca.     This  was  a  spoken  language  long  before  the 

O      o  o  .  Coreitic. 

time  of  Mahomet,  and  is  still  the  popular  dialect. 

The  old  Arabic  differs  from  this  language  in  its  forms,  which 

are  more  various,  and  in  its  matter,  which  is  more  copious. 

'Ezra  iv.  8:  vi.  18:  vii.  12-26:  Dan.  ii.  4:  vii.  28. 

t"  At  Oxford  there  is  a  Liturgia  Damascena  in  Samaritan :  whence 
Gesenius  has  given  a  complete  view  of  Samaritan  theology.  De  Sam. 
ThfcoL,  Halle,  1822. 


28  HEBREW — ITS   PROGRESS. 

32.  A  colony  of  Arabians,  speaking  the  Himyftritic,  early 

settled  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Red  Sea  in  Ethi- 

Ethiopie.  .  .■'■■'■. 

opia,  and  introduced  their  language  into  that  country. 
This  language,  modified  by  time  and  circumstances,  is  the  ancient 
Ethiopic,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  Arabic.  The  district 
where  it  was  spoken,  is  the  modern  Abyssinia,  and  Amharic,  or 
Geez,  is  the  present  language  of  the  people. 

33.  All  these  languages  are  of  value  in  guiding  the  student 
„j...j^  ^j.  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
these  fiiu-     fi^e  Original  tongrue,  and  no  Hebrew  lexicon  can  be 

lects  111  in-  o  . 

tei-pretatiou  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  authority,  unless  compiled 
with  a  constant  reference  to  the  meaning  of  the  roots  of  Hebrew 
words  in  the  cognate  tongues.  It  is  upon  the  knowledge  and 
use  of  these  tongues  that  the  superiority  of  modern  lexicogra- 
phers chiefly  depends. 

The  history  of  the  Hebrew  language  may  be  be  divided  into 
History  of    three  periods,  each  of  which  has  its  peculiarities  of 

the  Hebrew.     ,    -i  j   •  t 

style  and  idiom. 

34.  (1.)  The  first  includes  the  language  as  spoken  in  the  days 
^    ^,     ,      of  Moses,  and  as  used  in  the  Pentateuch.     In  those 

111  tlie  days  ' 

of  Moses,  books  are  forms  of  construction  and  phraseology  not 
found  elsewhere.  Words  are  introduced,  which  seem  soon 
afterwards  to  have  become  obsolete  ;  or  they  are  used  in  senses 
which  early  became  unintelligible.  Sometimes  a  knowledge  of 
this  peculiar  usage  is  important  only  as  supplying  evidence  of 
the  antiquity  of  the  books  :  sometimes  it  affords  access  to  the 
meaning  of  particular  passages. 

(2.)  In  the  post-Mosaic  period  there  is  a  marked  change. 
The  "Olden  '^^'^^  words  are  introduced ;  old  ones  seem  forgotten, 
period.  New  forms  of  expression  become  common,  and  some 
found  in  the  Pentateuch  are  gradually  discontinued ;  a  process 
which  goes  on  till  the  days  of  David,  who  writes  the  language 
in  great  purity  and  elegance.  To  this  period  belong  the  writ- 
ings of  Solomon  and  the  books  of  Judges,  of  Samuel,  and  of 
Pvulh.     The  older  prophets,  Jonah,  Amos,  Plosea,  write  in  a 


HEBREW — ITS    PROGRESS.  29 

style  of  simplicity  and  harshness  not  found  in  their  immediate 
successors :  but  still  their  language  is  pure.  Isaiah,  Micali, 
Nahum,  Habakkuk,  and  Obadiah  are  remarkable  for  the  beai^ty 
of  their  style  ;  and  the  Hebrew  is  generally  pure,  though  in 
Bome  of  them,  as  in  Micah  and  in  part  of  Isaiah,  there  are 
forms  of  speech  (chiefly  Aramaean),  that  bespeak  the  admixture 
of  a  foreign  element.  All  these  writers  belong,  however,  to 
the  golden  period  of  the  Hebrew  tongue. 

(3. )  Zephaniah  (the  contemporary  of  Josiah)  Jeremiah,  Daniel, 
and  Ezekiel  belong  to  the  third  period,  and  all  exhibit 

1       •     n  f   •  ■  ^     n        ■  The  period 

the  influence  of  intercourse  with  foreigners,  as  do  the  of  the  de- 

...  cline. 

■writings  that  appeared  during  or  immediately  after  the 
exile — Ezra,  Esther,  and  Nehemiah :  all  these  writers  employ 
words  and  phrases,  which  in  the  early  purer  state  of  the  He- 
brew were  not  known.  The  later  prophets,  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
and  Malaehi,  again  write  in  purer  idiom,  chiefly  in  consequence 
of  the  Hebrew  having  become,  during  the  captivity,  a  written, 
rather  than  a  spoken  tongue.  As  they  wrote  their  predictions, 
it  was  less  necessary  to  use  forms  of  expression  which  were 
familiar  chiefly  in  conversation.  Their  predictions  it  was 
probably  the  part  of  the  prophets  to  explain.* 


«  A  few  examples  will  explain  these  statements ; 

"  To  be  added  to  his  people"  is  a  phrase  peculiar  to  the  Pentateuch, 
meaning  "  to  die."  "  To  sleep  with  his  fathers"  is  0ie  common  phrase 
in  later  books.  The  word  "people"  is  always  applied  in  the  Pentateuch 
to  the  Jews.  In  the  prophets  the  meaning  is  more  extended,  Hos.  ix.  1 ; 
Isa.  xi.  10.  The  expression  "  Arise,  0  Lord,"  was  at  first  used  in  lifting 
up  and  carrying  the  ark  as  a  prayer,  soliciting  the  Divine  presence.  In 
the  Psalms  it  often  means,  Assist  and  help. 

In  the  Pentateuch  there  are  many  words  and  forms  peculiar,  which, 
however,  are  translated  as  ordinary  words — vij^  for  species,  a^p  for 
2p;  to  curse,  la^'-i  for  property,  ^'jq  fine  linen,  for  w^^,  the  later  word, 
Ex.  xxvi.  1:  1  Chron.  xv.  27.  See  also  Gen.  xv.  9:  Deut.  xxxii.  11 
(byj  for  "^3)1  Ex.  ii.  20,  &c.  Of  such  phrases  Jahn  has  reckoned  in  the 
Pentateuch  upwards  of  two  hundred.  Foreign  words  are  aZfEgyptian, 
Gen.  xli.  2;  xviii.  ('nni^).  41,  45,  where  Joseph  is  called  "Saviour  of  the 
3* 


80  LANGUAGE   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT. 

85.  Of  the  Hebrew  of  all  these  periods,  it  may  be  remarked 
„     ,.    .,     that  it  has  few  roots ;  so  that  words  have  often  sec- 

Peculianty.  _  ' 

Few  roots,  ondary  or  analogical  meanings.  Many  phrases,  there- 
fore, sound  strange  to  our  ears,  and  some  are  susceptible  of 
fanciful  interpretations. 

36.  These  facts  give  evidence  of  the  antiquity,  and  of  the 

successive  composition  of  different  parts  of  Scripture, 
of  these       They  also  illustrate  the  importance  of  ascertaining 

the  meaning  attached  to  words  at  the  time  when  each 
writer  used  them,  before  investigating  their  meaning,  as  em- 
ployed in  later  or  earlier  times. 

Hellenistic,  or  Hebrew-Greek  of  the  New  Testament, 

AND  LXX. 

37.  The  16th  century  witnessed  a  singular  discussion.     Eras- 

mus  and  L.  Valla,  happening  to  affirm  that  the  Greek 
ment-Greek  of  the  New  Testament  was  corrupted  with  Hebra- 

—  Contro-  ■-  .    .  ^ 

versy  on  its  isms,  both  of  words  and  idioms,  were  opposed  by  H. 

true  charac-  f^  7 

ter.  Stephens  with  great  vehemence.     In  his  preface  to 

the  New  Testament  (A.D.  1576),  he  undertook  to  prove  that 
the  Greek  of  the  inspired  writers  was  pure  and  idiomatic.      A 

world"  (Jerome).  See  Jablonski  Opera  i.  45,  374 ;  ii.  160,  and  Rosen- 
miiller's  Scholia  on  Old  Testament,  i.  30-32. 

So  in  other  books.  Job  has  several  grammatical  and  other  peculiari- 
ties, iii.  2  (p.  pual  niri).  iv-  12 ;  26,  14  (whisper),  iv.  18  (hearer),  v.  26; 
XXX.  2  (age),  v.  2;  xvii.  7  (indignation).  Jerome  observed,  and  Schul- 
tens  proved,  that  the  language  of  Job  is  peculiarly  rich  in  Syraic  ex- 
pressions, and  also  in  Aram^isms,  iv.  2  ;  xxxix.  9  ;  xvi.  19. 

For  words  and  phrases  peculiar  to  later  writers,  see  1  Chron.  xxi.  23 
(ni2h^-=l?3):  1  Chron.  ii.  13  (h^fj^):  Esther  iv.  11  (tj'^ri'ip):  1  Chron.  xviii. 
5,  6 ;  1  Chron.  x.  12  (ns^a  for  n^^a);  2  Chron.  xi.  21  (nrs  Sffi3  for  npb. 
Gen  iv.  19).  For  Persian  words  see  Nahum  iii.  17,  captain,  or  satrap. 
Esther  iii.  9 :  Ezra  v.  17,  treasures — gaz,  hence  Gaza.  For  Assyrian 
words,  see  proper  names,  Nebu — planet  Mercury;  Merodach  —  planet 
Mars.     Clialdaisms  need  not  be  enumerated. 

See  Havernick's  Introduction,  g|  31-35. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  ol 

long  controversy  springing  out  of  these  assertions,  the  respect- 
ive parties  were  called  Purists  and  Hellenists,  or  Hebraists. 
The  topic  was  deemed  important  on  several  grounds : 

1.  It  involved  questions  of  theology ;  for,  if  the  writers  of  the  Bible 
be  inspired,  ought  they  not  to  write,  it  was  asked,  in  pure  Greek? 
Could  inspired  men  do  anytliing,  as  such,  that  was  imperfect? 

2.  On  the  other  side  it  was  deemed  important  as  a  question  of  evi- 
dence ;  for  if  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is  Hebraistic,  this  fact  is 
a  proof  that  it  was  written  by  Jews,  and  probably  in  Judea. 

3.  By  all  it  is  admitted  to  involve  an  important  canon  of  interpreta- 
tion ;  for  if  the  dialect  of  the  New  Testament  is  peculiar,  the  study  of  the 
common  tongue  (»  kwi»«)  is  not  sufficient  for  the  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  the  LXX.  is  likely,  it 
was  held,  to  have  rules  and  principles  of  its  own. 

38.  Both  parties  seem  to  have  forgotten,  in  the  heat  of  con- 
troversy, that  the  question  was  purely  one  of  facts,  and  was 
not  to  be  settled,  in  the  first  instance,  by  any  such  considera- 
tions. The  truth  is,  that  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is 
Hellenistic ;  a  truth,  which  once  ascertained,  suggests  Re^Dy  Hei- 
important  lessons.  The  perfection  of  inspired  com-  'emstic. 
position  is  clearly  not  so  much  classic  purity  as  intelligibleness 
and  adaptation  to  its  proper  end.  The  Greek  of  Scripture 
was  evidently  written  by  Hellenists,  i.e.,  by  Jews  who  spoke 
Greek,  and  whose  modes  of  thought  were  formed  on  Hebrew 
originals.  Hence,  important  evidence  of  the  truth  of  their 
record.  Hence,  also,  an  instructive  rule  of  interpretation.  The 
prime  source  of  biblical  interpretation  is  clearly  the  Bible  itself; 
and  we  must  gather  thence,  as  far  as  possible,  the  meaning  and 
illustrations  of  its  terms.  These  are  all  important  lessons,  but 
the  fact  on  which  they  are  founded  must  first  be  established, 
before  we  can  safely  apply  them  ;  least  of  all  can  they  be  taken 
as  proof  of  the  fact  itself. 

39.  The  Greek  tongue  is  itself  a  mixture  of  dialects.  The 
Helleniaris,  or  Greeks,  consisted  origin allv  of  several  Classic 

o  ./  Greek:  ita 

tribes,  of  whom  two,  the  Dorians  and  lonians,  were  elements, 
chief. 


Dori 


32  GREEK — ITS   DIALECTS. 

The  Doi-ic  dialect  is  first  in  time  and  in  influence :  it  is 
rougli  and  broad-sounding.  Among  its  cliief  writers 
are  Pindar,  Sapplio,  Theocritus,  and  Bion. 

The  Ionic  is  second  in  time.  It  is  soft  and  smooth ;  was 
spoken   at  first  in  Attica,  and  then,  as  the  lonians 

Ionic.  ■■■ . 

migrated  to  Asia  Minor,  in  that  district.  Among 
its  authors  are  Herodotus  and  Anacreon. 

The  Attic  was  formed  after  the  lonians  left  Attica,  and  oc- 
cupies, in  quality,  a  middle  place  between  the  Ionic 
and  Doric.  The  chief  Greek  authoi's  wrote  in  this 
dialect:  Thucidydes,  Plato,  Xenophon,  Demosthenes,  ^schy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 

After  the  freedom  of  Greece  was  destroyed  by  Philip  of 
Htiienio,  or  Macedou,  these  dialects  were  blended,  and  the  Hel- 
j)  K'.ivti.  lenic  or  common  dialect  was  formed,  of  which  the 
base  was  Attic. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  people  of  Macedon  and 
Alexandria  occupied  the  first  place  in  literature,  as  in  power, 
Aie.xan-  ^^'^  from  their  influence,  Macedonian  and  Alexan- 
drian, drian  idioms  became  common  in  Greece,  and  especi- 
ally in  Egypt  and  the  East. 

At  Alexandria  many  Jews  resided.     There  the  Septuagint 

was  written  ;  and  as  the  writers  were  Jews,  the  Alexandrian 

Greek  which  they  spoke  was  modified  so  as  to  embody  the 

thoughts  and  idioms  of  the  Hebrew.     And  this  is 

Hebrew.  " 

the  language  of  the  New  Testament.      It  is  Plel- 

lenistic,  or  more  properly,  Hebrew-Greek :  the  later  Greek, 

that    is,   chiefly    Attic,    with   a   mixture   of   other 

Elements  .  ■  -^  ' 

eimme-        dialects,  and  the  whole  modified  by  Jews  who  had 

rated.  .  .  .  .  -^        . 

resided  in  Alexandria,  and  in  Palestine.  Hence 
words  and  phrases  from  foreign  sources,  Aramaean,  Latin, 
Persian,  Egyptian :  hence  words  peculiar  in  their  ortho- 
graphy or  form,  in  their  inflexion  or  gender:  hence  words 
common  to  the  ancient  dialects,  but  not  usual  in  the  Hel- 
lenic; and  hence,  also,  words  and  phrases  in  senses  peculiarly 
Jewish  or  Christian. 


CRITICISM — ANCIENT    MANUSCRIPTS.  33 

Aramasan  expressions  may  be  seen,  Mark  xiv.  36  (abba) :  Acts  i.  19 
(field  of  blood):  Mark  iii.  17  (sons  of  thunder):  Matt.  v.  22  (vain, 
foolish).  Latin  words,  Matt.  x.  29  ;  xviii.  28  ;  v.  26  ;  xvii.  25  ;  xxvii. 
27,  65;  xxvi.  53;  Mark  xv.  39:  Luke  xix.  20:  John  ii.  15:  Acts  xix. 
12:  and  phrases,  Matt.  xii.  14:  Mark  xv.  15:  Luke  xii.  58  :  Acts  xvii. 
9.  Persian  expressions,  Matt,  xxvii.  32 :  Acts  viii.  27 :  Matt.  ii.  1 : 
Mark  vi.  11 :  Luke  xxiii.  43  (paradise,  a  garden  of  beautiful  trees). 
Egyptian  expressions,  Matt,  xxvii.  59 :  Luke  xxiv.  12. 

For  a  full  account  of  grammatical  and  other  peculiarities,  see 
Planck's  Treatise  on  the  nature  and  character  of  the  Greek  style  of 
the  New  Testament,  Bib.  Repository,  1831,  p.  638.  See  also  a  brief 
account  in  M.  Stuart's  Syntax  of  the  New  Testament. 

40.  The  grand  lesson  tauglit  by  these  facts,  is  that  while 
we  need  a  knowledge  of  Greek  generally,  in  order 

^      ^        ^^  °  °  .  Lessons. 

to  read  the,  New  Testament,  we  need,  m  order  to 
vinderstand  it,  a  knowledge  of  New  Testament  Greek,  and  of 
the  Old  Testament  version.  So  essential  is  this  knowledge, 
that  a  merely  English  reader,  with  only  his  English  Bible, 
may  understand  the  New  Testament  better  than  the  scholar 
who  brings  to  the  investigation  of  a  particular  passage  only 
classical  acquisitions. 

41.  For  aid  in  studying  Hebrew,  see  the  ordinary  gram- 
mars and  dictionaries  of  that  language.  In  studying 
Hellenistic  Greek,  see  Winer's  Idioms ;  any  good  ^tuly  of  the 
grammar  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  Thiersch  de  ^eut?^^*^*" 
Pentateuch!  Versione  Alexandrina.  The  "English- 
men's Hebrew  and  English,"  and  "  Greek  and  English"  Con- 
cordances, are  of  great  value  to  a  mere  English  student.  The 
careful  study  of  the  LXX.  compared  with  the  Hebrew  and 
the  New  Testament,  is  of  course  the  best  aid. 

'  Sec.  3. — The  Manuscripts  of  Scripture. 

42.  In  speaking  of  the  MSS.  of  Scripture,  we  have  mentioned 
their  age,  and  their  comiiarative  value.     It  is  now 

If  ■  1  ■   1      1  T     •  Questions 

necessary  to  state  the  lacts  on  which  these  distmc-  on  the  age 

TT  •,  1  1      -.     •      •  -1  ,  of  MSS. 

tions  rest.     How,  it  may  be  asked,  is  it  possible  to 

^  See  Preface. 


o 


-1  ANCIENT    MANUSCEirXS — AGE. 


ascertain  tlie  age  of  a  MS.,  often  fragmentary,  and  generally 
How  aseer-  exposed  to  influences  which  cannot  have  failed  to  ob- 
*^'"^''"         seure  or  modify  the  evidence  of  its  date  and  character? 

43.  In  answering  this  question,  it  may  be  obsei'ved  that  in 

some  MSS.  the  date  is  inscribed  upon  them ;  and 
fronf  dtites  wiieii  this  inscription  is  by  the  first  hand,  and  other 
itsei'r^^'''    evidence  is  confirmatory,  it  is  regarded  as  pretty 

decisive.  Such  inscriptions,  however,  are  never 
found  on  MSS.  earlier  than  the  10th  century. 

44.  Sometimes  the  traditional  or  known  history  of  a  MS. 

afibrds  important  aid.  The  Cod.  Alex.  (A),  for  ex- 
its known     ample,  was  given  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 

(Cyril  Lucar),  to  Charles  I.,  with  the  tradition  in- 
scribed upon  it  in  Arabic,  that  it  was  written  by  Thecla,  an 
Egyptian  princess,  who  lived  not  long  after  the  first  council  of 
Nice,  A.  D.  325 :  a  tradition  supported  by  internal  evidence. 

45.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  question  of  date  is  more 

intricate,  and  can  be  settled  only  after  a  careful  in- 

Generally  .         .  „  .  -.  ,.     , 

byexamina-  vestigation  01  somewhat  abstruse  evidence,  supplied 
cult  evi-       by  the  material  on  which  the  MS.  is  written,  the  form 

of  the  letters,  and  the  general  style  of  the  writing. 
4G.  Some  parts  of  the  ancient  Scriptures  were  written  on 

skins  tanned,  or  dyed  red  or  yellow.  In  use,  these 
niatpi-mi^on  skins  were  generally  connected,  so  as  to  contain  on 
nii'seripts*"  One  ovll,  ov  volume,*  an  entire  portion  of  the  Bible, 
sldnT"*'"'  ^^  *^^  Pentateuch,  or  the  Prophets.      Some  of  the 

most  ancient  MSS.  in  the  world  are  coj^ies  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  this  form. 

Next  in  durability  was  the  parchment  of  the  ancients,  so 

called  from  Perga.mos,  the  town  where  it  was  first 

P(ircluTi6nt. 

made.  Most  MSS.  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
earlier  than  the  6th  century,  are  on  this  material. 

Sometimes   tables   of   wood*"   or   of   stone,    called    caudicea 

»  Isa.  viii.  1 :  Jer.  xxxvi.  2  :   Zech.  v.  1. 

^  Ex.  xxxii.  15:    Deut.  vi.  \) :    Isa.  xxx.  8:    Hab.  ii.  2:    Luke  i.  63: 
2  Cor.  iii.  3. 


AXCIKNT    MANUSCRirXt^ — AGE.  OO 

or  codices,  were    employed  :    hence   the   term  codex     ^     ,. 

'  ^      •  .  Caudices. 

came  to  be  applied  to  a  MS.  on  any  material.  For 
legal  purposes,  where  durability  was  important,  the  use  of  such 
tables  was  very  frecpient ;  and  from  this  circumstance 
a  system  of  laws  -was  called  a  code.  These  tables 
were  written  on  in  their  natural  state  (or  when  used  for  tem- 
porary purposes,  covered  with  wax),  with  an  iron 
needle  called  a  stylus.  From  the  name  of  this  in- 
strument our  term  style  is  taken. 

For  many  ages  the  article  most  in  use  was  made  from  the 
papyrus,  or  flag  of  Egypt.     By  the  Romans  espe- 
cially this   manufacture  was   carried   to   great   per- 
fection.    Towards  the  end  of  the  9th  century,  however,  the 
papyrus  was  very  much  superseded  by  paper  made  from  the 
cotton  pltint  (not  unlike  the  present  paper  of  India  and  China); 
and  a  little  later,  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries,  old    Paper, 
linen  was  substituted  in  the  manufacture  for  the  raw  material. 

Notices  of   these  different   materials  occur  occasionally  in 
ancient  profane  writers.      Herodotus  mentions   the 
skins  of  goats  and  sheep,  roughly  dressed,  as  being  mcateriais 

°  .  1  '  o     ./  '  o  mentioned 

used  by  the  lonians  (v.  58).      Pausanias  says  that  by  ancient 

authors. 

he  saw  in  Bceotia  the  works  of  Hesiod  engraved  on 
lead  (ix.  31).     Roman  laws  were  often  written  on  tables  of 
brass,  and  Pliny  states  that  papyrus  was  in  use  long  before 
the  Trojan  war  (B.  C.  1184),  Nat.  His.  xii.  21-29.     "  Libros 
-linteos,"  books  of  cotton  cloth,  are  also  mentioned  by  Livy. 

47.  MSS.  on  all  these  materials  are  known  to  the  xhe  mate- 
antiquarians,  and   from  the  material  an  inquirer  is  as^ert^am 
aided  in  ascertaining  their  age  and  origin.  *  ^^  '^^'^" 

48.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  writing,  the  dates  of 
which  are  known,  are  books  found  among  the  ruins  of  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii.     These  cities  were  destroyed  A.  D.  79. 
The  books   recently  found   there  are,   at   Tatest,    of  Kinfi  of 
that   date,    and   consist   of    sheets   of    the   papyrus,  form^of'^'^ 
connected  together  with  gum  and  rolled.       The  writ-  Msllof 
ing  runs  across  the  volume,  is  in  capital  or  uncial  p°'"P^"' 


db  ANCIENT   MANUSCEIPTS — AGE. 

letters,  without  any  division  of  words  or  sentences,  without 
accents  or  ornaments,  and  with  but  very  few  pause  marks. 
These  books  give  evidence  of  the  most  ancient  style  of 
writing,  and  are  older  than  any  MS.  of  the  New  Testament 
Scriptures. 

In  the  Imperial  library  of  Vienna  there  is  a  copy  of  an  an- 
-,^    „  „.     cient  work  bv  Dioscorides,  the  copy  written  for  the 

MS.  of  Dio-  -  '  ^•' 

scorifies.      daughter  of  one  of  the  early  emperors  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  certainly  belonging  to  the  5th  century.     It  agrees 
in  the  shape  of  its  letters,  and  in  the  absence  of  all 

Test  of  age.  ^  •   i       i        Ti/rrioi         r    tt  i 

ornaments  and  marks,  with  the  MbS.   oi    xlercuia- 
neum.     These  peculiarities  suggest  important  tests  of  age. 

49.  In  the  earliest  times  the  New  Testament  was  divided 
.^.       „  into  three  parts :    the    Gospels  (to   evxyyixtov),   the 

books  and    Epistles  and  Acts  TO  'Aiioa-roXiKov),  and  the  Revelation 

enaptors  a         •■-  ^ 

te.stof  age.  (^^  uTroKccXv^ig).  In  the  3d  century  the  Gospels  were 
divided  into  two  kinds  of  chapters,  the  longer  called  rtT^oi,  or 
breves ;  the  shorter  x£(paAai«,  or  capitula.  The  latter  were 
originally  introduced  by  Ammonius,  and  were  thence  called 
Ammonian  sections.  In  the  4th  century  they  were  in  com- 
mon u.-^e  in  the  Gospels,  and  to  these  sections  Eusebius  adapted 
his  tables  of  references,  called  from  him  the  Eusebian  Canons 
(A.D.  315-340). 

50.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  century  (360),  Chrysostom 

speaks  of  the  practice  of  writino-  biblical  MSS.  on 

Illninina-  ^  . 

ti..n  a  test    the  finest  parchment  and  in  letters  of  gold  and  silver, 

as  already  introduced. 

Various  51.   In  the  year  458  Euthalius  published  an  edition 

— -    '  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  in  which  he  gave,  for  the  first 

description  time,  the  contents  of  the  chapters.     In  490  he  di- 

"  vided  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles  into  sections.     He 

himself  states  also  that  he  introduced  accents  into 

MSS.  copied  under  his  supervision, — a  custom,  however,  which 

did  not  become  common  till  the  8th  century.     He 

Snliserip-  •' 

tion-iiova-  also  added  to  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  the 

rious  books;  ..  .  '.  .... 

subscriptions  which  are  still  found  m  the  English 


ANCIENT   MANUSCRIPTS — ^AGE.  37 

version. '    To  make  MSS.  more  legible,  Euthaliu!?  further  di- 
vided  them  into  lines,  called  o-xjvot,  consisting  in 

11       stieho- 

some  instances  of  as  mauv  letters  as  could  be  placed     metrio 

.  •  .  divisions; 

in  the  width  of  a  page,  and  m  others  ot  as  many 

words  as  could  be  read  uninterruptedly.     This. style  of  writing 

soon  became  common.     In  the  8th  century,  however, 

11-  11  dots; 

the  lines  ceased  to  be  written  separately,  and  were 
indicated  only  by  dots.     In  the  same  century  other  marks  of 
punctuation  were  introduced,  and  later  still  the  stichometrical 
dots  were  omitted. 

In  the  7th  century  lectionaries,  that  is,  MSS.  of  Scripture 
lessons  for  use  in  public  service,  were  multiplied,  and  ^^^^^  ^^ 
about  the  same  time  the  letters  in  which  MSS.  were  letters; 
written  began  to  be  compressed  and  slightly  inclined,  leetionary 

o  i  o       .'  division 

In  the  8th  century  these   changes  Avere  still  more  of   gospels; 
marked ;  in  the  9th  the  note  of  interrogation   and  stops; 

the  comma  were  introduced  ;  in  the  10th  the  cursive 

'  cursive 

style  of  writing  had  nearly  superseded  the  uncial ;  letter; 
and  in  the  12th  the  present  division  of  chapters  was  and  verse; 
introduced  by  Hugo  de  Sancto.  of  age. 

52.  From  these  facts  various  rules  are  deduced  : — 

A  MS.  with  the  present  division  of  chapters  and     ^, 

^  ^  Neg.ative 

verses,  is  not  earlier  than  the  12th  century :  results. 

A  MS.  on  cotton  is  not  earlier  than  the  11th  century: 
A  MS.  in  cursive  character  than  the  10th  century: 
A  MS.  with  compressed  or  inclined  uncials,  or  with  notes 

of  interrogation  or  commas,  than  the  9th  century : 

A  MS.  systematically  punctuated,  or  marking  the   a-nxot 

with  points  or  with  ornamented  initials,  than  the  8th  century : 
A  MS.  in  uncial  letters,  divided  into  lines  or  accented,  or 

with  the  Euthalian  divisions  or  titles  or  subscriptions,  than  the 

5th  century : 

A  MS.  with  Eusebian  canons,  than  the  4th  century. 

53.  These  rules  lead,  it  will  be  observed,  to  negative  conclu- 
sions only.     When  the  facts  are  applied  to  ascertain 
positive  results,  much  minute   inquiry   and   skilful 


38       CRITICISM — HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  TEXT. 

criticism  is  necessary.     Full  iuform9,tion  may  be  obtained  in 
the  books  mentioned  below. 

On  the  ■whole  subject  see  Montfaucon's  Paleeographia  Grseca.  Hug'3 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  ch.  vi.  Scott  Porter's  Lectures  on 
Bib.  Crit.,  and  Michaelis's  Introduction,  (4th  edit.),  vol.  ii. 

54.  These  results  and  the  facts  on  which  they  are  founded 
^.  .  were  reached  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  and 
these  tests  after  protracted  inquiry.  In  the  meantime  progress 
biblical        -^as  made  in  other  processes  of  investigation,  which 

criticism  -^    .  1 

generally—  led  to  rcsults  no  less  important.     These  results  will 

1.  A?  to  New 

Testament,  be  best  understood  if  our  remarks  be  thrown  into 
the  narrative  form. 

55.  The  received  text  of  the  Greek  Testament  is  founded,  as 
„,    ,    ,      we  have  seen  (par.  10),  on  the  texts  of  Erasmus  and 

The  textus  ^■'-      _         ^    . 

receptus.      of  the  Complutensian  editors.     Both  these  texts  were 

printed    from   modern    MSS.,  and    therefore,   comparatively 

speaking,  the  authority  of  the  "  received  text"  is  not  high. 

The  examination  of  early  MSS.  was  the  work  of  many  years. 

It  began  with  the  London  Polyglot  (1657),  which 

Polyglot.      added  to  previous  editions  the  readings  of  sixteen 

MSS.,  and  supplied  the  renderings  of  ancient  versions.     Cur- 

•  cellseus  also  examined  several  MSS.  for  an  edition 

Curcellseus. 

of  the  New  Testament  which  Elzevir  printed  in  1658. 
Dr.  Fell.  In  1675  Dr.  Fell  published  an  edition  with  the  read- 
ings of  forty  more,  and  selected  Dr.  Mill  to  complete  a  more 
thorough  revision  of  MSS.  and  versions.     To  this  work  Dr. 

Mill  devoted  thirty  years,  and  gave  in  his  edition 

Dr.  Mill.  J    J  '  O 

the  readings  of  a  large  number  of  MSS.  not  pre- 
viously examined,  and  also  the  readings  of  the  early  Fathers. 
In  1734  these  readings  were  further  augmented  by  the  labors 

of  Bengel.     Fortv  years  after  Mill,  the  edition  of 

Bengel.  '^  •'     ■'  .  . 

Wetstein  was  published  (1751),  in  2  vols.  fol.  His 
Wetstcin.  ^g^^  -g  ^j^g  Received ;  but  he  applies  the  results  of 
his  inquiry  to  the  correction  in  notes  of  the  text  wherever  he 
deemed  it  faulty.     Upwards  of  forty  yeat-s  later  still,  Greis- 


CRITICISM — HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  TEXT.      39 

bach,  applied  the  rules  and  investio-ation  of  AVetstein 

Greisbaeh. 

to  a  coiTection  of  the  text  itself  (1796-1806),  and 

added'  many  various  readings  which  his  own  inquiries  had 

discovered. 

In  the  meantime  other  important  additions  to  our  knowledge 
had  been  made.     In  1782-8  Matthsei,  of  Moscow, 
published  an  edition,  remarkable  chiefly  for  contain- 
ing the  readings  sanctioned  by  what  was  afterwards  called  the 
Constantinopolitan  recension  ;  while  Alter,  at  Vienna 
(1786,  7),  Birch  and  Adler,  in  Italy,  Moldenhauer 
and  Tychsen,  in  Spain,  and  others  elsewhere,  were  busy  com- 
pleting inquiries  which  were  to  supply  Griesbach  with  the 
materials  of  his  critical  apparatus.    The  results  were  embodied 
in  the  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  published  by  Birch,  at 
Copenhagen. 

66.   On  comparing  the  evidence  which  these  investigations 
disclosed,  Griesbach  found  (as  his  predecessors  had  ,,  .    ,     , , 

^  J-  Gnosbaeh  s 

intimated)  that  characteristic  readings  distinguished  fi'vi-^ion  of 
certain  MS.   Fathers  and  versions,  and  that  they  readings, 
were  all  divisible  into  three  classes  :  MSS.,  &c.,  having  one 
set  of  readings,  being  said  by  him  to  belong  to  the  Alexan- 
drian family  or  recension ;  those  with  another  set  to  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan ;  and  those  with  another  set  to  the  Western. 

This  conclusion,  supposing  it  well  founded,  was  a  most  im- 
portant discovery.  It  changed  the  whole  science.  ,^ 
Hitherto  the  reading  favored  by  7nost  MSS.  had  importance, 
been  regarded  as  having  the  best  evidence  on  its  side  ;  but 
from  this  time  not  the  number  of  individual  MSS.  in  favor 
of  a  reading,  but  the  number  of  families,  became  the  great 
question. 

In  later  times  Scholz,  who  devoted  many  years  to  this  work, 
divided  Greek  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  first  into     „  ,  ,  , 

Scholzs 

five,  and  then  finally  into  two  families, — the  Alex-     division, 
andrian,  which  includes  the  Western  of  Griesbach,  and  the 
Constantinopolitan.     Of  the  three  classes  Griesbach  himself 
attached  most  importance  to  the  Alexandrian  and  AVesteru 


4U       CIUXKJISM HISTUliY   OF   TJIP:  KEW  TESTAMENT  TEXT. 

families ;  Scholz,  on  the  contrary,  preferred  the  readings  of 
the  Constantinopolitan ;  Hahn  and  Lachmann,  it  may  be  added, 
agree  in  substance  with  Scholz,  but  attach  importance,  the  first 
to  internal  evidence,  and  the  second  to  the  antiquity  of  MSS. 
57.  It  must  be  added  that  though  later  inquiries  have  not 
set  aside  this  principle  of  classification,  they  have  thrown 
doubt  upon  it.  It  is  now  a  question  whether  G-riesbach's  con- 
clusions be  not  an  instance  of  those  hasty  generalizations 
which  impede  almost  as  much  as  they  aid  the  progress  of  true 
science.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  by  the  inquiries  of 
Dr.  Lawrence  of  Dublin.  Proposals  have  been  for  some  time 
before  the  world  for  the  publication  of  a  text  founded  not  on 
families  of  MSS.,  but  on  the  readings  sanctioned  by  the  most 
ancient  authorities.  .  Dr.  Bently  first  suggested  this  principle. 
Lachmann  has  practically  acted  '  upon  it  to  a  large  extent ; 
and  Dr.  Tregelles  now  proposes  to  adhere  to  it  strictly  in  his 
intended  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  Whether  antiquity 
alone,  however,  is  a  satisfactory  test,  may  be  gravely  ques- 
tioned. The  earliest  transcribers  were  subject  to  local  influ- 
ences as  well  as  the  later.  Cursive  manuscripts,  of  late  date, 
may  be  accurate  copies  of  very  early  ones,  which  are  now 
lost,  and  their  testimony  is  not  to  be  disregarded ;  and,  more- 
over, if  there  be  any  ground  for  the  division  of  MSS.  into 
families,  mere  antiquity  may  be  like  mere  numbers,  a  delu- 
sion and  snare. 


■UNCIAL   MANUSCRIPTS. 


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MANUSCRIPTS — NEW  AND  OLD  TESTAMENT  TEXTS.  43 

59.  In  addition  to  these  uncial  MSS.  Griesbach  has  given 
the    numbers,    contents,   and   dates   of    236    cursive  Total 
MSS.,  1  to  236;  Matthcei  of  23  more,  237  to  259;  JI^^S"^!' 
Scholz  of  270,  which  he  for  the  first  time  collated  examined, 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  260  to  469.     Particulars  may  be 
seen  in  the  introductory  explanations  of  the   editions  of  the 
New  Testament  by  Griesbach,  Matthasi,  Scholz,  and  Tischen- 
dorf ;   also  in  Home  ii.,  part  1,  ch.  iii.,  §  2,  and  partly  in  Scott 
Porter's  Criticism,  p.  304. 

Of  Lectionaries,  Scholz  enumerates  176  Gospels,  and  48  from 
the  Acts  and  Epistles  (Praxapostoli).  Of  the  former,  one  (No. 
135)  is  referred  by  him  to  the  6th  century,  and  most  to  periods 
between  i^  10th  and  15th. 

Scholz  enumerates  in  all, — 


Uncial  MSS. 

Cursive  MSS. 

Of  Gospels 

27 

469 

Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles 

8 

192 

Paul's  Epistles  . 

9 

246 

Eevelation        .         .        . 

3 

88 

Many  other  codices  have  never  been  collated,  of  which  31 
are  enumerated  by  Home  as  existing  in  libraries  in 

•^  "  others 

this  country,  and  others  are  known  to  be  preserved  still  un- 

.     •'  .  ^  examined. 

m  libraries  on  the  Continent. 

60.  The  history  of  the  Hebrew  text  is  much  briefer.     The 
process  of  inquiry  which  was  undertaken  in  the  case  Bibi.  Crit. 
of  the    Greek  text  within   the    last   two   centuries  to  the^iie- 
was  undertaken  for  the  Old  Testament  a  thousand  ofthe'oid 
years   earher    at    Tiberias.       There,    existing    MSS.  Testament./ 
were  revised  and  compared,  and  a  text  was  formed,  on  the 
whole  very  fair  and  accurate.     This  text  is  called  the  Ma=oretic 
Masoretic,  and  nearly  all  recent  investigations  have  ol-fgin  ind 
ended  in  sustaining  generally  its  readings.     On  the  '*'^°'^'"^°y- 
dispersion  of  the  Jews  through  the  influence  of  Mohammedan 
ism,  their  learned  men  moved  westward  into  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Central  Europe,  carrying  with  them   the   Masoretic  text  of 


44  mSTOKY    OF   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   TEXT. 

Scripture,  and  in  process  of  time  multiplying  the  editions  (as 
they  may  be  called)  to  meet  the  wants  of  their  nation.  The 
value  of  these  editions  differed,  according  to  the  care  with 
which  they  were  written.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Spanish 
MSS.  are  generally  most  accurate ;  next  in  accuracy  are  the 
Italian,  and  last  the  German. 

61.  It  is  an  instance  of  the  slow  progress  of  truth,  that 
The  com-  Buxtorf,  One  of  the  greatest  Hebrew  scholars,  maiu- 
pk'te  accu-   tained,  in  the  17th  century,  the  absolute  uniformity 

racy  ques-  '  ■'  '  •' 

tioned.        of  all  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  Text.     Cappellus  (1650) 
was  among  the  first  to  combat  this  view,  and  Bishop  Walton, 
Critical        the  editor  of  the  London  Polyglot,  having  sided  with 
tusijom-      Cappellus,  commenced  the  work  of  forming  a  critical 
LonT'*'     apparatus.     From  this  time,  the  collation  of  Hebrew 
Polyglot.     MSS.  was   made   with  vigor,  and   the   results   soon 
appeared  in  the  publication  of  an  improved  text.     In  1667, 
Athias,  a   rabbi   and   printer    of   Amsterdam,    pub- 
lished a  Hebrew  Bible,  the  text  of  which  was  founded 
on  MSS.  and  printed  editions.     In  1690,  Jablonski  published, 
Jabionski     ^^  Berlin,  a  critical  edition,  and  in  1705,  the  very 
Vander       accurate  edition  of  Van  der  Hooght  was  printed  at 
Amsterdam.     His  text  is  formed  on  that  of  Atliias, 
with  Masoretic  readings  in   the  margin,  and  a  collection  of 
various  readings  at  the  end.     In  1709  Opitz,  at  Kiel,  and  in 
1720  I.  H.  Michaelis,  at  Halle,  also  published  editions  of  criti- 
cal value ;  and  in  1746-53  Houbigant  published,  at 

Houbigant.  .  ,       , .   .         .  i       f  t        i  i      ■ 

raris,  a  splendid  edition  in  4  vols,  folio,  though  its 
value  is  much  diminished  by  the  number  of  conjectural  emen- 
dations embodied  in  the  notes  and  translation.     In  the  same 

year  Kennicott  published  his  first  Dissertation  on  the 

Kennicott.     ''  . 

state  of  the  printed  Hebrew  text,  and  in  1776-80  his 
Hebrew  Bible  was  printed  at  Oxford.  The  text  is  that  of  Van 
der  Hooght,  with  the  various  readings  of  692  different  authori- 
ties, including  MSS.,  printed  editions,  and  rabbinical  writings. 
T^  „     .      In  1784-8,  De  Rossi,  of  Parma,  published  5  vols,  of 

I>e  Rossi.  '  '  '  ^ 

extracts  from  Hebrew  MSS.,  and  in  1793  the  moat 


HISTORY    OP   THE   OLD    TESTAMENT    TEXT.  45 

important  readings  of  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  were  pul3lislied 
in    an    edition   issued   at   Leipzig,   1793,    by    Doederlein    and 
Meisner,  and  at  Vienna  by  Jahn,  1806,  as  they  were  j  j^ 
also  in  tbe  English  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
published  in  1810-16  by  Boothroyd.  Bootiu-oyd. 

62.  The  result  of  all  these  inquiries  is  that  we  have  but  one 
class  of  MSS.,  the  Masoretic,  and  that  the  variations  Result :  hut 
of  reading  in  them  do  not  exceed  those  of  one  family  of  MHS^'aud 
of  MSS.  of  the  Greek  Testament.  An  edition  of  the  ^•^^'^^"s^- 
Hebrew  Bible  which  shall  give  the  readings  sanctioned  by 
ancient  versions  is  still  needed ;  but  so  far  as  the  accuracy  of 
the  present  text  is  concerned,  such  a  work  is  rather  curious 
than  important. 

63.  The  general  uniformity  of  Hebrew  MSS.  makes  a  classi- 
fication of  them  less  important  thaq  in  the  case  of  Number  of 
Greek  MSS.  Kennicott  mentions  630,  of  which  258  "''''■  ^^^*^- 
were  collated  by  him  throughout,  the  remainder  only  in  part. 
De  Rossi  collated  751,  of  which  all  but  17  were  collated  for  the 
first  time.  Many  others  remain  uncoUated.  (See  Jahn's  He- 
brew Bible,  vol.  iv.  App.) 

Though,  as  already  stated,  there  is  but  one  recension,  the 
Masoretic,  it  seems  that  in  the  10th  century  the  Jews  at  Baby- 
lon had  one  set  of  readings,  and  those  at  Tiberias  another. 
Hence  arose  the  distinction  of  Eastern  and  Western 
families.     Bishop  Walton,  in  his  Polyglot,  has  given  Western 
the  differences  on  which  this  distinction  is  founded. 
They  are  differences  in  the  letters,  and  are  about  220  in  all, 
none  of  which,  however,  materially  affects  the  sense ;   and  in 
the  vowel  points  these  amounting  to  about  860.     In  reference 
to  the  first,  our  printed  editions  vary  from  the  Eastern  read- 
ings in  55  places ;  in  reference  to  the  second,  they  follow  the 
Masoretic  text,  as  fixed  at  Tiberias.     Particular  copies  were 
long  celebrated  for  accuracy,  but  only  their  traditional  fame 
has  descended  to  our  times. 

8  See  Preface. 


46  CRITICISM — ANCIENT   VERSIONS. 

64.  It  is  a  summary  proof  of  the  general  accuracy  of  the. 

present  text,  that  the  Jew  agrees  with  the  Christian 
in  the  letter  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Komau- 
ist  with  the  Protestant  in  the  letter  of  the  New. 

On  this  subject  see  Home,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  ch.  ii.  §  1 :  Scott  Porter,  p. 
73 ;  Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the 
Bible ;  and  Davidson's  Bib.  Cr.,  vol.  i. 

Sec.  4. — The  Ancient  Versions  of  Scripture. 

65.  The  origin  and  history  of  the  LXX  were  long  matters 

of  controversy,  though  now  the  questions  connected 
with  it  may  be  regarded  as  settled.  The  story  of 
Aristeas,  a  writer  who  pretends  to  he  a  Gentile  and  favorite 
at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  is,  that  this  version  was 
made  by  seventy-two  Jews  (six  from  each  tribe)  sent  to  Alex- 
andria by  Eleazar  at  the  request  of  Demetreus  Phalareus,  and 
that  the  whole  was  completed  in  seventy -two  days.  To  this 
story  various  additions  were  made,  claiming  miraculous  inter- 
position for  the  work,  and  infalHbility  for  the  translators.  Dr. 
Hody  first  proved  that  the  narrative  could  not  be  authentic ;. 
though  nothing  has  been  discovered  that  materially  affects 
either  the  value  or  the  date  of  the  version.  Eegarding  the 
work  critically,  it  may  be  observed  that  it  contains  many 
Graeco-Egyptian  words,  and  that  the  Pentateuch  is  translated 
with  much  more  accuracy  than  the  other  books.  The  Book 
of  Job,  the  Psalms,  and  the  prophets,  are  all  inferior,  and  espe- 
cially Isaiah  and  Daniel.  The  historical  books  are  often  inaccu- 
rately translated. 

In  the  early  Christian  church  the  version  was  deemed  of 
great  value,  though  writers  often  appealed  against  it  to  the 
Qj.i„gjj,g  Hebrew.  With  the  view  of  correcting  it,  Origen 
Hexapia.  formed  his  Hexapla.  This  work,  which  made  alto- 
gether fifty  volumes,  perished  probably  at  the  sacking  of  Caesa- 
rea  by  the  Saracens,  653,  A.  D..;  but  happily  the  text  of  the 
LXX  (which  formed  one  of  the  columns)  had  been  copied  by 


CRITICISM — ANCIENT    VERSIONS.  47 

Eiasebius,  together  with,  the  corrections  or  adtlitions  which 
Origen  had  inserted  from  the  other  translators.  This  Hexa- 
plariah  text,  as  it  is  called,  was  published  by  Montfaucon  at 
Paris,  in  1714.  Of  the  two  celebrated  MSS.  of  the  LXX,  the 
Vatican  (B)  follows  the  original  version,  while  the  Alexandrian 
(A)  exhibits  many  of  the  readings  embodied  in  the  Hexapla, 
and  conforms  more  generally  to  the  present  Hebrew. 

The  four  chief  printed  editions  of  the  LXX  are — the  Aldine, 
exhibiting  many  of  the  readings  of  B ;  the  Complutensian, 
which  often  follows  the  Masoretic  Hebrew  and  Origen's  Hexa- 
pla ;  the  Roman  or  Vatican ;  and  the  Grabian,  which  is  taken 
chiefly  from  A. 

The  version  is  rather  free  than  literal,  and  frequently  misses 
the  sense  of  the  original.  It  is  often  valuable  in  interpretation, 
though  less  so  in  settling  the  text. 

66.  Among  the  earliest  versions  founded  on  the  LXX  was 
the  Italic.  In  the  days  of  Augustine  (died  430)  there  versions 
were  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible,  of  which  the  lxx.*  ^^ 
old  Italic  was  the  best.  Jerome  bears  the  same  testi-  ^'  ^'^'^i'^'"'- 
mony  to  its  general  excellence.  It  was  made,  as  may  be  gath- 
ered from  fragments  which  still  remain,*  from  the  Alexandrian 
MS.,  and  is  ascribed  by  Eichhorn  to  the  1st  century. 

67.  The  diversities  and  imperfections  of  this  version  induced 
Jerome  (A.  D.  382)  to  revise  the  text,  as  Origen  had  previously 
revised  the  version  of  the  LXX.  He  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose the  Hexapla  of  Origen,  and  carefully  corrected  the  whole 
of  the  Old  Testament,  though . portions  only  of  his  revision 
remain.  As  these  labors  of  Jerome  were  drawing  to  a  close, 
the  LXX,  though  long  favorably  received  by  the  Jews,  began 
to  fall  into  disrepute,  on  the  ground,  probably,  that  it  was  ap- 
pealed to  by  Christians.  To  meet  this  feeling  Jerome  undertook 
to  prepare  a  translation  into  Latin  direct  from  the  Hebrew.  He 
devoted  the  larger  portion  of  twenty  years  to  this  work,  and  it 
was  completed  in  405.  A  superstitious  reverence  for  the  LXX 
led  many  to  oppose  this  version,  but  it  gradually  gained  influ- 

»  Job,  Psahns,  some  of  tlie  Apocryiilia,  and  parts  of  other  books 


4S  CRITICISM — ANCIENT    VEESIONS. 

ence,  and  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (604)  it  had  at  least 
a  co-ordinate  authority,  and  was  dignified  with  the  name  of  the 

Vulgate.     The  text  was  made  up  in  part  from  the 
Vulgate  in    old  Italic,  in  part  from  Jerome's  improved  edition  of 

that  version,  and  is  in  part  a  new  version  formed  im- 
mediately from  the  Hebrew.  Jerome  was  acquainted  with 
Hebrew  expositors,  and  many  of  their  interpretations  are  em- 
bodied in  the  Vulgate,  but  generally  it  follows  the  LXX,  even 
when  that  version  differs  from  the  Hebrew.  It  is  more  useful 
for  interpretation  than  for  criticism,  though  for  both  it  is  of 
value.  The  version  of  the  Psalms  was  made  from  Origen's 
Hexapla,  and  is  called  the  Psalterium  Gallicanum.  The  text 
was  early  corrupted,  and  various  learned  men  have  undertaken 
to  revise  it,  among  whom  are  Alcuin  and  Lanfranc.  The  two 
chief  editions  are  those  of  Sixtus  V.  and  Clement  VIII. ,  which, 
however,  though  both  sanctioned  by  papal  authority,  contain 
som^  most  remarkable  errors.*    (See  par.  76). 

68.   Ecclesiastical  history  places  the  conversion  of  Ethiopia 

about  A.  D.  330,  and  to  the  same  century  belongs  the 
vei-sions       translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Gheez,  the  sacred 

from  the  .  . 

LXX  language  of  Ethiopia.      Its   author  is  not  known. 

cuntinued.      -r-,       ,.  .  r-    ^        r\^  -i    m 

3.  The  reriect  copies  of  tlie  Old  lestament  are  not  common, 
though  Bruce  states  that  he  found  several ;  and  there 
are  MSS.  of  this  version  in  some  of  the  libraries  of  Europe. 
Only  fragments  have  been  printed.  The  text  follows  the  read- 
ings of  A,  and  is  founded  entirely  on  the  LXX.  The  New 
Testament  has  all  been  printed.  The  text  seems  to  be  founded 
on  the  Peshito  and  the  old  Italic. — See  Ludolf,  Gieseler,  and 
the  travels  of  Bruce. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  is  also  extant  in  the 
4  5  Coptic  Coptic  and  Thebaic^  dialects  of  Egypt,  though  only  a 
Thebaic.  portion  has  been  printed.  The  most  probable  date 
of  their  origin  is  the  3d  and  4th  century,  though  some  suppose 
them  to  have  been  made  as  early  as  the  1st  and  2d.     Both  are 

*0f  the  Vulgate,  as  prepared  by  Jerome,  the  most  important  MS.  is 
the  C.  Ainiatinus,  now  at  Florence,  and  written  ahout  tliej^ear  541. 


CRITICISM — ANCIENT   VERSIONS.  49 

fonnded  on  the  LXX,  and  generally  follow  tlie  readings  of  A. 
The  translators  are  not  known, 

■  The  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  was  made  By  Ulphilas,  a 
bishop  of  the  Moeso-Goths,  who  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  in  359.  The  version  was  made  from 
the  Greek,  and  is  of  considerable  critical  value,  though  unhap- 
pily only  fragments  of  it  remain.  The  most  celebrated  MS.  is 
the  Codex  Argenteus,  written  in  silver  letters,  which  is  now 
preserved  in  the  hbrary  of  Upsal,  in  Sweden.  Tliis  MS.  con- 
tains only  the  four  Gospels,  and  is  imperfect. 

Of  the  Armenian  version  little  more  is  known  than  is  stated 
in  another  paragraph.      The  date  is  410,  and   the 

,  T.Armeniaii. 

translator  Miesrob,  who  seems  to  have  used  the  LXX 
and  the  Alexandrian  recension  as  the  basis  of  his  version. 
The  Georgian  version  was  made  in  the  following  century,  from 
copies  of  the  Armenian  translation.  The  Armenian  version 
has  been  repeatedly  printed  (Bible,  Amst.  1666,  New  Testament, 
1668-1698),  and  the  whole  Bible,  in  Georgian,  was  printed  at 
Moscow  in  1743,  parts  of  it  having  been  previously  printed  at 
Tiflis. 

To  the  9th  century  belongs  the  Slavic  or  Slavonic  version, 
supposed  to  have  been  made  by  the  sons  of  Leo,  a 
Greek  nobleman,  who  first  preached  the  gospel  to  the 
Slavonians.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  a  descendant  of  the 
LXX,  though  ancient  testimony  states  that  it  was  made,  in 
great  part,  from  the  Italic,  a  statement  which  recent  collation 
has  confirmed.  The  text  was  early  corrected  from  Greek  MSS. 
and  it  is  hence  deemed  of  considerable  critical  value.  The 
whole  was  printed  in  1576,  and  several  editions  have  since 
been  issued  from  Moscow. 

69.  From  the  Vulgate  were  formed  the  various  Anglo-Saxon 
versions  of  parts  of  Scripture.     About  the  vear  706, 

,  .  Versions 

Adhelm,  the  first  bishop  of  Sherborn,  translated  the     fi;"n>  Ui" 
Psalms  into  Saxon,  as  did  Egbert,  the  bishop  of  Holy 
Island,  the  four  Gospels.     About  the  same  time  Bede  (A.  D. 
735)  translated  parts  of  the  Bible.     King  Alfred  undertook  to 


50  CRITICISM — ANCIENT   VEKSIONS. 

translate  the  Psalms,  but  died  (900)  when  liis  woi-k  was  about 
half  finished.  ^Ifric  of  Canterbury  translated  the  Pentateuch 
and  some  of  the  historical  books.  To  the  same  version  we  insiy 
ascribe  the  various  translations  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
French,  Italian  and  Spanish,  executed  before  the  16th  century, 
and  even  Luther  availed  himself  largely  of  its  renderings  iu 
making  his  German  translation  of  the  Bible. 

70.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  rather  a  recension  than  a 
Samaritan  translation  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Copies  are  referred 
Pontateucii.  ^^  ^j  E^gebius  and  Cyril,  but  it  was  long  thought 
that  the  whole  had  perished.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
century,  however,  a  copy  was  transmitted  from  Constantinople 
to  Paris.  Usher  afterwards  procured  six  copies,  and  Kennicott 
collated  sixteen.  The  most  probable  account  of  this  recension 
is,  that  it  was  taken  from  the  copies  of  the  Pentateuch  which 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  IsraeHtes  in  the  days  of  Pehoboam, 
when  the  Idngdom  was  divided.  The  Psalms  and  the  writings 
of  Solomon,  which  were  known  to  pious  Jews  of  that  age,  were 
rejected  for  obvious  reasons. 

The  critical  value  of  the  readings  of  this  recension  was  over- 
Critical  estimated  at  first,  but  now  they  are  held  to  be  not  at 
Value.  ^Y[  superior  to  the  Hebrew.  The  LXX  seem  to  have 
followed  it  more  frequently  than  the  present  Hebrew  text ; 
from  which,  however,  it  does  not  materially  differ.  Gesenius 
deems  its  readings  preferable  to  the  Hebrew  in  Gen.  iv.  8, 
where  it  supplies  the  words,  "Let  us  go  into  the  field;"  in 
Gen.  xiv.  14,  where  it  reads,  "  he  numbered,"  instead  of  "  he 
armed;"  in  Gen.  xxii.  13,  where  it  omits  the  words  "  bghind 
him;"  and  in  Gen.  lix.  14,  where  the  difterence  is  in  expres- 
sion only  and  not  in  sense.  The  Samaritan  is  of  great  value 
in  determing  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  vowels,  and  in  con- 
firming the  general  accuracy  of  the  present  text,  but  it  is  not 
a  source  of  valuable  independent  emendation. 

The  characters  in  which  it  is  written  are  probably  the  older 
forms  of  the  Hebrew. 

The  ancient  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  be  confounded 


CBITICISM — ANCIENT   VEKSIONS.  51 

•with  the  more  modern  Samaritan  version  which,  is  printed 
with  the  other  in  the  Polyglots.  This  is  a  very  literal  trans- 
lation into  modern  Samaritan. 

71.  The   Peshito  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  probably 
made  by  those  translators  "who  were  sent  to  Pales-    „    • 
tine  by  the  apostle  Jude  and  Abgarus,  king  of  Edes-   Horte 
8a."    Such  is  the  ancient  tradition,  and  it  is  in  itself     y^^^°^- 
sufficiently  probable.     From  internal  evidence,  it  is  believed 
that  the  translators  were  Jewish  Christians,  and  that  they 
translated  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  Hebrew.     It 
contains  all  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  all 
those  of  the  New,  except  2  Pet.,  2  and  3  John,  Jude,  and  the 
Revelation.     The  text  differs  from  all  the  chief  families  of 
MSS.,  and  each  in  succession  has  claimed  it.     The  New  Tes- 
tament was  first  printed  at  Venice  in  1555,  and  the  Old  Tes- 
tament in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots. 

Internal  evidence  and  tradition  agree  in  ascribing  it  to  the 
1st  century.  It  is  of  great  critical  value.  Several  ancient 
Arabic  versions,  and  the  Persian  version  of  the  Gospels, 
(printed  in  the  London  Polyglot),  were  made  from  the 
Peshito. 

The  Philoxenian  (New  Testament  only)  version  was  made 
from  the  Greek,  by  the  hand,  or  under  the  care,  or  pj^j] 
in  the  days  of  Philoxenius,  Bishop  of  Maberg,  in 
Syria,  about  the  year  508.  No  MS.  of  it  remains,  but  various 
readings  taken  from  it  are  given  in  a  MS.  in  the  Vatican 
(153).  Early  in  the  following  century  Thomas  of  Harkel,  or 
Heraclea,  the  successor  of  Philoxenius,  began  to  revise  the 
work  of  his  predecessor,  and  published  another  ver- 
sion  in  616.  It  contains  the  whole  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament except  the  Apocalypse.  The  most  complete  MS.  of  it 
is  one  which  formerly  belonged  to  Ridley,  and  is  now  pre- 
served in  New  College,  Oxford.  The  style  is  extremely  lite- 
ral, and  in  consequence  frequently  violates  the  Syriac  idiom. 

There  is  also  a  fourth  Syriac  version  of  Lessons  from  the 
Gospels  (Vat.  MS.  19).     The  date  of  the  MS.  is  1030,  but  the 


lo- 
xenian. 


62  CRITICISM — VAKIOUS    READINGS. 

version  seems  to  belong  to  the  5tli  or  7th  century.  The 
language  is  a  mixture  of  Chaldee  and  Syriac.  The  readings 
generally  favor  the  Western  recension;  and  the  MS.  is  some- 
times called  the  Palestino-Syriac  or  Jerusalem  version. 

72.  The  Arabic  versions  of  several  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
Arabic  ^^  given  iu  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  were 
versions.  made  from  the  LXX  by  different  authors  between 
the  10th  and  12th  centuries;  and  of  Job,  Chron.,  Judges, 
Euth,  Samuel,  and  parts  of  other  books  from  the  Peshito 
Syriac. 

73.  From  the  same  version  was  made  the  Persian  version, 
Persian  *^^  ^^^^  Gospels,  published  with  Le  Glerc's  Latin 
version.  translation  in  the  London  Polyglot ;  it  abounds  with 
Arabic  expressions,  and  must  have  been  later  than  the  time  of 
Mahomet.  Another  version  of  the  same  part  of  Scripture 
was  published  by  Wheelock  in  1652 ;  but  these,  with  the  more 
recent  version  made  under  the  care  of  Nadir  Shah  1740-1, 
are  of  little  critical  value. 

74.  From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that  the  Samaritan  Penta- 

teuch, the  LXX,  part  of  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Pe- 

Conelusion.     ,  .        r,,      .  \-,  i       i  i      r 

shito  Syriac,  are  all  more  or  less  valuable  for  ascer- 
taining the  text  of  the  original  Hebrew;  but  that  other 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  being  made  from  these,  and 
not  from  the  original,  are  of  little  or  no  critical  value,  except 
for  ascertaining  the  text  of  those  versions  from  which  they 
were  made.  In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  all  the  ear- 
lier versions  from  the  Greek  are  of  value,  proportioned,  of 
course,  to  the  general  condition  of  their  texts,  and  to  the 
obvious  accuracy  with  which  they  have  been  made. 

Modern  versions  (and  to  a  great  extent  the  ancient)  are  of 
value  only  as  helps  to  interpretation. 

Full  accounts  of  ancient  versions  may  be  seen  in  Le  Long's  Biblio 
theca  Sacra  (Masch's  edition),  or  in  Home's  Introduction,  vol.  ii. 


criticism — ^various  readings,  53 

'  Sec.  5.  The  Various  Readings  of  Scripture;  Rules  foe 
Determining  the  Text. 

75.  Of  Hebrew  MSS.  upwards  of  1,300  have  been  collated, 
and  of  Greek  upwards  of  600.  These  numbers,  it  dumber  of 
will  be  observed,  do  not  represent  copies  of  complete  '^^'^■ 
Scriptures,  but  of  parts  only.  Each  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  Old  Testament  (par.  4)  forms  in  Hebrew  one  roll,  and 
each  of  the  New  Testament  divisions  (par.  49)  generally 
forms  one  MS.  in  Greek. 

76.  These  MSS.  have  been  exposed,  in  transcription,  to 
many  errors.  Nor  will  this  fact  excite  surprise  if  it  ^^^fp^g'^ 
is  remembered  that  carefully-printed  books  often  readings. 
contain  numerous  inaccuracies.  In  writing,  the  risk  is 
of  course  much  greater  than  in  printing.  Revision  and 
correction  are  less  practicable  in  the  first  than  the  second. 
The  slowness  of  the  process  increases  the  probability  that  let- 
ters, syllables,  and  words  will  be  added,  omitted,  changed,  or 
transposed.  Sometimes  the  writer  transcribed  from  a  MS. 
before  him;  sometimes  from  dictation.  In  the  latter  case  his 
ear  frequently  deceived  him,  and  in  the  former,  his  eye. 
Different  words  having  often  the  same  final  syllable,  or  differ- 
ent sentences  having  the  same  final  word,  made  mistakes  the 
more  easy.  A  misunderstanding  of  the  MS.  from  which  he 
copied  would  sometimes  lead  to  the  same  result.  He  might 
either  misinterpret  its  abbreviations,  or  inaccurately  divide 
the  words  where  they  were  written,  (as  in  most  ancient  MSS.)  ^ 
without  pause  marks ;  or  the  MS.  might  be  wholly  or  partially 
effaced.  Independently,  therefore,  of  design,  these  causes  of 
error  were  always  at  work.  The  results,  however,  seldom 
affect  the  meaning  of  the  text  materially  (though  they  do  so 
in  some  cases),  and  are  similar  to  the  mistakes  produced  in  an 
English  version  by  such  errors  of  the  press  as  escaped  the  eye 
of  even  a  careful  reader.  Differences  more  serious  may  be 
seen  in  the   Bibles  printed   "by  authority"    of   the   Popes 

»  See  Preface. 
5* 


54  CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS 

Sexttis  and  Clement.  Hody  has  given  a  large  ntimber  of 
these  discrepancies.  Compare  them  in  Prov.  xxv.  24 :  Matt, 
xxvii.  35:  Judg.  xvii.  2,  3;  which  are  left  out  in  the  Sextine 
edition;  and  in  1  Sam.  xxiv.  8:  2  Sam.  viii.  8;  which  are  left 
out  in  the  Clementine  edition.  They  contradict  one  another, 
moreover,  in  Josh.  ii.  18;  ix.  19:  Exod.  xxxii.  28:  Gen.  xxiv. 
24 :  1  Kings  ii.  28. 

For  example : — 

77.  (1)  There  are  many  cases  in  which,  from  the  similarity 
Similarity  ^^  sound  Or  of  form,  the  transcriber  would  natu- 
form""'^  "^^  rally  make  a  false  reading. 

In  Gen.  xiv.  5,  the  Heb.  Sam.  and  LXX  read  "with  them"  (cn^), 
Behem.  The  English  and  seven  Sam.  MSS.  read  "in  Ham"  (on^),  Be- 
cham. 

In  Judges  viii.  16,  some  Hebrew  MSS.  and  the  English  read  "he 
taught"  (y-Tn),  Yadah:  but  many  MSS.,  the  LXX,  Chald.,  Arab.,  Syr., 
and  Vulg.,  read  "he  tore"  (■qii),  Yadash,  which  is  clearly  the  true 
reading.  So  in  Numbers  xxii.  5,  where  many  read  Ammon  instead  of 
"Ammo"  (his  people). 

In  1  Kings  i.  18,  "And  now"  is  our  English  version  (nnsi).  Veatta; 
but  200  MSS.  and  the  Chald.  read  "And  thou"  (.irittl),  Veatta.  So 
ver.  20. 

In  Jonah  i.  9,  "I  am  a  Hebrew"  (i^i^j)),  Ivri,  is  the  reading  of  moat 
MSS.  and  of  tlie  English:  but  the  LXX  and  some  MSS.  read  "i  ^^jj, 
Ivdi,  "the  servant  of  Jehovah." 

5^^  lo  (not)  is  put  for  i^  lo  (to  him)  fifteen  times  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  reverse  twice.  Though  there  is  this  change,  the  text  which  the 
Jews  use,  and  which  our  Version  translates,  is  in  these  places  the  cor- 
rect one,  except,  perhaps,  in  one  passage,  2  Kings  viii.  10,  where  for 
"Go,  say  unto  him.  Thou  mayest  certainly  recover,"  we  ought  to  read, 
as  the  present  Hebrew  MSS.,  "Go,  say  Thou  shalt  not  recover,  for — " 

In  Eph.  iv.  19,  some  MSS.  read  "past  hope"  instead  of  "past  feeling" 
[o.TniKTriK'jTi:  for  L-.TrnKynx.Wii;'). 

Similar  cases  may  be  found  in  the  Hebrew,  of  the  following  passages, 

1  Sara.  XX.  18:  Psa.  lix.  9. 

Under  this  same  head  may  be  placed  the  transposition  of  letters,  or 
even  of  words:  as  "Shalmai,"  Nehem.  vii.  48,  for  Shamlal,  see  Ezra  ii. 
46:  "almug-trees"  for  algum-trees ;  1  Kings,  x.  11:  2  Chron.  ix.  10.    In 

2  Sam.  vi.  5:  and  1  Chron.  xiii.  8,  "all  manner  of  fir-wood,"  and  "with 
all  their  might  and  with  singing"  ditler  chiefly  in  one  similar  letter  and 


CRITICISM VARIOUS    READINGS.  55 

in  the  transposition  of  another.  See  also  Hebrew  of  2  Sam.  vi.  2,  com- 
pared with  1  Chron.  xiii.  6. 

The  Jews  never  pronounced  the  name  Jehovah,  but  when  it  occurred 
in  Scripture  read  Adonai  or  Elohim.  These  latter  words  are  conse- 
quently often  put  in  MSS.  for  the  former. 

We  have  noticed  elsewhere  how  similar  letters  have  been  confounded 
in  the  case  of  numerals  (par.  117),  a  confusion  the  more  easy  in  the 
early  stage  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  as  the  letters  more  closely  resem- 
bled one  another  than  at  present. 

78.  (2)  Similarity  of  ending,  either  of  words  or  gjJ„j]J^J.j|_. 
of  whole  sentences,  sometimes  created  mistake.  of  endings. 

There  are  different  readings  in  1  Chron.  ix.  5,  from  this  cause.  1 
Kings  xiv.  25  seems  to  belong  to  this  class:  compare  2  Chron.  xii.  29. 
See  also  the  Hebrew  of  Numb.  xxvi.  3 ;  and  compare  Psa.  xxxvii.  28  with 
the  LXX. 

In  Exod.  XXX.  6,  "before  the  mercy-seat  that  is  over  the  testimony" 
is  a  repetition,  probably,  of  the  previous  clause. 

In  Matt  xxviii.  9,  the  expression  "went  to  tell  his  disciples"  (which 
is  in  Greek  the  same  as  "to  bring  his  disciples  word"  in  the  eighth  verse, 
is  omitted  in  many  MSS.,  B,  D,  and  also  in  the  Vulg.,  Syr.,  Copt,  Ann., 
Fers.,  Arab.,  Chrys.,  Jer.,  Aug.:  but  it  is  found  in  most  MSS.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  last  clause  of  1  Cor.  x.  28  is  taken  from  ver.  26,  and  is 
wanting  in  A,  B,  D,  in  most  ancient  versions,  and  in  many  other 
authorities. 

79  (3)  A  large  class  of  various  readings  owe  their  origin 
to  the  use  of  synonymous  expressions :  as  "  he  spoke  " 
for  "he  said,"  in  2  Kings  i.  10;  "they  found"  for  nymous  ex- 

Tir  ■■     -,'-1  1-  pressions 

"they  saw     {iv^ov  for  tlSov),  Matt.  ii.  11:  "this  very 
world"  for  "this  present  world,"  Matt.  xii.  32;   "the  messen- 
gers of  John"  for  "the  disciples  of  John,"  in  Luke  vii.  24; 
"to  follow  after"  for  "follow,"  Mark  viii.  34. 

80.  (4) .  Many  copyists  were  acquainted  with  other  oriental 
languages,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  Dialectic 
with  other  dialects ;  and  thence  arose  great  diversity  °  ^"""ses. 
in  the  orthography,  even  where  the  readings  are  substantially 
the  same. 

81.  (5)  Ancient  MSS.  are  often  Avithout  stops  and  stopTami" 
without  even  the  division  of  the  words ;  hence  ocea-  words'."  "^ 
sional  mistakes,  though  fewer  than  might  be  supposed. 


66  CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS. 

In  Psa.  xlviii.  14,  for  "unto  death"  some  MSS.  and  the  LXX  read,  by 
connecting  the  two  words,  "for  ever."  And  Psa.  xxv.  17  may  be  read, 
through  a  simihir  mistake,  "  Enlarge  the  troubles  of  my  heart,  and 
bring,"  etc.;  comj^.  also  LXX  and  Heb.  of  Psa.  iv.  3. 

82.  (6)  Sometimes  abbreviations  are  wrongly  interpreted: 

""^(J)  is  the  Heb.  abbreviation  for  "Jehovah,"  and  it 

Abbrevia-  ' 

tionsmisap- means  also  MY;  hence  an  occasional  mistake.  In 
the  LXX  of  Jer.  vi.  11,  "  the  fury  of  J"  is  translated 
"my  fury."  So  in  1  Pet.  ii.  3,  for  "  gracious,"  which  is  some- 
times written  XL  (%p*)irTo?,)  some  of  the  Fathers  (Clem- Alex., 
Greg.  Naz.  Theoph.)  read  "Christ"  (x;pio-Toj,)  which  is  also 
written  XE. 

83.  (7)  In  the  Old  Testament  MSS.  the  copyists  never  di- 
Mist.akes  vided  a  word,  nor  did  they  leave  at  the  end  of 
"Cnstodes  lines  any  vacant  space;  and  hence  they  often  filled 
hnearuin."  ^^p  |-]^g  ]^^j^q  with  some  favorite  letter,  or  with  the 
initial  of  the  next  word,  which  of  course  was  repeated  in  the 
following  line.  "For  them,"  in  Isa.  xxxv.  1,  is  an  examjole. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  ignorant  copyists  have  mistaken  filial 
lettei's  for  mere  custodes  linearuni,  as  they  are  called,  and 
have  omitted  them. 

84.  (8.)  Sometimes  marginal  readings  have  been  inserted  in 
Ma-  inai  ^'^^  body  of  the  MSS.,  corrective  or  explanatory  of 
GiosBe.s.       the  original  text. 

The  repetition  "  Surely  the  people  is  grass,"  (Isa.  xl.  7)  is  supposed  to 
belong  to  this  class,  and  is  not  found  in  the  LXX.  The  number  50,000 
mentioned  in  1  Sam.  vi.  19,  is  supposed  by  Jahn  to  be  another  instance. 

In  Mark  i.  16,  the  word  "his'  seemed  ambiguous;  and  many  MSS. 
(54,  besides  all  Stephens's)  read  "this  same  Simon." 

In  Luke  vii.  16,  "God  has  visited  his  people  for  good"  {w  dj/aflov)  add 
eleven  MSS.,  Arm.  and  Pers.,  in  explanation  of  a  phrase  which  seemed 
scarcely  clear. 

So  in  Luke  v.  7,  a  few  MSS.  add  "  a  little"  {7ra.g<!i.  n). 

85.  All  the  sources  of  various  readings  noticed  thus  far  may 
Vnrious       l^e  regarded  as  accidental.     Other  readings,  however, 

readings  °  p  1  • 

originating  were  intentionally  made,  either  from  good  motives  or 


CRITICISM — VARIOUS   READINGS.  '  57 

from  bad.  A  Greek  copyist,  for  example,  accustomeri  inmtcntion- 
to  hear  his  own  language  spoken  without  an  admix-  tions. 
ture  of  oriental  idioms,  and  regarding  a  Hebraism  as  a  violation 
of  grammar,  would  correct  it,  forgetting  that  such  idioms  go  to 
prove  the  genuineness  of  the  inspired  writings.  He  would 
sometimes  substitute  for  the  original,  Greek  words  which  he 
deemed  more  clear  and  easy.  Sometimes  he  would  correct  one 
Evangelist  by  another,  or  fill  up  the  shorter  account  from  the 
longer  one,  or  adapt  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  to 
the  text  of  his  own  copy,  whether  it  were  "Hebrew,  or  Greek,  or 
Latin. 

In  other  instances  motives  less  honorable  may  account  for 
deviations  from  the  original  text. 

86.  (9.)    Sometimes,    for   example,    in   particular  Mistakes 

T        ri      ■  •        1        •         1  IT         retained  in 

copies  of  the  Scriptures,  a  mistake  m  the   spelling  order  not  to 
of  a  word,  once  made,  is  retained  throughout  the  MS. 
book. 

The  Hebrew  for  a  hoy  is  put  twenty-one  times  in  the  Pentateuch  for 
a  girl  (-153  for  n"l3'D  na-ar,  na-ara),  which  latter  is  found  but  once  (Deut. 
xxii.  19.)  All  the  versions  and  the  Masora  direct  us  to  read  it  as  a 
feminine  noun.  So,  in  Ezek.  xl.  there  is  a  solecism  in  grammar,  through 
the  omission  of  the  ordinary  sign  of  the  plural  (before  the  suffix  i  viz.  1) 
in  thirty-four  words,  though  the  Keri  directs  us  to  read  it.  Some  critics, 
it  may  be  added,  ascribe  these  variations  to  other  causes. 

87.  (10.)  Sometimes  attempts  were  made  to  im-  Attempts  to 

TV /TOO     1  1-11  1  T  improve  the 

prove  Mbb.,  by  making  tne  language  more  clear  and  stjie. 
easy. 

Many  passages  of  the  Chronicles,  for  example,  when  compared  with 
Samuel,  will  be  found  to  give  more  modern  words,  in  place  of  the  obse- 
lete  ones  of  the  earlier  writer.  These  passages,  when  compared  by 
copyists,  gave  rise  to  various  readings.  See  Hebrew  of  1  Sam.  xxxi.  12: 
1  Chron.  x.  12 :  2  Sam.  vii.  23  :  1  Chron.  xvii.  21 :  2  Sam.  vi.  16  -.  1  Chron. 
XV.  29. 

So,  in  Luke,  xvi.  9,  for  "  the  mammon  of  imrighteousness,"  which  is  a 
Hebraism,  some  read  (MS.  Bezie)  "  the  uurighteoua  mammon." 


53  CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS. 

In  Luke  i.  Gi,  "was  loosed"  is  added  in  sooie  MSS.  (Bez.  and  Compl. 
text). 

In  Exod.  XV.  3,  it  is  said  "The  Lord  is  a  maji  of  war."  The  word 
seeniod  to  the  Sam.  copyists  objectionable,  and  they  have  put  "mighty 
one  of  war." 

In  Gen.  ii.  2,  it  is  said  that  God  finished  his  work  on  the  seventh  day. 
The  Sam.  and  Si/r.  seem  to  have  read  "on  the  sixth  day." 

In  tlie  Pentateuch  the  word  for  God  is  jilural  (Elohim);  and  is  some- 
times joined  with  a  singular  verb,  and  sometimes  with  a  plural  verb. 
In  all  the  latter  cases  there  is  a  variety  of  readings ;  most  of  them,  (as 
in  the  Sam.)  in  favor  of  a  singular  noun  (as  the  Holy  One),  retaining, 
however,  the  plural  verb:  the  object  being,  probably,  to  prevent  a 
supposition  that  the  Scriptures  favored  polytheism.  See  Gen.  xx.  13 ; 
XXXV.  7. 

MSS.  of  the  Alexandrian  family,  it  may  be  observed,  often  alter 
words  to  make  what  was  deemed  better  grammar ;  as  MSS.  of  the 
Western  alter  them  to  make  the  meaning  more  clear. 

88.  (11.)  Sometimes  alterations  were  made  to  suit  tlie  par- 
„     „  ,        allel  passase,  or  to  make  the  text  agree  with  the 

Parallel  ... 

passages,  passage  from  which  it  is  quoted.  See  Schulz's  ec^ition 
of  Griesbach  (Ber.  1827),  for  a  view  of  the  influence,  in  this 
respect,  of  the  LXX  on  the  text  of  the  New  Testament. 

Luke  iv.  18,  "to  heal  the  broken-hearted,"  is  wanting  in  several 
MSS.  It  is  probably  taken  from  the  LXX  of  Isa.  Ixi.  1.  Matt.  xii. 
35  "of  the  heart"  is  omitted  in  many  MSS.,  and  in  the  Vulg.,  Syr.,  Copt., 
Pers.,  Arab.  It  is  probably  from  Luke  vi.  45.  Matt.  xx.  22,  23,  "the 
baptism  I  am  baptized  with  can  ye  be  baptized  with?"  is  wanting  in 
several  MSS.,  and  in  the  Vulg.,  EtJuop.  and  fJopt.;  probably  from  Mark 
X.  38,  39.  Matt,  xxvii.  35,  "  That  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  etc.,  is  wanting 
in  A  B  D  E  F  G  H  K  L  M,  etc.,  and  many  other  MSS.,  the  Syr.,  Copt, 
Ethiop.  and  Arab.  It  is  probably  from  John  xix.  24.  Acts  ix.;  xxii.; 
xxvi.  and  Acts  x. ;  xi.  have  been  peculiarly  liable  to  various  readings  on 
this  ground.  1  Cor.  xv.  5,  "the  twelve"  being  not  strictlj^  accurate  (for 
Thomas  was  absent),  some  MSS.  read  "the  eleven."  So,  in  Mark  viii. 
31,  some  MSS.  read  "after  three  days,"  and  others,  "  on  the  third  day." 

89.  (12.  Sometimes  a  passage  has  been  altered  wilfully  to 
Aiteiiitinns  scrvB  the  purposes  of  a  party,  or  to  favor  what  was 
i'Iiii"s(i.     deemed  the  cause  of  truth. 


CRITICISM — VAKIOUS    READINGS.  59 

In  Deut.  xxvii.  4,  the  Hch.  reads  "Ebal,"  and  the  Sam.  "  Gerizim," 
which  was  in  the  Samaritan  territory;  and  the  passage  is  used  as  a 
reason  for  erecting  there  a  Samaritan  temple.  In  Judg.  xviii.  30,  "  Ma- 
nasseh"  is  written  in  many  MlSS.  for  Moses,  to  save  the  honor  of  his 
family.  So  R.  Solomon  Jarchi  acknowledges.  Isa.  Ixiv.  4,  has  been 
altered,  and  is  now  unintelligible.  It  is  quoted  in  1  Cor.  ii.  9.  Isa.  lii. 
14,  for  "at  thee,"  some  MSS.,  the  Chald.,  Syr.,  and  Vulg.ra&di  "  at  him." 
Such  intentional  alterations,  however,  are  very  rare  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, nor  are  there  many  in  the  New  Testament  Greek.  In  Matt.  i.  18, 
"before  they  came  together,"  and  the  word  "first-born,"  are  omitted  in 
some  MSS.  and  Versions,  in  favor  of  the  perpetual  virginity.  In  Mark 
xiii.  32,  "neither  the  Son"  is  omitted  in  several  MSS.  and  Fathers,  as 
seeming  to  favor  Arianism.  Luke  xxii.  43  is  omitted  in  A  B,  and  some 
other  MSS.,  because  supposed  to  detract  from  our  Lord's  Divinity. 

90.  (13.)  There  are  also  various  readings,  wliich  can  be  ex- 
plained only  on  the  supposition  of  carelessness  on  careiess- 
the  part  of  transcribers,  and  which  are  not  referable      ^^^ss. 

to  any  of  the  causes  just  enumerated. 

In  1  Chron.  vi.  28,  there  is  an  omission  of  the  name  Joel  (see  ver.  33  : 
1  Sam.  viii.  2).  The  verse  really  reads  "And  the  sons  of  Samuel,  the 
first-born  Joel,  and  the  (second  now  translated  Vashni),  Abiah."  Bishop 
Lowth  has  noticed  that  in  Isaiah  there  are  as  many  as  fifty  slight  omis- 
sions, none  of  them,  however,  aifecting  the  sense.  A  singular  instance 
may  be  seen  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19,  which  ought  to  be  read  in  the  same  way 
as  1  Chron.  xx.  5.  Read  in  Samuel  ^,5^  for  j-.'i^,  eth,  beth  and  ns^  for  j^j^, 
ach  eth.     The  word  Q^ijij^  (weavers),  has  come  up  improperly  from  the 

end  of  the  verse.  The  430  years  mentioned  in  Exod.  xii.  40,  as  the 
time  of  the  sojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  is  not  correct ; 
it  was  only  215  years,  and  the  text  as  it  stands  is  hardly  consistent  with 
Gal.  iii.  17:  Gen.  xii.  4;  xvii.  1,  21;  xxv.  26.  The  Sam.  Alex.  LXX, 
and  some  MSS.  read  "and  of  their  fathers  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  and  in  Canaan."  Perhaps,  however,  there  is  here  a  latitude  of 
expression  easily  understood  by  Jewish  readei'S. 

91.  The  readings  which  have  originated  in  these  and  similar 
causes  amount  to  many  thousands,  but  in  nearly  all, 

any  various  reading  may  be  adopted  without  mate-  suehvarioua 
rially  affecting  the  sense.     The  most  inaccurate  text 
ever  written,  it  has  been  justly  said,  leaves  the  truths  of  Scrip- 
ture substantially  unchanged. 


GO  CEITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS. 

92.  It  is,  nevertheless,  a  question  of  mticli  interest,  how  is 

the  comparative  value  of  various  readings  to  be  de- 
How  com-  ..      .  ..,  .     ^  . 
paiativpvai-  cided?     The  loilowmg  principles  are  recognised  by 

ins^  i.-^ .'  all  competent  scholars  in  this  branch  of  inquiry. 
'  They  are  taken  substantially  from  Griesbach,  Wet- 
stein  and  other  critics.  Griesbach's  rules  may  be  seen  at  length 
in  his  Prolegomena,  or  abridged  in  Planck's  Sacred  Philology, 
p.  235,  etc.,  and  Wetstein's  in  his  introduction  to  the  Greek 
Testament.  Rules  approved  by  Eichhorn  and  De  Wette, 
with  special  reference  to  the  Old  Testament,  may  be  seen  in 
De  Wette,  i.  319. 

93.  (1.)  When  MSS.,  versions  and  quotations  agree  in  a 
_  ,      ,      reading,  the  external  evidence  in  its  favor  is  com- 

External  "' 

and  internal  plete,  and  whcu  the  reading  thus  fixed  agrees  with 

evidence,       ^  '-'  °  . 

what.  .  the  nature  of  the  language,  the  sense,  the  connection 
of  historical  facts  and  parallel  passages,  the  internal  evi- 
dence is  complete.  Where  these  concur,  the  reading  is 
undoubtedly  genuine ;  and  this  is  the  evidence  found  in  the 
case  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Scriptures,  as  contained  in  the 
common  editions. 

94.  (2.)  Generally  the  value  of  a  reading  is  in  proportion 
,       to  the  age  of  the  MSS.,  because  the  older  it  is,  the 

General  ...  .  . 

rule.'*  as  to    jess  likely  is  it  to  be  a  transcript  of  many  previous 

e.Kternal  ev-  _    -^  -*■  .  . 

idence.  transcripts,  (though  a  recent  MS.,  certainly  copied 
from  a  very  early  one,  may  be  of  greater  authority  than  one 
less  recent) :  to  the  number  of  MSS.  in  which  it  is  found ;  to 
the  family  to  which  it  belongs  (some  preferring,  with  Gries- 
bach, the  Alexandrian ;  and  others,  with  Schulz,  the  Constan- 
tinopolitan);  and  to  the  obvious  care  with  which  the  MS.  is 
written. 

In  the  case  of  Hebrew  MSS.,  we  speak  rather  of  the  coun- 
tries where  they  were  written  than  of  families  formed  on  any 
other  principle ;  SjDanish,  Italian,  German,  representing  their 
origin,  and  the  order  of  their  critical  value.     • 

The  following  rules  may  be  laid  down  for  guiding  tlie  in- 
qiiiit^i'  in  determining  the  correct  reading: 


CBITICISM — VAEIOUS   READINGS.  61 

95.  (1.)  When  the  external  and  internal  evidence  are  op- 
posed, the  former  ought  generally  to  be  preferred,  External 
because  the  "genuine  reading"  is  an  expression  that  nKue'ini- 
refers  rather  to  external  than  to  internal  evidence,  ^i^arf"^ 

It  is  the  sum,  not  of  reasons,  so  much  as  of  autho-  '"'•'''"^'i- 
rities. 

96.  (2.)  Yet  the  internal  evidence  may  be  so  strong  as  to 
counterbalance  a  greater  degree  of  external  (as  in 

.,  „  r      T         -Mr  •  T  p     ^        Exceptious. 

the  case  oi  most  of  the  Masoretic  readings  oi  the 
Old  Testament) :  wherever,  in  fact,  the  readings  are  clearly 
false,  or  where  the  introduction  of  a  particular  reading  can 
be  easily  explained. 

97.  (3.)  Readings  are  certainly  right  when  they  are  sup- 
ported by  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  by  most  of  the  various 
ancient  versions,  by  quotations,  by  parallel  places,  readings 
and  by  the  sense,  though  such  readings   are   not  pj,^[^!^^[g  ^j. 
found  in  all  MSS.,  or  in  the  common  version.  certain. 

Isa.  Ix.  21,  "MY  planting;"  1  Kings,  i.  18. 

98.  (4.)  Readings  are  most  probably  right,  when  they  are 
supported  by  a  few  ancient  MSS.,  the  ancient  versions,  quo- 
tations, parallel  places,  and  the  sense,  though  not  found  in 

MOST    MSS. 

2  Cbrou.  xi.  18,  "Rehoboam  took  the  son  {-p  ben,  f^in  batli),  of  Jeri- 
moth  to  wife;"  so  most  MSS.:  the  E.  v.  says  rightly,  "the  dauc/hter," 
E.  V.  Psa.  xxii.  16,  most  MSS.  read,  "  like  a  lion  my  hands  and  my 
feet,"  (-i>i5^i  Kaari.)  Three  MSS.,  two  printed  editions,  the  LXX,  Si/r., 
and  Vulg.,  read,  "they  pierced;"  as  does  the  English  version  ('I'ls^'la  or 
^■^JSiSi  Kore  or  Kaaru).  Others,  however,  regard  the  present  Masoretic 
text  as  defensible  (Vitringa,  Stuart).  Ezek.  xi.  7,  most  MSS.  read,  "he 
will  bring  forth"  (s^-i^rin  hotzi).  A  few  MSS.,  all  the  versions,  and  the 
English,  read,  "/will  bring  forth"  (i^i^ns^  otzi.)  Eph.  v.  9,  most  MSS. 
read,  "of  the  Spirit;"  but  A,  and  nine  others,  with  the  Si/r.,  Gqit., 
Eihiop.,  and  Vulg.,  read,  "of  the  light." 

99.  (5.)  Readings  in  the  Pentateuch,  supported  by  the 
Savi.,  a  fe\v  Ifeb.  MSS.,  the  ancient  versions,  parallel  places, 

(i 


62  CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS. 

and  tlie  sense,  are  certainly  right,  tliough.  not  found  in  most 

MSS. 

Gen.  xlvii.  3,  "Thy  servants  are  a  shepherd"  (sing.):  read  with  .30 
MSS.  and  the  Sam.  "  shepherds."  Even  if  the  reading  is  not  found  in 
any  Heb.  MSS.,  it  may  be  true.  Gen.  ii.  24,  "  They  two  shall  be  one 
tiesh."  So  Sam.,  LXX,  ItaL,  Syr.,  Arab.,  Vulg.;  Matt.  xix.  5.  So 
Exod.  xii.  40. 

100.  (6.)  The  concurrence  of  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  and 
the  sense,  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  show  that  a  reading, 
though  not  general,  is  right. 

Isa.  Ivii.  13,  "  Let  thy  companies  deliver  thee."  Most  MSS.  have  a 
;  Ingular  verb ;  but  ten  read  in  the  plural.  This  rule  is  especially 
applicable  to  the  New  Testament. 

101.  (7.)  The  concurrence  of  the  most  ancient  versions,  and 
the  sense,  or  a  parallel  passage,  will  sometimes  show  the  pro- 
priety of  a  reading,  especially  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Psa.  Ixviii.  18,  "  He  received  gifts  for  men."  Eph.  iv.  8,  says,  "  He 
gave  gifts  unto  men."  So  Targ.,  Syr.,  Ethiop.,  Arab.,  and  some  of 
the  Fathers.  The  present  Heb.  is  inrtpb  lakachta:  the  transposition 
of  the  letters  explains  the  difference;  npbn  chalakta.  Isa.  lix.  20, 
"unto  them  that  turn  from  transgression  in  Jacob"  is  the  present 
reading.  But  the  Versions,  and  Rom.  xi.  26,  read  "that  turn  trans- 
gression from  Jacob."  In  both  these  passages,  however,  the  New 
Testament  may  be  intended  to  give  rather  the  general  meaning  than 
the  words. 

102.  (8.)  When  a  text  is  very  corrupt,  a  parallel  pas.sage 
may  suggest  the  true  reading. 

2  Kings  XXV.  3,  for  "on  the  ninth  day  of  the  month"  read  "of  the 
fourth  month,"  as  in  Jer.  lii.  6.     1  Chron.  i.  17,  for  "  The  sons  of 

Shem Aram  and  Uz,"  read  "The  sons  of  Shem,  and  the  sons  of 

Aram,"  &o.,  Gen.  x.  23.  Isa.  xxx.  17,  for  "At  the  rebuke  of  five  shall 
ye  flee,"  read  "At  the  rebuke  of  five  shall  ten  thousand  flee,"  Lev. 
xxvi.  8. 

103.  When  we  come  to  consider  readings  which  are  but 


CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS.  63 

probable,  being  equally,  or  more  or  less  nearly  equally    ponwfni 
supported  by  external  evidence,  the  rules  of  criticism   i''^"'i''"'g«- 
become  more  difficult,  and  the  a2:>plication  of  them  must  be 
made  with  less  rigidity. 

104.  (1.)  Of  two  readings,  equally  supported  by  external 
evidence,  that  is  the  most  probable  which  best  suits   various 
the  sense,  or  which  could  not,  so  easily  as  the  other    '^"''^®" 
have  been  written  by  mistake. 

2  Cor.  v.  14,  "(If)  one  died  for  all,"  u  is  omitted  in  many  MSS.,  but 
the  sense  requires  it,  and  it  is  easily  omitted  before  tk.  Acts  xi.  20, 
"unto  the  Grecians"  is  the  reading  of  many  MSS.;  but,  probably,  it 
ought  to  be,  as  many  read,  "to  the  Greeks."  The  fact  seems  noticed 
because  of  its  remarkableness,  and  justly  so,  if  it  be  the  second  case  of 
the  success  of  the  gospel  among  the  heathen;  see  chap.  x.  44,  45,  for  the 
first.  Grecians  were  Jews  who  resided  out  of  Palestine.  2  Cor.  v.  3, 
"  If  so  be  that  being  clothed"  {ivSuj-djuivot) -.  so  very  many  MSS.  Others 
read  ncJua-djuifot,  "If  we  be  even  unclothed,  yet  shall  we  not  be  found 
naked,  for  we  have  a  glorious  body,"  etc. 

It  may  be  noticed  as  a  general  rule,  that  readings  no  better 
than  the  received  text  should  not  be  placed  in  it ;  but  if  as 
good,  or  nearly  so,  they  may  be  placed  in  the  margin. 

105.  (2.)  Of  two  readings,  equally  probable,  the  fuller 
reading  is  more  likely  to  be  genuine ;  unless  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  an  interpolation,  or  there  is  something  in  the  text 
to  suggest  an  addition ;  and  then  the  rule  is  reversed. 

In  1  Chron.  xi.  32,  we  have  "Abiel;"  but  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  31, 
"Abi-albon."  The  last  syllable  might  easily  be  omitted.  So  in 
Matt.  ii.  1,  "in  the  days  of  Herod"  is  omitted  in  several  MSS.;  but  it 
is  genuine. 

Yet,  if  there  is  reason  to  sujipose  an  interpolation,  or  if 
there  is  something  in  the  text  to  suggest  an  addition,  the  rule 
is  reversed;  as  copiers  were  more  likely,  from  intention,  to 
add  than  to  omit ;  though  they  were  more  likely,  from  acci- 
dent, to  omit  than  to  add. 


64  CRITICISM — VARIOUS    READINGS. 

Acts  viii.  37,  is  wanting  iu  A,  and  sixty  other  MSS.;  also  in  tlie  Syr., 
Ethiop.  and  Copt.     It  is  perhaps  added  from  Rom.  x.  9. 

106.  (3.)  Of  two  readings,  the  one  classical  and  the  other 
oriental,  the  latter  is  the  more  probable. 

107.  (4.)  Of  two  readings,  the  one  easy  and  the  other  diffi- 
cult, the  latter  is  generally  to  be  preferred.  All  the  emi- 
nent critics,  Wetstein,  Griesbach,  Bengel,  and  others,  have 
admitted  and  maintained  this  rule,  which  they  deem  of 
essential  value. 

108.  (5.)  Of  two  readings  (equally  probable),  that  is  to  be 
preferred  which  best  agrees  with  the  style  of  the  writer,  or 
with  his  design,  or  with  the  context. 

Jude  1,  "sanctified  by  God  the  Father"  {yiyn^rfxi^iui),  is  more  probable 
than  '"beloved"  {iycLTniumn),  because  more  common  in  the  commence- 
ment of  Epistles.  Acts  xvii.  26,  "of  one  blood"  is  more  probable  than 
"of  one"  (as  in  Rom.  ix.  10),  because  it  is  a  good  Hebraism.  John  vi. 
69,  "  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God '"  (woe),  is  preferable  to 
Griesbach's  reading,  "the  Holy  One  of  God"  (ayto;),  because  this  last  is 
nowhere  applied  to  Christ,  except  in  the  confession  of  the  demoniac. 
Mark  i.  2,  "in  the  prophets"  is  preferable  to  "in  the  prophet  Isaiah," 
which  is  the  reading  of  Griesbach  and  Mill,  because  two  prophets  are 
quoted  (Isa.  xl.  3 :  Mai.  iii.  1). 

109.  (6.)  Conjectural  readings,  supported  by  the  sense,  or 
similar  texts,  may  be  probable ;  but  must  not  be  received  as 
true,  unless  they  are  confirmed  by  evidence. 

In  Gen.  i.  8,  "God  saw  that  it  was  good"  is  wanting  at  the  end  of 
the  second  day's  creation,  but  is  found  in  ver.  10,  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  day's  work.  There  has,  therefore,  probably  been  a  transposition 
of  the  clause,  especially  as  the  LXX  reads  the  phrase  in  ver.  8.  Josh, 
xxiv.  19,  "Ye  cannot  serve  the  Lord"  (i^i^in  !^b)'  seems  strange  at  the 
end  of  an  exhortation  to  serve  him.  "Cease  not  to  serve  him"  (^^^n 
j^^)  is  probably  the  true  reading,  but  it  wants  confirmation.  Isa.  Iii. 
15,  "So  shall  he  sprinkle  many  nations"  (n^i  yazze)  is  generally  inter- 
preted "he  shall  purify  or  make  expiation  for  them;"  but  this  sense 
does  not  agree  with  the  parallel,  and  the  verb  has  everywhere  else  a 
preposition  after  it  (^3>).     The  LXX  reads  "Many  nations  shall  admire 


•CRITICISM — VARTOT'S    READINGS.  65 

him,"  They  probably  read  (iTrT^  yechezu),  as  in  Psa.  xi.  7;  xxvii.  5. 
The  lexicographers  give  this  meaning  to  the  present  word.  Isa.  xvii. 
2,  "the  cities  of  Aroer"  (-lyny  Aroer)  are  broken:  but  to  say  that  the 
cities  of  a  city  are  broken  is  unmeaning ;  and,  besides,  this  has  nothing 
to  do  with  Damascus.  Perhaps  (inJiS  adadi),  is  the  true  reading. 
The  LXX  reads  "for  ever,"  as  this  last  reading  means;  and  the  Chald. 
reads  "are  laid  waste." 

110.  In  the  New  Testament  (as  MSS.  are  nume-  ^,    .    ^     , 

^  .  f  onjoctural 

rous  and  varied)  conieetural  emendations  are   not  emenria- 
admissible,  and  but  very  rarely  in  the  Old. 

111.  In  a  few  cases  passages  have  two  or  more  various 
readings,  all  of  which  are  suitable  to  the  sense,  and  are  sup- 
ported by  MSS.,  versions,  and  quotations  ;  and  in  these  cases 
the  probabilities  vary  with  the  evidence ;  and  the  work  of 
determining  the  true  reading  is  one  that  reqviires  much  dis- 
crimination and  care.  It  is  highly  satisfactory  to  know  that 
in  the  Bible,  generally,  the  text  is  clear  and  certain  beyond 
doubt. 

112.  To  aid  the  reader  to  apply  these  rules,  we  take  ruIpb  ap- 
as  an  in.stance,  1  John  v.  7.  John  v? 7. 

The  passage  is  printed  in  the  Clementine  editions  of  the  Vulgate,  in 
the  Complutensian  of  the  Greek,  in  the  third  edition  of  Erasmus;  and 
so  thence  fouml  its  way  into  the  common  texts  of  Stephens,  Beza  and 
Elzevir. 

Against  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 

1.  That  no  Greek  MBS.  of  certainly  earlier  date  than  the  15th  cen- 
tury contains  it.     It  is  omitted  in  174  Cursive  MSS.,  and  in  A,  B,  G,  H. 

2.  It  is  wanting  in  all  the  ancient  versions,  except  the  Latin,  nor  is 
it  found  in  the  most  ancient  MS.  of  the  Vulgate,  the  C.  Amiatinus,  or 
in  any  earlier  than  the  9th  century.  It  is  wanting,  for  example,  in  the 
two  /S//r.,  Arrih.^  Copt.^Ethiop.,  Anncn.,  Slavonic,  though  some  printed 
editions  of  the  two  latter,  and  of  the  Peshito  insert  it. 

3.  Ancient  Greek  fathers  have  never  quoted  it.  Ver.  6,  8,  0,  are 
quoted  more  than  once,  but  ver.  7  never. 

4.  The  best  critical  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  omit  it:  the  first 

and  second  of  Erasmus,  Aldus,  Haru)ood,  Matthdei,  Griesbach,  Lachman, 
6* 


66  CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION. 

Scholz,  Tisc'h.,  Hahn;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  Mill  and  Bcngd  re- 
tain it. 

In  favor  of  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 

1.  That  it  is  inserted  in  some  Greek  MSS.,  the  Codex  Eavianus,  at 
Berlin,  Cod.  Guelph,  and  three  others,  concerning  which,  however,  it  is 
remarked  that  the  first  is  a  forgery  ;  the  second  has  the  passage  written, 
not  in  the  text,  but  in  the  margin ;  and  that  the  others  belong  to  the 
15th  century  or  later,  and  are,  therefore,  modern  authorities. 

2.  It  is  found  in  the  old  Latin  versions,  except  in  copies  made  in 
Africa.     This  is  another  form  of  part  of  the  statement  above.  No.  2. 

3.  It  is  supposed  to  be  quoted  by  some  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  as  Ter- 
tullian,  Cyprian  and  Fulgentius.  It  is  not  clear,  however,  whether  the 
quotations  are  from  the  7th  or  from  the  6th  and  8th  verses. 

4.  It  is  quoted  in  a  Confession  of  Faith,  given  in  the  history  of  the 
Vandalic  persecution  in  Africa,  and  which  Confession  is  said  to  have 
been  presented  by  a  body  of  Christians  in  the  year  484.  This  alleged 
fact,  however,  is  thought  not  sufficient  to  weaken  the  positive  evidence, 
and  is,  moreover,  itself  doubtful. 

5.  It  is  said  to  be  required  by  the  construction  and  connection  of  the 
passage,  an  argument  of  which  the  English  reader  can  himself  judge. 
— Porter's  "  Biblical  Criticism." 

On  the  whole,  it  is  better  not  to  rely  upon  this  passage  when 
we  are  quoting  proofs  of  Scripture  doctrine. 

Sec.  6. — The  English  Version  on  the  whole  Identical 
WITH  the  Original  Text. 

113.  A  question  of  much  interest  remains:   Is  the  English 
version  of  the  Bible  accurate,  and  mav  the  reader 

F^n.clish  _  _        '  _ 

version.       regard  it  as,  on  the  whole,  expressive  of  the  mind 

Opinions  on       "  .    .  a      i  •        i 

iisaceu-       of  the  Spirit  of  God?     And  agam  the  answer  is  at 

rRcv. 

hand.  The  English  Bible  is  essentiallv  the  Bible 
of  the  Primitive  Church.  The  Committee  appointed  in  the 
days  of  the  Commonwealth  to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of 
improving  it,  reported  that  while  it  contained  some  mistakes, 
it  was,  in  their  judgment,  "the  best  of  any  translation  in  the 
world."     A  later  witness,  Dr.  Gcddes,  admits  "that  if  accu- 


CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION.  67 

racy,  fidelity,  cand  the  strictest  attention  to  the  letter  of  the 
text  be  supposed  to  constitute  the  qualities  of  an  excellent 
version,  this,  of  all  versions,  must  in  general  be  accounted  the 
most  excellent."  "Of  all  the  European  translations,"  says 
Dr.  A.  Clai-ke,  "  this  is  the  most  accurate  and  faithful ;  nor  is 
this  its  only  praise.  The  translators  have  seized  the  very 
spirit  and  the  soul  of  the  original,  and  expressed  it  almost 
everywhere  with  pathos  and  energy."'  Dr.  Doddridge  bears 
the  same  testimony,  and  adds  that  his  "  corrections  affect  not 
the  fundamentals  of  religion  ;  they  seldom  reach  any  further 
than  the  beauty  of  a  figure,  or  at  most,  the  connexion  of  an 
argument."'' 

114.  But  while  this  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  compe- 
tent authorities,  there  are  points,  it  is  admitted,  in  j^^-^  ^^ 
which  the  translation  might  be  improved  ;  and  these  improved 
improvements,  though  not  of  vital  importance  as  affecting  the 
doctrines  of  Scrij^ture,  would,  if  made,  often  serve  to  remove 
objections  which  are  now  urged  against  it. 

115.  (1.)  In  some  cases  the  English  version  has  ■ 

.  -  °  .  Examples 

given  a  wrong  meaning  to  the  words  or  expressions    of  inaccu- 

„     ,  .    .      ,  rate  trans- 

01  the  original.  lation. 

In  Exod.  iii.  22,  the  Israelites  are  said  to  have  "horrotved"  of  the 
Egyptians  things  which  they  never  intended  to  return.  The  original 
says  simply,  that  they  asked  for  them.  In  2  Sam.  xii.  31,  a  preposition 
'  is  translated  binder  instead  of  to.  David  cruelly  tortured  his  captives  is 
the  meaning  of  the  English  version.  He  put  them  to  ignominious  em- 
ployments is  the  meaning  of  the  original.  So  Psa.  Ixxiii.  4,  for  "no 
bands  in  their  death,"  read,  no  bauds  or  difficulties  till  their  death  (5). 
Rosenm. 

It  may  be  observed,  generally,  that  the  use  of  prepositions  and  par- 
ticles is  often  indeterminate  in  our  version.  For  sometimes  means 
because,  2  Cor.  v.  1;  sometimes  instead  of,  Isa.  Ix.  17;  sometimes  m 
order  to,  Rom.  iv.  3.  So,  of  means  from,  as  in  John  viii.  40,  42;  and 
by,  as  in  1  Cor.  xv.  5.  Those  ambiguities  are  not  in  the  original.  In 
the  narrative  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  ii.  23,  the  word  translated  "children" 

*  Preface  to  Commentary  on  Old  Testament,  p.  19. 
''Works,  ii.  p.  329. 


68  CRITICISM — ENGLISH   VERSION. 

is  translated  elsewhere,  "young  men;"  and  is  apjilied  to  Isaac  whea 
he  was  twenty-eight  years  old,  and  to  Joseph  when  he  was  tliirty.  In 
1  Chron.  xix.  7,  a  word  is  translated  "chariots"  instead  of  "riders,"  and 
the  passage  is  made  to  contradict  2  Sam.  x.  6.  This  correction  makes 
the  passages  consistent,  32,000  men  (cavalry  and  foot-soldiers)  being 
the  entire  number. 

In  2  Kings  vi.  25,  the  article  sold  for  five  shekels  of  silver  was  a 
kind  of  pulse  or  vetch,  as  Bochart  has  shown  ;  the  fourth  part  of  a  cab 
being  about  a  pint.  Gen.  iv.  15  ;  for  "set  a  mark  uj)on,"  read  "  gave  a 
sign  or  assurance  to."  Lev.  vii.  10;  for  "mingled  with  oil  and  dry," 
read,  or  dry  (i.  e.,  whichever  it  be).  Deut.  xxxiii.  25  ;  for  "shoes,"  iron 
and  brass,  read  bars,  alluding  to  the  chain  of  mountains  which  pro- 
tected Asher  from  the  inroads  of  the  Gentiles.  Judges  xv.  8,  11 ;  for 
"top,"  read  "cleft."  Josh.  xxiv.  14,  15;  for  "flood,"  read  "river."  1 
Kings  i.  45;  for  "in  Gihon"  (a  river),  read  "at  Gihon."  1  Kings  iv. 
31;  for  "sons  of  Mahol,"  read  "players  on  the  timbrel."  Compare  1 
Chron.  ii.  6  :  1  Kings  xviii.  42;  for  "he  cast  himself  down  upon,"  read 
"he  bowed  down  to."  1  Kings  xviii.  43;  for  "he  said  go  again  seven 
times,"  read  "he  said  seven  times,  go  again."  2  Chron.  viii.  2;  for 
"had  restored,"  read  "had  given."  2  Chron.  xxi.  11 ;  for  "compelled," 
read  "sent  him  astray,"  as  in  Deut.  xxx.  17;  iv.  19.  Neh.  vi.  11 ;  for 
"to  save  his  life,"  read  "and  live."  Not  being  a  priest,  Nehemiah  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  the  holy  place.  Psa.  Ixxxvi.  2  ;  for  "I  am  holy," 
read  "  I  am  a  devout  man,  or  the  object  of  thy  favor." 

In  John  X.  28,  29,  for  "no  man,  any  man,"  read  "none,  any."  In 
Acts  vii.  45,  for,  "that  came  after,"  read  "having  received."  In  Acts 
xvii.  23,  for  "ignorantly,"  read  "without  knowing  him."  In  Acts  xxii. 
23,  for  "cast  off,"  read  "threw  up."  In  Acts  xxvii.  12,  for  "lieth," 
read  "looketh."  In  verse  15,  for  "into  the  wind,"  read  "against  the* 
wind."  In  Acts  xxvi.  18,  for  "to  turn  them,"  read  "that  they  may 
turn."  In  2  Cor.  iii.  fi,  for  "wlio  hath  made  us  able  ministers,"  read 
"who  hath  fitted  us  to  be  ministers."  In  Gal.  iv.  24,  the  history  of  the 
sons  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  is  said  to  be  an  "allegory,"  or  a  fictitious  nar- 
rative. The  apostle  merely  says  that  it  represents  important  spiritual 
truth  ;  the  Jews  of  the  apostles'  day,  "Jerusalem  that  now  is,"  answer- 
ing to  Ishmael ;  and  true  believers — the  Church — to  Isaac,  the  heir  of 
the  promise.  In  2  Pet.  i.  5,  for  "and  beside  this,"  read  "and  for  this 
very  reason."  Miletus  (not  uin),  Euodia  (not  as),  Vrhnnus  (not  c).  are 
the  correct  renderings ;  and  Joshua  is  less  liable  to  mistake  than  Jesus, 
in  Acts  vii.  45  :  Ileb.  iv.  8. 
Examples        X16.  (2.)  In  some  cases  the  full  force  of  the  oi'igi- 

ofinade-  ^     ■'  j         j  o 

quatc  trans-  nal  is  not  expressed. 


CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION.  G9 

In  .John  i.  14,  the  word  is  said  "to  have  divelt  among  us;"  the  origi- 
nal connects  his  appearance  with  the  ancient  tabernacle  as  the  dwelling- 
jihice  of  the  Divine  glory.  In  1  Cor.  iv.  13,  the  apostles  are  said  to 
have  been  made  as  "the  filth  of  the  earth:"  literally  "the  sweepings" 
(classical  usage),  or  "  appeasing  offerings"  (LXX  and  classical  usage.) 
"Rid  of  us,  the  world  will  deem  itself  comparatively  clean:"  or  "it 
offers  us  in  expiation  to  its  gods,"  John  xvi.  2.  In  Heb.  xii.  2,  Chris- 
tians are  described  as  "looking  to  Jesus ;"  the  original  implies,  looking 
up  to  him  and  away  from  every  other  object  of  trust.  In  2  Tim.  ii.  5, 
read  "if  a  man  contend  in  the  games."  So  in  1  Cor.  ix.  25.  In  1 
Thess.  iv.  6,  read  "in  that  matter."  In  1  Pet.  ii.  13,  read  "Submit 
yourselves  tJierefore." 

In  several  passages  the  sense  of  the  original  is  weakened  by  a  mis- 
translation of  the  Greek  article.  In  2  Thess.  i.  12,  e.  g.,  we  read  "ac- 
cording to  the  grace  of  our  God  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;"  the 
original  reads  "according  to  the  grace  of  our  God  and  Lord,  Jesus 
Christ:"  and  so  in  2  Pet.  i.  1.  In  Titus,  ii.  13,  the  original  reads  "  the 
glorious  appearing  of  our  great  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  In  1 
Thess.  iv.  13,  read  for  "even  as  others,"  "even  as  the  rest  of  the  world." 
In  2  Thess.  ii.  15,  read  "whether  by  our  word."  In  1  Cor.  iv.  5,  read 
"and  then  shall  every  man  have  of  God  the  praise  that  is  his."  In  1 
Cor.  V.  9,  read  "in  7ny  epistle,"  and  for  "I  wrote,"  read  "I  have  writ- 
ten," referring  probably  to  the  same  epistle. 

The  Hebrew  article,  though  leas  definite  than  the  Greek,  is  often  im- 
portant. In  Exod.  xvii.  14,  read,  "in  the  book  (viz.  of  the  law);"  in 
Psa.  Ixxxix.  37,  read,  "  as  the  faithful  witness  in  heaven  (the  rainbow)." 
In  Isa.  vii.  14,  Bp.  Lowth  reads,  following  the  Hebrew,  "  Behold  the 
virgin  conoeiveth,"  etc. 

117.  (3.)  In  some  cases  the  peculiar  idiom  of  the  original 
has  been  overlooked.  ir        >     / 

of  nc.aieet 
In  1  Kings  ii.  8,  9,  where  David  says  concerning  Shimei,  of  peculiar 
.     °             .  1  ■     ,  111-       idiom. 

"  Hold  mm  not  guiltless but  his  hoary  head  bring 

down  with  blood  to  the  grave,"  the  word  not  ought  (in  Dr.  Kennicott's 

opinion)  to  be  repeated  in  the  second  clause,  as  it  is  in  Psa.  i.  5 ;  ix.  18; 

xxxviii.  1;  Ixxv.  5:  Isa.  xxiii.  4  (orig.),  etc.      The  event  shows   that 

Solomon  understood  David's  language  in  this  sense.     He  immediately 

put  Joab  to  death ;  but  Shimei,  though  he  held  him  not  guiltless,  ho  merely 

bound  to  remain  in  Jerusalem,  as  a  person  who  might  not  be  trusted 

elsewhere.     Kennicott's  Remarks,  p.  131.     In  1  Cor.  iv.  4,  "  I  know 

nothing  by  myself,"  is,  "I  am  not  conscious  of  anything"  (viz.,  wrong). 

In  Gal.  v.  17,  the  expression  is  ambiguous,  and  should  be,  "  So  that  yo 


70  CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION. 

do  not  the  things  that  ye  would."  In  Acts  xvii.  23,  for."  devotions," 
read,  "  objects  of  devotion."  In  1  Cor.  i.  21,  for  "  the  foolishness  of 
preaching,"  read,  "the  foolishness  of  the  preaching"  i.e.,  with  special 
reference  to  the  doctrine  preached.  So  Luke  ii.  32.  In  2  Pet.  ii.  5,  read, 
"Noah,  with  seven  others."'  In  lieb.  xii.  13,  read,  "the  mountain  that 
could  be  touched." 

Both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament  again,  verbs  are  some- 
times translated  in  the  wrong  tenses. 

Many  of  the  imprecations  in  the  Psalms  are  really  predictions,  and 
express  the  rule  of  the  Divine  government  rather  than  the  prayer  of 
the  author.  In  2  Kings  xxiii.  30,  read,  "in  a  chariot  dying."  See  2 
Chron.  xxxv.  24.  The  present  translation  of  John  xiii.  2,  "supper  being 
ended,"  contradicts  ver.  26-28.  The  original  is,  "supper  being  come." 
So  in  Acts  ii.  47,  for  "such  as  should  be  saved,"  read,  "such  as  v?ere 
being  saved."  So  1  Cor.  i.  18 :  2  Cor.  ii.  15,  16 ;  iv.  3.  In  Luke  v.  6, 
read,  "began  to  break,"  or  "was  breaking"  (see  ver.  7).  So  Matt.  viii. 
24 :  Luke  viii.  23 :  Mark  iv.  37 :  1  Cor.  xi.  23 :  2  Pet.  i.  16. 

In  2  Cor.  v.  14,  read,  "  then  are  all  dead,"  or  "  have  all  died."  In  2 
Cor.  xii.  2,  3,  for  "I  knew,"  read,  "I  know."  In  Luke  xxiii.  40,  read, 
"And  Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  saying."  In  Philem.  xxi.  for  "  I 
wrote,"  read,  "  I  have  written,"  as  in  ver.  19.  See  also  Jas.  ii.  21 :  1 
Thes.  i.  10 :  Acts  vii.  36. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  the  numbers  men- 
tioned seem  enormously  large,  and  may  be  corrected  by  the 
idiom. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  at  Bethshemesh  (a  small  town)  the  Lord 
smote  50,070  men,  1  Sam.  vi.  19 :  and  in  Judges  xii.  6,  there  are  said  to 
have  fallen  of  the  Ephraimites  42,000 ;  while  a  short  time  before  the 
tribe  contained  only  32,500  persons.  Both  passages  are  corrected  by  a 
mode  of  notation  still  common  among  the  Arabians.  They  say,  in  the 
year  12  and  300  for  312.  Translating  literally,  we  have  for  the  first 
passage,  "  the  Lord  smote  seventy  men,  fifties  and  a  thousand,"  or  1170. 
And  for  the  second,  "there  fell  of  the  Ephraimites  40  and  2000,"  or 
2040.— Taylor  in  Calmet. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  generally  that  numerical  state- 
ments in  Oriental  languages  are  peculiarly  liable  to  error  in 
transcription. 

In  the  Hebrew,  for  example,  js^  is  1 ;  ji  is  1000;  ^  is  2 ;  ^  is  20 ;  t  stands 
for  7000;  n  stands  for  700;  and  the  one  letter  being  inadvertently  writ- 


CRITICISM ENGLISH    VERSION.  71 

ten  in  very  early  copies  for  the  other  has  given  rise  to  some  apparent 
contradictions,  2  yam.  viii.  4 :  1  Cliron.  xviii.  4.  There  is  a  simikir 
error  in  2  Sam.  x.  18,  700  (-j) ;  see  1  Chron.  xix.  18,  7000  (  ^ ).  1 
Kings  iv.  26,  40,000  (.5^ai3)2^5t   probahly);    see  2  Chron.  ix.  25,  4000 

(jj^fl3)2"i5<-)  1  Kings  ix.  23,  550  (j'r);  see  2  Chron.  viii.  10,  250  (3-1).  i 
1  Kings  ix.  28,  420  (-i^);  see  2  Chron.  viii.  18,  450(2^).  2  Kings  viii. 
2B,  22  (23);  see  2  Chron.  xxii.  2,  42  (a?^)-  The  numerals  in  Josephus 
are  similarly  corrupt. 

118.  (4.)  In  some  cases,  the  same  word  in  tlie  original  is 
rendered  by  different  words  in  the  Ens;lish.  ,,  , 

J  o  Samo  words 

In  Isa.  xxxvii.  3,  an  accurate  translation  -would  suggest  {Jy 'diit'ereut 
that  the  insult  Rabshakeh  had  offered  to  Judah  was  to  recoil  oiie.s. 
upon  himself.  He  reproved  Judah,  and  God  reproved  him.  In  Psa. 
cxxxii.  6,  "the  fields  of  the  wood"  is  tlie  translation  of  what  is  really 
a  proper  name,  "  of  Jearim,"  as  it  is  given  inl  Chron.  xiii.  5,  "Kirjath'' 
(or  the  city  of)  "Jearim."  In  Lev.  xix;  5,  "at  your  own  will,"  should 
rather  be,  "  that  it  may  be  accepted  of  you,"  as  in  ver.  7,  and  so  xxii. 
20,  21. 

In  Matt.  XXV.  46,  the  eternal  life  of  the  righteous  and  the  everlasfh^g 
punishment  of  the  wicked  are  expressed  by  the  same  word.  To  "  ap- 
prehend" may  be  translated  to  lay  hold  of  or  obtain,  in  Phil.  iii.  12,  as 
m  1  Cor.  ix.  24.  The  same  word  is  translated  "imputed,"  "counted," 
and  "  accounted"  in  Rom.  iv.  3  :  Gal.  iii.  6  :  James  ii.  23.  "Attendance" 
is  everywhere  translated  "  heed"  or  "  attention,"  except  in  1  Tim.  iv.  13. 
"  Comforter,"  (John  xiv.  16 ;  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  7)  is  the  word  translated 
"  advocate"  in  1  John  ii.  1,  and  the  idea  is  given  in  the  word  "  consola- 
tion" i&  Luke  ii.  25,  and  elsewhere.  In  2  Cor.  iii.  and  Heb.  viii.  "cov- 
enant" and  "testament"  represent  the  same  words.  In  Acts  xix.  2,  a 
word  is  translated  "if  there  be"  a  Holy  Ghost,  which  is  rendered  more 
accurately  in  John  vii.  39,  "  the  Holy  Ghost  -was  not  yet  given." 

The  following  should  be  translated  uniformly :  1  Cor.  xv.  24,  26  (put 
down):  Rom.  iii.  2,  3,  11  (rejoice,  glory,  joy):  Rom.  viii.  19,  22  (creature, 
creation):  Matt.  xx.  31:  Mark  x.  48  {charged,  rebuked):  Mark  viii.  35, 
36  (life,  soul):  1  Cor.  i.  4,  5:  Eph.  i.  3  (in,  by):  1  Cor.  vii.  12,  13  (leave, 
put  away).  -See  also  Hel^.  ix.  23  (ver.  14);  i.  3;  x.  2:  Tit.  ii.  14:  1  John 
XV.  2,  3:  and  Rom.  xv.  4,  5. 

119.  (5.)  On  the  other  hand,  different  words  in  the  original 
are  often  rendered  by  the  same  word  in  Euo-lish.        „.„. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  "  vanity"  represents  three  |ji'f'ea"*bv'',he 
Jlebrew  words  at  least,  one  meaning  "  breath"  or  nothing-  f^iane  w.jid. 


72  CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION. 

ness',  as  in  Ps.  Ixii.  9  ;  another  meaning  wicked  profitless  deception,  as  the 
heathen  idols,  Isa.  xli.  29 ;  and  a  third  meaning  falsehood,  as  in  Ps.  xli.  6 : 
Job  xxxi.  5.  All  these  terms  convey  sometimes  the  ideas  of  profitless- 
ness  and  of  sin ;  but  the  first  especially  is  used  to  indicate  mere  insig- 
nificancy. In  Ps.  Ixxxix.  47,  the  sense  is.  How  vain  (fleeting,  insignifi- 
cant) are  the  sons  of  men,  whom  thou  hast  created. 

LoED  in  capitals  is  the  translation  of  Jehovah,  and  Lord  in  small 
letters,  of  another  word.     See  Ps.  ex.  1.     This  distinction  is  important. 

The  word  "  repentance"  is  used  to  translate  a  word  denoting  that 
change  of  disposition  (/uiTMcn)  to  which  the  term  is  properly  applied : 
and  this  is  the  common  meaning.  But  it  is  also  used  to  translate  another 
word,  denoting  merely  regret  or  a  change  of  plans  (/uiTSLjuihini),  without 
implying  any  change  of  disposition.  This  is  the  meaning  in  Matt.  xxi. 
29,  32;  xxvii.  3:  2  Cor.  vii.  8,  10:  Heb.  vii.  21.  Elsewhere  the  former 
word  is  used. 

"Conversation"  again  is  the  translation  of  two  words;  and  means 
(1)  citizenship,  as  in  Phil.  i.  27;  iii.  20;  and  (2)  everywhere  else  in  the 
New  Testament,  course  of  life,  or  behavior.  The  Greek  word  for  con- 
versation, in  the  modern  sense,  is  translated  in  our  version  "communi- 
cation," Matt.  v.  37:  Luke  xxiv.  17:  Eph.  iv.  29.  In  1  Cor.  xv.  33, 
however,  communication  is  the  rendering  of  a  word  which  signifies 
intercourse. 

"  Hell"  again  means  (1)  the  invisible  state,  the  place  of  departed  spirits, 
without  reference  to  their  condition  of  happiness  or  misery,  as  in  Matt. 
xi.  23;  xvi.  18:  Luke  x.  15;  xvi.  23:  Acts  ii.  27,  31:  1  Cor.  xv.  55: 
Rev.  i.  18;  vi.  8;  xx.  13,  14;  and  (2)  the  place  of  eternal  punishment, 
as  in  Matt.  v.  22,  29,  30 ;  x.  28  ;  xviii.  9  ;  xxiii.  15,  33  :  Mark  ix.  43, 45, 
47 :  Luke  xii.  5 :  James  iii.  6.  These  two  meanings  are  represented  in 
the  original  by  different  words. 

The  word  "  temple"  is  the  translation  of  two  words;  and  means  either 
the  whole  consecrated  precinct  (upov),  or  the  portion  appropriated  as  the 
local  abode  of  God's  presence  {va,i;).  In  the  first  sense  (including  the 
outer  or  unroofed  court)  markets  were  held  in  it  (Matt.  xxi.  12),  and  the 
rabbis  met  their  pupils  there.  It  is  to  the  second  th-at  our  Lord  refers 
when  he  said,  "  Destroy  this  temple"  (alluding  to  the  indwelling  of  the 
Divine  nature  in  his  person).  So  is  it  applied  to  Christians  in  1  Cor.  iii. 
10 ;  vi.  19. 

"  Ordain"  is  the  translation  of  several  words ;  and  means  determined 
in  Acts  X.  42 ;  xvii.  31 ;  and  foredetermined  in  1  Cor.  ii.  7.  The  word 
used  in  the  following  passages  is  different ;  and  means  ordained,  with 
the  idea  of  setting  in  order.  Acts  xiii.  48:  Rom.  xiii.  1:  Gal.  iii.  19:  1 
Cor.  ix.  14.     In  Acts  xvi.  4  it  represents  a  word  that  means  to  decide. 


CRITICISM — ENGLISn*  VERSION.  73 

In  Eph.  ii.  10,  to  prepare  (as  in  Rom.  ix.  23).  In  1  Tim.  ii.  7,  to  ap- 
point (as  in  2  Tim.  i.  11 :  Acts  xiii.  47;  xx.  28).  In  Heb.  v.  1 ;  viii.  3, 
to  constitute  or  establish.  In  Jude,  ver.  4,  to  write  up  in  the  face  of 
men,  or  denounce,  or  to  write  concerning  a  thing  beforehand.  In  Acts 
i.  22,  and  Rom.  vii.  10,  there  is  no  corresponding  word  in  the  original. 

The  word  "  devils"  (pi.)  should  always  be  translated  demons  or  evil 
spirits  ;  and  the  word  devil  should  he  translated  demon  in  the  following 
passages :  Matt.  ix.  32 ;  xi.  18 ;  xii.  22 ;  xv.  22 ;  xvii.  18 :  Mark,  wher- 
,ever  found.  Luke  iv.  33,  35;  vii.  33;  xi.  14:  John  vii.  20;  viii.  48, 
49,  52.  In  all  other  passages  the  word  is  rightly  translated  the  devil, 
as  in  Matt.  iv.  1 :  Rev.  xx.  2. 

"  Will"  is  sometimes  the  translation  of  the  future ;  but  sometimes  of 
an  independent  verb,  as  in  John  v.  40 ;  vii.  17 ;  viii.  44 :  Matt.  xi.  14, 
27;  xvi.  24,  25;  xix.  17,  21:  Luke  ix.  24;  xiii.  31:  1  Pet.  iii.  10;  Rev. 
xi.  5.  In  two  passages  "I  would"  expresses  a  duty  in  addition  to  a  wish 
(a<f(Kov),  Gal.  V.  12 :  Rev.  iii.  15.  "  Shall"  is  sometimes  used  impera- 
tively, and  sometimes  as  a  simple  future.  It  is  a  simple  future  in  Matt. 
xvii.  22 :  Mark  x.  32 :  Luke  xxiv.  21 :  John  vi.  71 ;  xii.  4 :  Acts  xxiii. 
3  :  Rom.  iv.  24 ;  viii.  13.  The  word  translated  "  shall"  in  some  of  these 
passages  {fjiiKhee)  is  translated  "will"  or  "would"  in  Matt.  ii.  13:  Luke 
X.  1 :  John  vi.  6 ;  vii.  35 ;  xiv.  22 :  Acts  xvi.  27 ;  xxv.  4 ;  xxxvii.  10 : 
Rev.  iii.  26.  Simple  futurity  is  expressed  in  each.  On  the  other  hand, 
duty  or  necessity  {Sh)  is  found  in  Matt.  xxvi.  35.  This  is  the  word 
generally  translated  "  must"  or  "  ought." 

"Shall"  is  not  now  i;sed  as  a  simple  future,  except  where  "will" 
would  be  ambiguous. 

See  also  Acts  xix.  15:  Rev.  iv.  6  (comp.  chap,  xiii.):  1  Cor.  ii.  15 
(comp.  ii.  14). 

120.  (6.)  Some  of, the  expressions  of  our  Englisli  version 
are  obsolete  in  the  sense  in  which  the  translators    obsolete 
used  them.  **^""^- 

Audience  means  the  (act  of)  hearing,  Luke  vii.  1.  Caeeiage  ex- 
pressed what  is  now  called  baggage.  1  Sam.  xvii.  22:  Acts  xxi.  15. 
Charger  means  a-  large  dish,  Matt.  xiv.  8.  Charity  means  love,  2 
Cor.  xiii.  2.  To  comfoet  means  to  strengthen,  as  a  helper,  to  succor; 
and  hence,  to  encourage  and  cheer.  So  advocate  meant  one  called  in 
on  an  emergency.  The  first  word  is  now  confined  to  consoling  the 
alHicted,  and  the  second  is  used  in  a  restricted  sense.  In  Scripture  tho 
idea  is  general,  to  strengthen,  to  guide,  stimulate,  aid,  encourage,  1 
Cor.  xiv.  31 :  1  Thess.  v.  11, 14  (where  it  is  rightly  translated  "exhort"): 
7  ■       • 


74  CEITICISM — ENGLISH   VERSION.       . 

Eom.  XV.  4.  Convince  has,  in  old  English,  the  sense  of  convict,  John 
viii.  4G,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  writings  of  Lord  Bacon  (Essays).  Dam- 
nation would  be  more  correctly  rendered  "condemnation"  in  1  Cor. 
xi.  29:  so  in  E,om.  xiv.  23.  Dispensation  of  the  gospel  means  "stew- 
ardship," 1  Cor.  ix.  17.  To  ear  the  ground  is  to  till  it,  1  Sam.  viii.  12. 
Frankly  or  freely  means  gratuitously.  "  Freely  ye  have  received, 
freely  give."  "  He  frankly  forgave  them  both."  Harness  in  Exod. 
xiii.  18:  1  Kings,  xx.  11,  denotes  armor.  The  word  in  the  original 
may  also  mean  in  files  or  rows.  Heir  often  meant,  in  old  English, . 
heritor  or  possessor.  "Heir- of  the  righteousness  by  faith"  is  possessor 
of  it;  Heb.  xi.  7.  So  Christ  was  appointed  heir  or  possessor  of  all 
things,  Heb.  i.  2.  His  is  the  old  English  form  of  its,  Matt.  xii.  23 ; 
xxiv.  32;  xxvi.  52:  Acts  xii.  10:  1  Cor.  xv.  38:  1  Cor.  xiii.  5.  In- 
stant, INSTANTLY,  means  urgent ;  closely  applying  oneself  to  a  busi- 
ness, Luke  xxiii.  23 :  Acts  xxvi.  7.  Leasing  means  lying,  Psa.  iv.  2. 
To  let  means  to  hinder,  Isa.  Ixiii.  13:  2  Thess.  ii.  7:  Rom.  i.  13.  Lewd 
means  ignorant,  untaught,  idle,  bad,  Acts  xvii.  5.  Malice  (from  Mali- 
tia)  always  means  vice  or  wickedness  generally.  It  refers  to  sin  in  its 
intrinsic  nature ;  sin  or  transgression  having  reference  to  it  as  the  vio- 
lation of  Divine  law,  1  Cor.  xiv.  20:  1  Pet.  ii.  16.  So  in  James  i.  21, 
where  the  same  word  is  translated  "naughtiness."  Mortify  means  to 
kill,  fo  put  to  death,  Rom.  viii.  13 :  Col.  iii.  5.  To  offend  means 
sometimes  to  give  offence;  but  its  ancient  meaning  is  to  cause  or  give 
occasion  to  stumble,  as  in  1  John  ii.  10:  Matt.  v.  29.  It  may  often  be 
translated  "insnare."  Mystery  now  means  a  doctrine  or  fact  which 
is  incomprehensible ;  involving  often  the  idea  of  apparent  and  to  us 
irreconcileable  contradiction.  In  Scripture  it  means  a  revealed  secret, 
a  truth  not  previously  known,  Rom.  xvi.  25,  26:  1  Cor.  ii.  7-10:  Eph. 
i.  9;  vi.  19:  Col.  i.  26,  27.  Of  course,  Scripture  doctrines  often  involve 
mystery  in  the  common  sense  of  the  word.  But  it  is  not  in  this  sense 
that  Scripture  uses  it.  The  doctrine  that  God  would  receive  the  Gen- 
tiles into  the  church,  e.  g.,  is  called  by  St.  Paul  "  a  mystery,"  because 
it  "was  not  made  known  unto  the  sons  of  men"  till  the  gospel  revealed 
it,  Eph.  iii.  3,  5.  "Mystery"  is  also  used  in  Eph.  v.  32,  and  in  Rev. 
for  a  symbolical  representation,  i.  20;  xvii.  5,  a  meaning  not  materially 
different,  however,  from  the  above.  It  signifies  an  emblem  of  revealed 
truth.  Nephew  is  an  old  word  for  descendant,  1  Tim.  v.  4.  Penny 
was  originally  any  piece  of  silver  money.  It  is  now  confined  to  our 
largest  copper  coin.  The  value  of  the  Roman  penny  was  nearly  Hd., 
John  vi.  7.  See  Rev.  vi.  6,  where  tlie  sense  is  reversed  by  our  present 
translation:  "a  measure  of  wheat  for  a  penny,"  giving  rather  the  idea 
of  plenty  than  of  want.     Prevent  means  to  come  before  or  anticipate. 


CKITICISM — ENGLISH   VERSION.  75 

Psa.  cxix.  148 :  Matt.  xvii.  25 :  1  Thess.  iv.  15 :  or  to  surprise,  2  Sam, 
xxii.  6,  19.  PuKGE  is  to  cleanse,  to  clear  away,  John  xv.  2  (applied  to 
pruning):  Heb.  ix.  14.  Quick  means  alive,  2  Tim.  iv.  1:  Eph.  ii.  1: 
I'sa.  cxxiv.  3.  Religion  is  never  used  in  Scripture,  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  word,  for  godliness  or  piety ;  but  for  religious  worship  or  ob- 
servance. It  is  found  only  in  Acts  xxvi.  5:  Col.  ii.  18  (orig.):  and 
James  i.  26,  27.  It  means  (as  in  the  last  case)  the  outward  expression 
of  religious  feeling.  Eoom  means  place  (as  in  Acts  xxiv.  27):  Matt. 
xxiii.  6:  Mark  xii.  39:  Luke  xiv.  7;  xx.  46.  To  take  thought  means 
to  be  distracted  or  anxious,  Matt.  vi.  25.  Vain  is  unreal,  false,  delu- 
sive, immoral ;  especially  as  connected  with  a  groundless  and  idola- 
trous creed,  Eom.  i.  21:  1  Pet.  i.  18:  Pom.  viii.  20:  Eph.  iv.  17.  So 
"made-  a  road,"  means  went  for  spoil,  or  "made  a  raid,"  in  1  Sam. 
xxvii.  10:  "in  a  several  house"  for  "alone,"  2  Kings  xv.  5:  "fetched 
a  compass"  for  "made  a  circuit,"  in  Acts.  For  "coasts"  read  "bor- 
ders" or  "districts,"  in  Judges  xviii.  2:  Matt.  ii.  16;  xv.  21. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  most  of  these  obsolete  terms  have 
furnished  objections  to  the  truth  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 
Very  many  of  the  objections  urged  by  Voltaire  are  founded 
on  similar  mistranslations  in  the  Vulgate.* 

121.  It  may  be  added  that  there  are  several  apparent  dis- 
crepancies in  Scripture  from  want  of  uniformity  of 

^^ra^l^lation.  Want™^,^ 

in  translat- 
In  Psa.  xix.  4,  "line"  may  be  translated  "sound,"  as  in  ingUie 

Bom.  X.  18.     Jer.  xxxi.  32,  "though  I  was  a  husband  unto 
them"  may  be  rendered,  "and  I  rejected  them,"  as  in  Heb.  viii.  9.     So 
Hos.  xiv.  2  (Heb.  xiii.  15) :  Isa.  xxviii.  16  (Rom.  ix.  33) :  Mic.  v.  2 
(Matt.  ii.  6) :  Psa.  civ.  4  (Heb.  i.  7) :  Psa.  Ixviii.  18  (Eph.  iv.  8). 

122.  Some  words  are  untranslated  :  as 

Amen  ;  true,  or  so  be  it.     Halleluia  ;  praise  Jehovah. 

HosANNA;  save  now.     Mammon;  riches.     Makanatha;  in    Words  im- 
'  '  '  translated. 

the  coming  of  the  Lord.     Sabaoth  ;  hosts. 

123.  The  precise  meaning  of  a  very  few  words  is  unknown. 

» Newcome's  Historical  View  of  English  Biblical  Translations, 
p.  206. 


7G  CRITICISM — ENGLISH    VERSION. 

Meaniiii;  "  Higgaion  "  occurs  in  the  Psalms  seventy-one  times, 
nutkn.iua.  .^^^^^  tliiice  in  Habakkuk.  It  was  probably  a  musi- 
cal mark.  "Selah"  is  equally  uncertain;  Lut  may  liuve  been 
used  ior  the  same  purpose. 

124.  The  marginal  readings  of  the  English  version  often 
M;ir-in:ii  deserve  attention.  They  express  another  sense,  of 
"''■'  "'°^'  which  the  original  is  capable  :  and  they  sometimes 
throw  light  upon  the  meaning.  They  might  be  multiplied 
Avith  adva)itage,  c.  (/. 

Gen.  xxi.  14,  Hagar  wandered  into  the  wilderness,  ai?  if  in  despair, 
or  she  "lost  lier  way,"  having  probably  set  out  to  return  to  Egypt. 
Korn.  i.  18,  "who  hold  the  truth,"  or  "repress,"  or  "impede,"  a  sense 
more  consistent  with  the  scojie,  and  with  Scripture  generally.  The 
marginal  reading  in  the  following  passages  is  preferable :  Judges  xi. 
31;  Gal.  V.  lil. 

125.  It  is  to  be  observed,  further,  that  words  printed  in 

the  English  version,  in  Italics,  are  not  generally  in 

Italics.  ...,_. 

the  original,  ihey  are  oiten  necessary  to  express 
the  sense,  and  they  often  express  it  happily;  but  tliey  some- 
times add  a  sense  which  is  not  in  the  sacred  text. 

Of  felicitous  Italics  there  is  an  instance  in  Psa.  cix.  4 :  "I  give  my- 
self to  prayer:"  and  again  in  Psa.  cxxxiii.  3  :  "As  the  dew  of  Hermon, 
ayid  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon  the  mountains  of  Zion."  Without 
the  words  in  Italics,  the  passage  would  be  inconsistent  with  physical 
facts,  Hermon  being  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  distant  from  Zion.    ■ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sense  is  obscured  in  Matt.  xx.  23,  wiioio 
Christ  is  represented  in  the  English  version  as  having  no  power  to  gi\e 
honors  in  heaven.  The  omission  of  the  words  in  Italics  exhibits  the 
true  meaning.  "To  sit  upon  my  right  hand  is  not  mine  to  give,  excc]>t 
for  whom  it  is  prepared."     See  John  xvii.  2:  Rev.  iii.  21. 

In  some  cases  the  Italic  words  ought  to  be  printed  in  Koman  letters: 
as  the  auxiliary  verbs,  the  word  "not,"  in  such  passages  as  Dout.  xxxiii. 
G:  Psa.  Ixxv.  5:  Isa.  xxxviii.  18:  Job  xxx.  20,  25:  the  Hebrew  idiom 
not  requiring  the  repetition  of  the  negative. 

» 

126.  The  analysis  of  the  chapters  of  the  Bibh',  and  the 


• 


ENGLISH    VERSION— DIVISIONS.  77 

titles  and  subscriptiotis  of  the  books  of  the  New  Analysis  of 
Te.stament,  form  no  part  of  the  inspired  writings,  ^j^j^'-^'j"^!'^' 

(See  §  51).  scriptions. 

127.  The  present  division  of  the  Scriptures,  too,  into  chap- 
ters and  verses,  and  the  order  of  the  several  books,  ^.  .  . 

Divit'ions. 

are  not  of  Divine  origin,  nor  are  they  of  great  an- 
tiquity. The  books  are  now  arranged  not  with  reference  to 
their  historical  connection,  but  chiefly  with  reference  to  their 
contents,  and  the  position  of  their  authors.  The  Vulgate  was 
the  first  version  divided  into  chapters :  a  work  undertaken 
by  Cardinal  Hugo,  in  the  13th  century,  or  as  Jahn  thinks, 
by  Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1227.  He  introduced 
the  division  of  chapters  only.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
similarly  divided  by  Mordecai  Nathan  in  1445,  and  in  1661 
Athias  added,  in  his  printed  text,  the  division  into  verses. 
The  New  Testament  was  divided  in  the  same  way  by  Kobert 
Stephens,  who  is  said  to  have  completed  it  in  the  year  1551, 
during  a  journey  (inter  equitandum)  from  Paris  to  Lyons. 

As  might  be  expected,  these  divisions  are  very  imperfect : 
and  even  when  not  inaccurate,  they  tend  to  break  the  sense 
and  to  obscure  the  meaning. 

The  subject  of  2  Kings  begins  at  the  24th  verse  of  chap.  vi.  The 
description  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of  Christ  (the  subject  of  Isa. 
liii.)  begins  at  chap.  lii.  13:  and  the  previous  verses  of  chap.  lii.  belong 
to  chap.  li.  The  6th  verse  of  Jer.  iii.  begins  a  distinct  prophecy,  which 
is  continued  to  the  end  of  chap.  vi. 

The  first  verse  of  Col.  iv.  belongs  to  chap.  iii.  Connect  in  the  same 
way,  Gen.  ii.  1-3,  and  chap,  i.:  Eom.  xv.  1-13,  and  chap.  14:  1  Cor.  xi. 
1,  and  chap.  x. :  2  Cor.  iv.,  and  chaps  v.,  vi.,  vii. 

The  latter  part  of  Matt.  ix.  belongs  to  the  10th  chapter.  John  viii. 
1,  belongs  to  the  7th;  and  the  last  two  verses  of  Acts  iv.  belong  to 
chap.  v. 

As  a  rule,  no  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the  division 
of  verses  or  of  chapters,  unless  it  coincide  with  the  division  of 
paragraphs.     Follow  the  pauses  of  the  narrative,  and  mark 
the  change  of  the  subjects  discussed. 
7* 


78  ENGLISH   VERSION — DIVISIONS. 

128.  The  ancient  divisions  of  the  New  Testament  are  no- 

ticed in  §  49.      To   complete  information   on  this  , 

Jewish  divi-         .  i  i     •    p  c      i 

.«i<>n  of  Old  point,   we   append  a   briei  account  oi    the  ancient 

Testament     ,.     .    .  „     ,       ^i  i   m 

divisions  m  the  Old  iestament. 

Modern  Jews  use  the  present  division  of  chapter  and  verse. 
But  ancient  MSS.  were  differently  divided.  The  law  had 
fifty-four  greater  divisions,  called  Parashoth,  and  the  Proph- 
ets had  similar  divisions,  called  Haphtaroth,  or  dismissions, 
being  read  shortly  before  the  close  of  the  service.  One  of 
each  of  these  divisions  was  read  on  the  sabbath.  Smaller 
divisions  were  employed  especially  in  the  law,  called  also 
Parashoth;  sometimes  "open"  (mri^riti),  where  there  is  an 
obvious  break  in  the  sense,  and  sometimes  "shut,"  or  leaning 
upon  (nil^^T^:!  or  !nl?3int3 ),  where  the  sense  runs  on.  Of  these, 
there  are  in  the  Pentateuch  alone  669.  They  are  marked  D 
and  d  respectively. 

129.  When  Jews  referred  to  the  Old  Testament,  it  was 
gpj..  j^^.  their  custom  to  mention  the  subject  of  the  para- 
how  quoted,  graph,  as  it  still  is  among  the  Arabs,  in  quoting 
from  the  Koran. 

"In  Elias,"  Eom.  xi.  2,  (marg.)  refers  to  1  Kings  xvii.-xix.  "The 
bow,"  in  2  Sam.  i.  18,  refers  to  the  poem  so  called,  in  the  book  of 
Jasher.     So,  perhaps,  "in  the  bush"  to  Exod.  iii. 

130.  These  corrections  must  not  lead  to  a  depreciation  of 
•  our  English  Bible.     The  more  we  examine  it  the  higher  will 

be  our  estimate  of  its  general  excellence.  But  zeal  for  any 
version  must  yield  to  zeal  for  that  Divine  word  which  it  seeks 
to  represent. 

131.  They  have  been  given  at  considerable  length,  for  sev- 
^, .    ,    ,      eral   reasons.     They  furnish  answers  to  obiections 

Object  of  .  -^  _  '' 

these  oor-     which  have  been  brought  against  Sacred  Scripture. 

rections.  .  .  . 

They  remove  difficulties  and  reconcile  apparent  con- 
tradictions. They  are  of  value,  moreover,  because  they  illus- 
trate very  fully  the  nature  of  the  differences  which  exist 


HISTORY    OF   ENGLISH    VERSION.  79 

between  the  English  version  and  the  original  text.  It  is 
©bvious  that  very  many  of  these  differences  may  be  rectified 
by  a  comparison  of  parallel  passages,  so  that  the  English 
reader  has  in  his  own  hands  the  means,  to  a  large  extent,  of 
correcting  them.  Nor  do  they  disturb  the  conclusion  to 
which  the  most  comjietent  authorities  have  come,  that  the 
English  Bible  is,  on  the  whole,  identical  with  the  Bible  of  the 
early  Church. 

132.     The  English  version  of  the  Scriptures  now  in  use  is 
itself  the  result  of  repeated  revisions.    In  the  pref-      History  of 
ace  to  the  Bishops'  Bible,  (A.  D.  1568)  a  distinct     ^^^i^^^} 
reference  is  made    to   early   Saxon   versions,   and     ^  ' 

•'  _  Saxon 

there  are  still  extant  parts  of  the  Bible  in  Saxon,      versions, 
translated  by  Bede,  by  Alfred  the  Great,  and  by  ^Ifric  of 
Canterbury.     Early  Saxon  MSS.  of  the  Gospels  are  still  pre- 
served in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum,  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge. 

The  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by 
Wi/cliffe,  about  A.  D.  1380.  It  existed  only  in  MS.  ^^^^iff^,^ 
for  many  years,  but  the  whole  is  now  in  print  (New  version. 
Testament,  1731 ;  Old  Testament,  1848.)  The  work  was  re- 
garded with  grave  suspicion,  and  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  House  of  Lords  for  suppressing  it ;  but  through  the  in- 
fluence of  John  O'Gaunt  this  was  rejected.  In  1408,  however, 
in  a  convocation  held  at  Oxford,  it  was  resolved  that  no  one 
should  translate  any  text  of  Scripture  into  English,  as  a  book 
or  tract,  and  that  no  book  of  the  kind  should  be  read.  This 
resolution  led  to  great  persecution,  though  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  notwithstanding,  many  MSS.  of  Scripture  were 
at  that  time  in  extensive  circulation  throughout  England. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Bible  in  English,  was  pub- 
lished by  Tyndale;   the  New  Testament  in  1526, 
and  the  Bible,  in  part,  in  1532.     Tonstall,  Bishop 
of  London,  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  took  great  pains  to  buy  up 


80  HISTOEY    OP   ENGLISH   VEHjSION. 

and  burn  the  impression,  but  with  the  effect  thereby,  of  ena- 
bling the  transhitor  to  publish  a  larger  and  improved  edition.^ 
On  the  death  of  Tyndale  (who  died  a  martyr  to  the  truth,) 
'  ,  ,       Miles  Coverdale  revised  the  whole,  and  dedicated 

Covcrdalc,  ' 

ete.  it  to  King  Henry  the  8th,  A.  D.  1535,  and  in  1537 

John  Rogers,  who  had  assisted  Tyndale,  and  was  then  resid- 
ing at  Antwerp,  reprinted  an  edition,  taken  from  Tyndale  and 
Coverdale.  This  edition  was  published  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Thomas  Matthews.  A  revision  of  this  edition  again 
was  published  (A.  D.  1539,)  by  Richard  Taverner. 

The  Gh'eat  Bible  appeared  A.  D.  1539.  It  was  Coverdale's, 
revised  by  the  translator,  under  the  sanction  of  Cranmer.  It 
was  printed  in  large  folio.  For  the  edition  of  1540  Cranmer 
wrote  a  preface,  and  it  is  hence  called  Cranmer  s  Bible.  It  was 
published  "by  authority." 

During  the  seven  years  of  King  Edward's  (VI.)  reign  eleven 
editions  of  the  Scriptures  were  printed,  but  no  new  version 
or  revision  was  attempted. 

During  the  reign  of  Mary  was  published  the  Geneva  Bible, 
A.  D.  1557-60.  Coverdale  and  others  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  Geneva,  edited  it,  and  added  marginal  annotations. 

Archbishop  Parker  obtained  authority  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth to  revise  the  existing  translations,  and  with  the  help  of 
various  bishops  and  others,  published  in  1568  what  was  called 
tlte  Bishops  Bible.  It  contaiiis  short  annotations,  and  in  the 
smaller  editions  (from  1589)  the  text  is  divided,  like  the 
Genevan,  into  verses. 

The  same  text  was  afterwards  printed  (in  1572)  in  a  larger 
size,  and  with  various  prefaces,  under  the  name  of  Matthew 
Parkers  Bible.  It  continued  in  common  use  in  the  churches 
for  forty  years,  though  the  Genevan  Bible  was  perhaps  more 
read  in  private. 

The  Rheniish  New  Testament  and  the  Douay  Old  Testa- 
ment form  the  English  Bible  of  the  Romanists.     The  former 

•''  8ee  Andprson's  Ann.ils  of  the  English  Bible,  and  "  Our  English 
Bible,"  })ublished  by  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 


VALUE   OF   A   WRITTEN    KEVELATION.  81 

was  printed  at  Rlieims,  A.  D.  1582,  and  the  latter  at  Douay, 
A.  D.  1609-10. 

In  1603  King  James  resolved  on  a  revision  of  the  transla- 
tion, and  for  this  j-iurpose  appointed  fifty-four  men  of  learning 
and  piety.  Forty-seven  only  undertook  the  work,  and  in  four 
years  (from  1607-11),  it  was  completed.  The  text,  as  thus 
prepared  and  printed  in  1611,  is  the  authorized  version. 

I 

133.  What  wisdom  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  we  have  a  lorit- 

ten  word  ;  Scripture  and  not  tradition,  and  not  many   ,  , 
Bibles,  but  one.     A  revelation  more  than  this  would  "f »  "''t^ , 

ten  record. 

have  multiplied  the  difficulties  of  inquiry.  A  reve- 
lation less  than  this  would  long  ago  have  lost  its  distinctness. 
Apart  from  any  desire  to  vitiate  a  Divine  message,  merely 
oral  tradition  must  have  suftered  from  the  condition  of  those 
to  whom  it  was  addressed.  So  incessant  is  the  influence  of 
man's  moral  state  upon  his  judgment  and  perceptions,  that  any 
unwritten  revelation  must  have  undergone  essential,  thougl], 
perhaps,  insensible  modifications.  Every  truth,  too,  which 
had  ceased  in  one  age  to  be  of  present  importance,  would  have 
been  omitted  in  the  number  of  truths  handed  down  to  the 
next.  But  for  the  Bible  we  should  have  had  a  fearfully  mu- 
tilated revelation,  and  of  what  remained  we  should  have  been 
contending,  not  so  much  for  the  sense  of  our  Master's  words, 
as  for  the  words  themselves.  What  grace  is  it,  therefore,  that 
in  a  world  prone  to  deteriorate  everything  holy,  and  to  falsify 
everything  true,  whatever  may  have  grown  old  with  age,  has 
the  means  of  reneAving  its  youth ;  whatever  may  have  been 
lost  from  the  memory  of  the  Church  is  not  lost  irrecoverably. 
We  have  the  seeds  of  reformation  and  of  renewed  knowledge : 
the  very  "word  of  the  Lord,  which  liveth  and  abideth  forever." 

134.  And  yet  this  blessing  of  a  written  Bible  will  prove  a 
curse,  if  on  that  account  we  forcfot  the  reverence 

°  .  Danger  to 

that  is  due  to  it.     As  each  truth  of  Scripture  was  wiiioh  a 

.  written  rev- 

made   known  of   old,   God    gave  sensible    evidence  elation  may 

TIP-  T\  IT         expose  us. 

whence  it  came  and  wherefore  it  was  sent.     Men 


82  VALUE    OF   A   WRITTEN    REVELATION. 

were  called  to  believe  the  report,  because  the  arm  of  the  Lonl 
was  revealed.  Awe  and  submission,  and  the  consciousness  of 
a  divine  approach  were  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  men  by 
the  most  instructive  solemnities.  Adam  heard  God  in  the 
garden  before  he  had  to  answer  for  his  disobedience.  When 
God  spoke  to  the  children  of  Israel,  they  had  such  sensible 
proofs  of  his  power,  that  they  desired  to  hear  his  voice,  with- 
out a  mediator,  no  more.  When  He  spoke  to  Moses,  the 
cloud  was  on  the  tabernacle,  or  his  thunders  shook  the  moun- 
tain. Samuel  was  taught  by  miraculous  signs  to  give  the 
Divine  message  a  fervent  welcome.  Isaiah  witnessed  the 
scenes  which  we  now  read  with  so  little  awe,  and  he  cried 
out  in  conscious  unworthiness,  "Woe  is  me,  for  I  am  of  un- 
clean lips."  John  was  prepared  to  receive  his  visions  by  a 
spectacle  which  absorbed  all  his  faculties,  and  made  him  fall 
down  as  one  that  was  dead.  A  complete  written  revelation 
is  clearly  inconsistent  with  such  miraculous  evidence :  and 
there  is  danger  lest  the  familiar  tone  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
every-day  appearance,  of  the  volume  itself,  should  tempt  us 
to  read  it  as  a  common  composition.  We  need,  therefore,  to 
supjjly  by  our  thoughtfulness  and  solemnity  the  feelings  which 
were  produced  of  old  by  sensible  images  of  the  Creator's 
presence  and  authority.  It  is  not  the  word  of  an  equal,  and 
if  we  would  have  it  bless  us,  we  must  study  it  with  the  col- 
lected and  reverential  frame  of  mind  which  becomes  an  inter- 
view with  Him  who  is  its  Author  and  our  Judge. 


SCRIPTURE   CLAIMS   TO   BE   DIVINE.  83 


CHAPTER    II 

ON   THE   AUTHENTICITY    AND   AUTHORITY   OF   SCRIPTURE. 

"  This  reverence  have  I  learnt  to  give  to  those  books  of  Scripture 
only  which  are  called  canonical.  Others  I  so  read  that  I  think  not 
anything  to  be' true  because  they  so  thought  it,  but  because  they  were 
able  to  persuade  nie  either  by  those  canonical  authors,  or  by  some  pro- 
bable reason  that  it  did  not  swerve  from  truth." — Augustine,  Ep.  19: 
died  430. 

"  If  any  of  these  books  were  disputed  at  fii-st,  but  on  examination 
were  admitted,  they  are  confirmed  by  their  trial." — Gambier's  Moral 
Evidence. 

"  If  those  facts  (on  the  origin,  nature,  and  progress  of  the  Christian 
relijgion)  are  not  therefore  established,  nothing  in  the  history  of  man- 
kfnd  can  be  believed." — Chief  Justice  Bushe. 

Sec.  1.  Scripture  Claims  to  be  Regarded  as  an  Inspired 
Teacher,  and  as  the  only  Inspired  Teacher. 

135.  In  proving  the  genuineness  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
nothing  has  been  said  of   their  Divine   authority. 

.  .  ,     „       ,  Anthonty 

They  have  come  to  us  as  their  writers  left  them,  of  s.  s.,  as 

1     1  ■     •  ■  1        TTT1  1    taught  in 

and  this  is  ail  that  is  proved.      What  they  are,*  and  Scrfpture 
what  they  claim,  must  be  first  gathered  from  the 
books  themselves. 

A  little  attention  will  easily  satisfy  the  reader  of  the  truth 
of  the  following  statements : 

136.  (1.)  The  books  of  Scripture  represent  the  mission  of 
our  Lord  as  Divine.     He  professes  to  be  a  teacher  ,^.   . 

•■■  Mission  of 

sent  from  God,  and  from  the  first  announces  that  he  o"'"  f-''^'"'^!   . 

represented 

is  to  give  his  life  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.  ^s  Divine. 

John  viii.  42;  vii.  16;  xvii.  8;  iii.  14-18. 

In  proof  of  his  mission  he  performed  many  miraculous 
works,  and  showed  supernatural  acquaintance  with  the  human 
heart  and  with  future  events. 


84  SCRIPTURE  CLAIMS   TO   BE   DIVINE. 

Matt.  xi.  2-6:  John  v.  36;  xv.  24;  vi.64;  xvi.  30:  Matt.  xx.  17-19: 
Luke  xix.  42-44. 

Those  who  knew  him  best  and  were  least  favorably  disposed 
towards  him  were  unable  to  account  from  natural  causes  for 
his  power  and  wisdom. 

Mark  vi.  1-3  :  Luke  iv.  22 :  John  vii.  15. 

His  public  life  was  self-denying  and  disinterested :  his  private 
life  blameless  and  beneficent. 

1  Pet.  ii.  22,  23:  Matt,  xxvii.  3,  4:  Acts  x.  38:  John  iv.  34;  vi.  15; 
vii.  18. 

He  was  put  to  death  (as  he  foretold)  for  making  himself 
"equal  with  God," — a  charge  he  did  not  deny;  and  after  his 
death  he  arose  from  the  grave.  ^ 

Luke  xxii.  70 :  John  xx.  17 :  Acts  i.  3. 

On  these  grounds  we  conclude  that  his  words  are  to  be  re- 
ceived as  Divine. 

John  xiv.  10,  11;  xii.  44-50:  Matt.  xvii.  5. 

137.  (2.)  They  represent  the  commission  of  the  apostles 
The  com-  as  Divine.  Of  the  eight  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
fiveofthe  meut  fivc,  Matthew,  John,  Peter,  James,  and  Jude, 
ei^  oniVe  were  among  the  number  of  the  apostles  to  whom 
latnont  ^"  Christ  gavc  power  to  perform  miracles  and  to  pub- 
^"^'"''-         lish  his  gospel  to  the  world. 

Matt.  X.  1-4,  7,  8 :  Luke  ix.  6. 

He  promised  to  them,  in  this  character,  on  four  dilTerent 
occasions,  the  presence  of  a  Divine  instructor,  who  should 
recall  to  their  remembrance  what  he  himself  had  taught,  and 
impart  a  more  complete  and  permanent  knowledge  of  his 
trutli.*     The  apostles  proved  their  commission  by  miracles 

»  Matt.  X.  19,  20:  Luke  xii.  11,  12:  Mark  xiii.  11 :  (Luke  xxi.  14): 
Jolm  11-16.  See  also  Matt,  xxviii.  18-20:  Mark  xvi.  20:  Act.s  i.  4; 
xxi.  4:   1  Pet.i.  12.- 


SCRIPTURE   CLAIMS   TO   BE  DIVINE.  85 

"wiiicli  tliey  performed   in  the  name  and   by  the  power  of 
Christ,  and  they  imparted  supernatural  gifts  to  others." 

Their  mission  was  attested  by  holy  self-denial  and  integrity 
of  purpose,  and  by  the  rapid  and  (humanly  speaking)  the  un- 
accountable success  of  their  ministrations. 

Acts  iv.  16  ;  V.  29  ;  ii.  41 ;  xii.  24. 

We  therefore  conclude  that  the  words  of  Matthew,  John, 
Peter,  James,  and  Jude,  are  Divine. 

John  xiv.  12-14;  xx.  21:  Matt.  x.  20:  1  John  iv.  6. 

138.  The  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  were  written  by 
companions  of  the  apostles :  Mark,  the  convert  of  jf.^rk 
Peter  (1  Pet.  v.  13),  and  Luke,  the  intimate  friend  '''"^^^"i^e- 
of  Paul.  Papias  (flourished  110),  Justin  (died  164),  Irenseus 
(flourished  180),  and  Origen,  all  speak  of  Mark's  Gospel  as 
commonly  received,  and  as  having  been  dictated  or  sanctioned 
by  Peter. 

Luke  and  Paul  resided  in  Palestine  for  two  years,  travelled 
together  during  a  large  part  of  the  apostles'  journies,  and  were 
together  during  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

Acts  xxi.  17  ;  xxiv.  24  ;  xxviii.  16  :  Col.  iv.  14 :  2  Tim.  iv.  11. 

Luke  X.  7  is  quoted  as  Scripture  in  1  Tim.  v.  18.     Irenosus, 
Tertullian,  and  Origen,  speak  of  his  Gospel  as  universally  re-, 
ceived,  and  as  sanctioned  by  Paul. 

139.  (3.)  They  represent  the  commission  of  Paul  as  Divme. 
He  was  called  to  the  apostolic  office,  claimed  apos- 
tolic autliority,  vindicated  his  claims  by  miracles,  sidu  (ifpaui 
imparted  supernatural  gifts,  manifested  the  utmost 
disinterestedness,  submitted  to  the  severest  sufferings,  was 
acknowledged  by  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  and  was  eminently 
successful.  Pie  therefore  claims  to  speak  in  Christ's  name, 
and  his  words  are  Divine. 

»  Acta  iii.  1(1:   lloh.  ii.  4:  Acts  v.  12,  IT):   Mii.rk   xvi.  17,  IS;   Acts 
viii.  17-19. 
8 


86  SCRIPTURE   CLAIMS    TO   BE   DIVINE. 

1  Cor.  XV.  8  :  Acts  xxvi.  12-17  ;  ix.  13-17  :  2  Cor.  xi.  5  :  Gal.  i.  1-12; 
ii'.  6  :  1  Cor.  ii.  10-13  :  1  Cor.  vii.  40 :  Rom.  xv.  18,  19  :  2  Cor.  xii.  12 : 
Acts  xix.  6  :  2  Tim.  i.  13,  14 :  2  Cor.  xi.  7 :  2  Cor.  i.  5  :  Gal.  ii.  7-9 : 
2  Cor.  xi.  14-16 :  2  Cor.  v.  18-20 :  1  Thess.  ii.  13. 

140.  (4.)  They  represent  tlie  apostolic  writings  generally 

as  Divine.      The  apostolic  writings  were  composed 
Apostolic  .  ^  .  °  -■■ 

writings        by  Divme  command,  and  in  fulfilment  of  the  com- 

Diviue.  .     .  .  .  . 

mission  their  writers  had  received. 

1  Thess.  iv.  15 :  1  Tim.  iv.  1 :  Rev.  i.  19 :  John  xx.  31 :  1  John  v. 
13  :  1  Cor.  xiv.  37. 

The  apostles  had  the  same  object  in  view  in  their  writings  as 
in  their  preaching. 

Jude  iii.:  Heb.  xiii.  22:  1  John  ii.  1,  2G. 

The  writings  of  the  apostles  set  forth  their  verbal  instriictinns 
in  a  permanent  and  condensed  form,  and  they  claim  for  both 
the  same  authority. 

Eph.  iii.  3-5;  1  John  i.  1-5;  ii.  12-14:  John  xx.  31:  2  Pet.  i.  15: 
2  Pet.  iii.  1,  2 :  2  Thess.  ii.  15 ;  iii.  14 :  1  Cor.  xv.  1  (ii.  13). 

The  writings  of  the  apostles  were  received  by  the  first  Chris- 
tians as  of  equal  authority  with  their  preaching,  and  produced 
similar  effects. 

Acts  XV.  19-31 ;  xvi.  4:  2  Cor.  vii.  8-10:  2  Thess.  ii.  1. 

There  is  evidence  that  from  the  first  the  apostolic  writings 
were  held  equally  sacred  with  the  Old  Testament,  and  that 
they  were  quoted  as  the  words  of  God. 

2  Pet.  iii.  15,  16:  James  iv.  5  (comp.  Gal.  v.  17-21):  James  ii.  3 
(comp.  Matt.  xxii.  39). 

141.  (5.)  The   Jewish    religion    and   the  Jewish  Scripture 

are  represented  in  the  New  Testament  as  Divine. 

Jewish  TP-  ^  „ 

ligionami      Christ    and    the    writers    of    the    New    lestanient 

Jl^Uisll  .  PIT 

Si'i-ipiuro      uniformly  assume  that  the  religion  ot  the  Jews  was 
from  God. 


SCEIPTUKE   THE   ONLY    DIVINE   AUTHORITY.  87 

Christ,  in  John  iv.  22:  Peter,  in  Acts  iii.  13:  Paul,  in  Rora.  ix.  1. 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  origin  of  the  revelation  given 
to  Abraham  and  to  Moses. 

Christ,  in  John  viii.  56:  Peter,  in  Acts  iii.  25:  Paul,  in  Gal.  iii.  18. 
Christ,  in  Mark  xii.  26 :  John,  in  John  i.  17 :   Paul,  in  2  Cor.  iii.  7. 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  authority  of  the  moral  law  and 
the  Divine  origin  of  the  Jewish  ritual  and  of  the  civil  enact- 
ments of  the  Mosaic  law. 

Christ,  in  Matt.  xv.  4 :  Peter,  in  1  Pet.  i.  15,  16 :  Paul,  in  Rom.  vii. 
22  (see  ver.  7, 12).  Christ,  in  Luke  xxii.  15, 16 :  John,  in  John  xix.  36 : 
Paul,  in  Cor.  ix.  8,  9. 

They  represent  Christianity  as  the  completion  of  Judaism, 
and  as  foretold  by  the  projjhets.  The  Old  Testament  writers 
at  the  same  time  acknowledge  that  what  they  sjioke  or  wrote 
was  given  to  them  from  God,  and  published  by  his  command. 

Christ,  in  Matt.  v.  17;  xxvi.  54^56:  Peter,  in  Acts  x.  43:  Paul,  in 
Eph.  ii.  20.  Rom.  iii.  21 :  2  Cor.  iii.  6-14.  Ex.  iv.  12,  15,  16 :  Deut. 
xviii.  18 :  Jer.  i.  6 :  Amos  iii.  7,  etc. 

They  maintain  the  Divine  authority  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
Scriptures  under  the  three-fold  division  of  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Psalms,  and  under  other  equally  familiar 
titles,  ascribing  all  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  < 

Matt.  xxii.  31 :  Heb.  xiii.  5 :  Acts  xxviii.  25 :  Matt.  xxii.  43 :  Rom. 
iii.  12:  John  x.  35:  Gal.  iii.  8:  Heb.  iii.  7  (comp.  iv.  7):  1  Pet.  i.  11. 

142.  Here  then  we  have  the  first  peculiarity  of  the  Bible. 
It  professes  to  be  a  book  from  God,  speaks  every- 

^  .  .    .  .  ■'■  -^      Result. 

where  with  Divine  authority  and  demands  our  sub- 
mission. It  is  the  one  book,  which  claims  "  God  for  its  author, 
unmixed  truth  for  its  contents,  and  salvation  for  its  end."  If 
we  admit  the  authority  of  our  Lord  as  a  Divine  teacher,  the 
authority  of  the  Bible  is  established.  If  we  deny  the  au- 
thority of  the  Bible,  we  deny  the  truth  of  some  of  his  most 
frequent  teachings,  and  with  it  the  divinity  of  his  mission. 


88  SCRIPTURE   THE   0:NLY   DIVINE   AUTHORITY. 

143.  As  Holy  Scripture  claims  to  be  regarded  as  the  book 
„    .  .      i,     of  God,  a  Divine  authority,  so  it  claims  to  be  the 

Scripture  the  '  ■'  ' 

o/t?.// Divine     only  authority.     It  is  not  a  rule,  it  is  the  rule  both 

author!  t)'.  .  . 

of  practice  .and  faith.     To  ascertain  its  meaning,  we 

Result  of  1  T    J.1  •    •  r  J  1 

an  oppo-  employ  reason  and  the  opinions  or  good  men,  and 
site  view.  ^^  experience  of  a  devout  heart;  but  no  one  of 
these  helps,  nor  all  combined,  can  be  regarded  as  of  co-ordi- 
nate authority.  They  are  not  parts  of  the  law,  they  only 
help  to  expound  it.  To  follow  reason  or  opinions,  or  inward 
experience  in  matters  of  faith,  when  their  decisions  contradict 
the  Bible,  is  to  deny  it :  to  follow  them  when  they  add  to  it, 
is  to  admit  another  revelation ;  and  to  make  thein  our  rule 
when  they  agree  with  it,  is  to  rest  our  obedience  on  the  wis- 
dom of  man,  and  not  on  the  truth  of  God.  Faith  ceases  to 
be,  even  in  the  last  case,  submission  to  Divine  authority. 

144.  From  the  following  passages  it  will  be  seen  that  these 

conclusions  are  drawn  from  the  lessons  of  the  Bible 

Troof.  . ,      ,  „ 

itseli. 
The  inspired  writers  address  themselves  to  men  of  every 
country  and  condition. 

Prov.  viii.  1-4:  Psa.  xUx.  1-3:  Eom.  x.  12,  13.  See  Deut.  xxix.  29: 
Psa.  Ixxviii.  5-7. 

The  most  important  parts  of  the  inspired  books  were  ad- 
dressed, in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Jews,  in  their 
assemblies;  and  in  the  case  of  the  New,  to  the  people  gene- 
rally, and  to  the  churches. 

Deut.  V.  22 ;  xxxi.  2-4,  26 :  Ezek.  xxxiii.  30,  31 :  Josh,  xxiii.  6 :  Jere. 
xxxvi.  2-6 :  Hab.  ii.  2 :  Matt.  vii.  28 :  Acts  v.  20 :  Rom.  i.  7  (2  Cor.  i. 
1 :  Gal.  i.  2 :  Col.  i.  2 :  Philip  i.  1):  Rev.  ii.  29. 

The  public  reading  of  these  books  in  a  language  intelligi- 
ble to  the  people,  was  appointed  by  God  both  among  the  Jews 
and  in  the  Christian  Church. 

Deut.  xxxi.  11-13  :  Josh.  viii.  33-35  :  Ezra  vii.  6-10 :  Neh.  viii.  1-8 : 
IThes.  V.  27:  Col.  iv.  16. 

The  private  reading  of  Scripture,  which  was  strongly  incul- 
cated in  the  Old  Testament,  is  commended  in  the  New. 


bCKIPTIiUE   THE   ONLY   DIVINE    AUTHORITY.  89 

Deut.  xi.  18-20:  Psa.  xix  :  Psa.  i.  2:  Josh.  i.  8:  Acts  viii.  30-35; 
xvii.  11 :  Rom.  xv.  4 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  15  :  2  Pet.  i.  19. 

Men  are  ultimately  accountable  for  tlieir  religious  opinions 
ami  practices  to  God. 

Eccl.  xi.  9:  Kom.  xiv.  4-12:  James  iv.  12. 

The  Bible,  on  the  principle  of  man's  responsibility,  expressly 
appeals  to  his  reason. 

1  Sam.  xii.  17:  Jer.  ii.  9-11 :  Mark  vii.  1,  16 :  1  Cor.  x.  15. 

In  the  New  Testament  especially  the  exercise .  of  private 
judgment — in  a  teachable  spirit,  of  course — is  represented  as 
essential  to  the  existence  and  progress  of  true  religion. 

Matt.  vi.  22,  2.3:  1  Cor.  xiv.  20:  Col.  i.  9:  Phil.  i.  9,  10:' Acts  xvii. 
23.     See  1  Pet.  iii.  15 :  Rom.  xii.  12. 

Men  are  exhorted  in  Scripture  to  bring  all  doctrines  pro- 
posed to  them  and  their  own  character,  to  the  test  of  scriptural 
or  apostolic  truth.  ^ 

Tsa.  viii.  20 :  1  John  iv.  1 :  1  Thes.  v.  20,  21 :  Eph.  v.  6,  8-10,  17 : 
Col.  ii.  IS :  Gal.  vi.  4,  5 :  2  Cor.  xiii.  5 :  1  Cor.  xi.  28-31. 

Our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  in  addressing  those  who  had  the 
Old  Testament  in  their  possession,  always  appealed  to  its 
authority.  See  §  141.  Our  Lord  and  his  apo.stles  condemn 
all  spiritual  usurpation,  and  point  to  their  teaching  as  the 
ultimate  standard. 

Matt,  xxiii.  1,  8-10:  2  Cor.  i.  24. 

The  utter  insufficiency  of  unenlightened  reason  to  discover 
or  rightly  to  appreciate  Divine  truth,  makes  it  incompetent 
to  do  more  than  interpret  the  revelation  ;  it  cannot  sit  in 
judgment  upon  it. 

P.sa.  xix.  1:  1  Cor.  ii.  9,  14;  i.  18-25:  Gal.  i.  11,  12. 

From  the  earliest  times,  God  commanded   that  whatever 
was  to  become  a  rule  of  faith  or  practice,  should  be  committed 
to  writing. 
8* 


90         sciiirTurvE  the  only  livine  authority.  _ 

Exod.  xvii.  14 :  Deut.  xxxi.  19 :  Hos.  viii.  12 :  Isa.  viii.  19,  20. 

The  inspired  writers  were  guided  to  use  such  language  as 
the  Spirit  of  God  approved. 

Dan.  xii.  7-9 :  Matt.  x.  19,  20 :  1  Pet.  i.  10-12 :  2  Pet.  i.  21 :  2  Tim. 
iii.  10 ;  Heb.  i.  1 :  1  Cor.  ii.  12,  13. 

Hence  conclusions  are  drawn  from  particular  words. 

1  Cor.  XV.  45 :  Heb.  iii.  7-10. 

Any  attempt  to  add  'to  or  to  take  away  from  the  words  of 
God  is  denounced. 

Deut.  iv.  2 ;  xii.  32  (Heb.  xiii.  1):  Prov.  xxx.  5,  6 :  Eev.  xxii.  IS,  19 
(Gal.  iii.  15). 

The  oral  traditions  of  the  Jews,  which  were  censured  both 
by  the  law  and  the  prophets,  were  condemned  by  our  Lord. 

Isa.  xxix.  13,  14:  Matt.  xv.  2-9. 

If  the  comparatively  imperfect  revelations  of  the  Old  Test- 
ament were  sufficient  for  man's  instruction  and  salvation, 
much  more  are  the  fuller  discoveries  of  the  New. 

Psa.  xix.  7-11;  cxix.  130;  ix.  104:  Prov.  xxii.  19-21:  John  xx.  30, 
31 :  1  Jolm  i.  34 :  1  Cor.  xv.  1-4. 

An  examination  of  these  passages  will  prove  that  the  Scrip- 
tures are  our  only  rule,  that  we  are  bound  to  study  them,  and 
that  according  to  our  use  of  this  blessing  they  will  become 
the  "  savour  of  life  unto  life  or  of  death  unto  death."" 

145.  These  are  among  the  first  principles  of  Protestantism. 
Not  tho  ^^  claims  for  us  the  right,  and  it  enforces  the  duty, 
knmvierige    pf  examining  the  Bible  for  ourselves.     But  be  it 

of  these  " 

prinripies,     remembered,  that  our  safety  lies  not  in  the  acknowl- 

biit  the  ap-  '  •' 

*  plication  of   edwment  of  these  principles,  but  in  the  application 

tliem  can  '^  _        ^  ^  ■  i        i 

save.  of  them ;   and  in  the  consequent  belief  of  the  doc- 

trines and  precepts  which  the  Bible  reveals. 

^  See  for  tliose  passages  iu  detail  Morreu's  l-^iblical  Theology,  part  1, 
On  the  Kulc  of  i^'aith. 


INSPIRATION.  91 


Sec.  2 — iNsriRATioN. 

146.  The  general  truth  that  the  books  of  Scripture  are  of 
Divine  origin  and  authority  is  sometimes  expressed         . 

o  •'  .  .  .       ,      Inspiration. 

in  another  form,  and  they  are  said  to  be  in.spired. 

Holy  men  spoke  or  wrote  them  as  they  were  moved  by  the 

Holy  Ghost. 

147.  Whatever  refers  to  the  explanation  of  this  truth — as, 
how  men  were  inspired,  and  whether  the  same  kind  ^^ 

••■  '  .  Theories. 

of  inspiration  was  needed  in  each  case — is  theory, 

and  is  concerned  with  questions  rather  curious  than  useful. 

The  truth  itself  is  all  that  is  tally  revealed. 

Among  the  heathen  and  uninspired  Jews  it  was  generally 
held  that  while  inspired  men  were  under  the  Divine  ^^pj^^j^ 
impu]se,all  voluntary  action  was  suspended.  Among  views, 
the  early  Christians  the  doctrine  of  inspiration  was  held  rather 
practically  than  speculatively,  though  they  generally  main- 
tained that  the  writers  of  the  Bible,  when  inspired,  exercised 
their  ordinary  mental  powers.  On  the  mode  or  kinds  of 
inspiration  they  said  little.  When  the  authority  of  the 
Papacy,  however,  began  in  modern  times  to  be  questioned,  the 
whole  doctrine  of  inspiration  was  more  closely  examined. 
The  facts  were  generally  admitted,  but  the  theory  or  compre- 
hensive statement  which  best  embodied  and  accounted  for 
them,  was  a  topic  regarded  as  open  to  discussion.  See  the 
passage  from  the  Fathers,  in  Westcott's  Gospel  Harmony. 

Some  held  that  the  Holy  Spirit  dictated  the  sacred  books 
word  for  word,"  as  we  have  them  in  the  original  ..  , 

'  o  Modern 

languages :  others,  however,  holding  that  this  theory  views. 
went  beyond  the  facts,  and  was  inconsistent  with  the  diversi- 
ties of  style,  the  varying  quotations,  and  the  very  professions 
of  the  writers  themselves. 

A  few  taught  that  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  Bible 

"  Advocates  of  verbal  dictation,  are  Calamy,  Haldane,  and  others. 


92  INSPIEATION. 

were  given  by  inspiration,  wliile  tlie  arguments  and  illustra- 
tions were  of  human  origin;*  to  which  it  is  a  sufficient  reply, 
that  unless  we  are  told  what  truths  are  fundamental,  this 
theory  throws  the  whole  of  Scripture  into  disrepute,  and  is 
inconsistent  with  those  texts  which  rej>resent  it  as  an  authority 
in  religious  matters. 

Others,  again,  held  that  those  parts  of  the  Bible  whose  moral 
tendency  is  obviously  good  are  Divine,  but  not  the  rest ;  a 
theory  which  strips  the  Bible  of  all  authority,  and  supposes  man 
to  have  right  notions  of  what  is  morally  good  before  he  can 
use  the  Bible." 

Another  and  much  more  rational  theory  is  one  which  Dr. 
Various  Doddridge  and  many  modern  theologians"  have 
kinds  of.  sanctioned.  In  this  theory  there  are  supposed  to 
be  different  kinds  of  inspiration ;  the  first  and  highest  pro- 
viding for  the  revelation  of  things  not  previously  known  to 
the  sacred  writers ;  the  second  providing  for  the  security  of 
the  writers  against  error  in  exhibiting  doctrines  and  facts 
with  which  they  were  already  acquainted ;  and  the  third, 
conferring  Divine  authority  by  the  approbation  of  inspired 
men,  on  parts  of  writings  originally  composed  without  inspi- 
ration. 

This  theory  does  not  materially  differ  in  its  results  from 
St  torn  nt  3-nother  which  many  have  preferred.  They  main- 
vvithout        laii;]^  that  holy  men  wrote  in  obedience  to  Divine 

theory.  •' 

command,  and  that  in  writing  they  were  kept 
free,  we  know  not  how,  from  all  error,  whether  they  taught 
truths  previously  unknown  to  them,  or  published  truths  and 
facts  already  familiar.  In  this  theory,  which  is  indeed  rather 
a  statement  of  the  fact  than  a  theory  in  relation  to  it,  inspira- 
tion is  ascribed  to  the  whole  of  S(;ripture,  while  revelation 
is  confined  to  those  acts  of  the  spirit  by  which  truths  pre- 
viously unknown  were  communicated  to  men.  All  Scripture 
is  inspired,  and  the  new  truths  of  Scripture  are  revealed;  or, 

»Priestley  and  even  Burnet:  see  on  the  Articles,  Art.  G. 
''Kant.  ' Bishop  D.  Wilson,  etc. 


INSPIRATION.  93' 

as  Thomas  Scott  expressed  it,  inspiration  discovers  nero  truth 
(this  we  call  revelation),  and  superintends  the  communication 
of  the  old.     This  distinction  it  is  convenient  to  retain. 

148.  These  (except  the  last)  are  theories  of  inspiration. 
The  fact  which  they  have  to  embody  and  explain  g,.,.ipfi„.o 
is  that  Scripture  is  everywhere  the  utterance — the  claims. 
word — of  Divine  wisdom,  and  that  it  expresses  the  very  ideas 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  intended.  It  is  this  gift  which  the: 
inspired  writers  profe.ss  to  have  received.  Their  writings  are 
God-inspired,  or,  to  use  the  words  of  one  not  prejudiced  in 
favor  of  sound  views  on  this  question,  "animated  through  and 
through  by  the  Spirit." — De  Wctte. 

149.  Old  Testament  writers,  for  example,  claim  it  for  them- 
selves. 

Soriptnro 
Exorl.  iv.  15,  16;  xix.  9:  Lev.  passim:  Deut.  iv.  2:  Num.      {|;2"4„[ 
xxiii.  12:  2  Sam.  xxiii.  2:  Jer.  i.  7-9:  Ezek.  iii.  4-10:  Mic. 
iii.  8,  etc. 

New  Testament  writers  claim  it  for  the  old,  and  also  for 
themselves. 

2  Pet.  i.  20,  21 :  Lukei.  20:  1  Pet.  i.  11 :  Acts  i.  16;  xxviii.  25:  Heb. 
iii.  7. 

John  xiv.  26;  xvi.  13, 14:  1  Cor.  ii.  13;  xiv.  37:  1  Thess.  ii.  13;  iv. 
8:  2  Pet.  iii.  1,  2,  etc. 

150.  The  gift,  however,  admitted,  in  the  sacred  Avriters,  of 
diligent  and  faithful  research;"  of   the    expression  ,,,.,   ^. 

c^  ...  Wliatmspir- 

of  the  same  thought  in  different  words;''  of  such  ation .allows, 
differences  (not  discrepancies)  between  the  accounts  of  in- 
spired men  as  would   be  likely  to  arise  from  the   different 

»  Luke  i.  1-4. 

b Compare  Matt.  xxvi.  26,  27:  Luke  xxii.  19,  20,  and  1  Cor.  xi.  24, 
25:  and  Matt.  iii.  17  :  Mark  i.  11,  and  Luke  iii.  22.  To  this  claims  be- 
long quotations  from  the  Old  Testament.  These  are  taken  either  from 
the  LXX,  without  giving  the  exact  words,  and  even  when  that  version 
is  not  verbally  accurate,  or  sometimes  (when  the  original  differs  from 
the  Greek),  from  the  Hebrew  direct.  The  quotations  are  rather  sub- 
stantially than  literally  accurate  ;  see  chap.  6. 


94  SCRIPTURE    CANON. 

stand-points  of  each  ;"■  of  (piotations  from  other  inspired  au- 
thorities ;•"  of  the  employment  of  uninspired  documents ;"  and 
of  peculiarities  of  style  and  manner  arising  from  diversities 
of  intellectual  structure  and  from  educational  or  other  influ- 
ences, such  as  may  be  observed  on  a  comparison  of  Ezekiel 
and  Isaiah,  of  John  and  Paul.  Add  to  these  facts  that  the 
inspired  writers  were  sometimes  uncertain  of  the  precise  mean- 
ing or  application  of  their  message,*  and  that  this  message  was 
delivered  in  language  which  the  spirit  of  God  approved,^  and 
we  have  the  Scripture  facts  on  this  doctrine.  These  facts  it  is 
the  business  of  theory,  if  a  theory  must  be  framed,  to  embody 
and  explain. 

Sec.  3. — The  Canon. 

151.  The  question  of  the  authority  of  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture is  sometimes  put  in   another  form,  and  it  is 

Canonicity  ..,.,  t       m 

of  Scripture  asked  whether  the  whole  belong  to  the  Canon ;  a 
question  settled,  if  it  is  once  proved  that  they  are 
the  production  of  inspired  men.  It  is  sometimes  said,  indeed, 
that  we  prove  the  inspiration  of  the  books  by  first  proving 
their  canonicity ;  the  church  has  received  them,  and  therefore 
they  are  Divine.  The  reverse,  however,  is  the  accurate  order. 
They  are  Divine,  and  therefore  the  church  has  received  them. 

a  See  Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  part  ii. 

tiPsa.  cviii.  and  Psa.  Ivii.  7-11;  Ix.  5-12:  Gen.  chaps,  x.,  xi.  and  1 
Chron.  i.  17,  etc. :  2  Kings  xviii.  13-37,  and  Isa.  xxxvi.  1-22 :  Mic.  iv. : 
Isa.  ii. :  also  Chron.,  with  Kings  and  Sam.  Eichhorn  has  given  a  list 
of  such  quotations. 

e  Josh.  X.  13 :  Numb.  xxi.  14:  Jude  ix.  14,  15. 

^\  Pet.  i.  10,  11  :  Dan.  xii.  8 ;  so,  also,  the  facts  mentioned  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages  are  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  Scripture:  Acts 
vii.  22:  2  Tim.  iii.  8:  Heb.  ix.  4,  that  the  pot  was  golden:  Heb.  xii. 
21,  the  words  of  Moses :  facts  in  xi.  37,  etc.;  so  the  burial  of  the  patri- 
archs in  Sychem,  Acts  vii.  15. 

«1  Pet.  i:  10,  11 :  Dan.  xii.  8:  2  Tim.  iii.  16:  licb.  i.  1 :  1  Cor.  ii.  12, 
13.     See  I  144. 


CANON — NEW    TESTAMENT.  'Jr> 

The  books  are  now  received  as  canonical  because  we  bavo 
satisfactory  evidence  of  tbeir  inspiration ;  and  if  tbore  bad 
been  other  books  not  recognized  in  the  present  canon,  but  de- 
monstrably of  Divine  origin,  we  should  be  bound  to  give  them 
a  place  among  the  rest. 

152.  The  question,  therefore,  of  the  canonicity  of  the  books 
of  Scripture  is  three-fold.  Is  each  book  the  pro-  a  three-fold 
duction  of  its  professed  author?  is  it  authentic?  'i"'^'^''^"- 
and  was  the  writer  in  composing  it  under  the  special  guidance 
of  the  Spirit  ?  Genuineness  and  authenticity  are  both  in- 
volved ;  and  though  the  present  section  is  placed  between 
the  sections  on  those  subjects,  the  argument  needs  the  facts 
of  both. 

153.  We  begin  with  the  New  Testament. 

In  the  early  church  many  writings  were  extant,  professing 
to  give  an  account  of  the  life  and  character  of  our  rp]^^ 
Lord ;  but  four  only  were  received  as  authoritative.  ^"^P®^'^- 
It  was  admitted  on  all  hands  that  these  were  the  productions 
of  the  Evangelists  whose  names  they  bear:  the  Gospels  of 
Mark  and  Luke  being  respectively  penned  under  the  care  of 
Peter  and  Paul.  The  apostle  John,  moreover,  is  recorded  to 
have  acknowledged  publicly  the  authority  of  the  first  three 
Gospels,  and  added  his  own  to  complete  them.  These  books, 
therefore,  were  written  by  apostles  to  whom  our  Saviour 
specially  promised  his  Spirit,  that  He  might  guide  them  into 
all  truth,  bring  to  their  remembrance  whatever  He  himself 
had  told  them,  and  qualify  them  to  give  his  gospel  to  the 
world. 

In  the  same  way,  though  less  directly,  John  is  supposed  to 
have  attested  the  book  of  Acts.*  ^,    . 

The  Acts. 

So  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul.     There  are  thirteen 
of  them  which  bear  his  name.     Other  disciples  were  ik'^oT'i-fini. 
witnesses  of  his  having  written  them.''     Generally 
he  wrote  by  an  amanuensis,  who  also  became  a  witness  of  the 

»  See  the  evidence  in  Wordsworth  on  the  Canon,  pp.  loG  -lUU. 
b  1  Thess.  i.  1 :  2  Thess.  i.  1. 


96  CANON — NEW   TESTAMENT, 

genuineness  of  his  writings:*  in  these  instances  he  added  his 
subscription  and  salutation.''  His  Epistles  were  sent  by  pri- 
vate messengers."  Nine  of  them,  moreover,  v/ere  addressed  to 
public  bodies.  The  earliest  of  them  he  commanded  to  be  read 
in  the  public  assembly ;  the  second,  and  indeed  all  the  rest, " 
were  read  in  public  too  ;*  and  we  know  from  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp,  and  Clement,  and  especially  from  Peter,  that  his  Epis- 
tles were  regarded  as  inspired  Scripture,  and  read  with  the 
Law  and  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Gospels  of 
the  New.^  To  complete  this  evidence,  it  should  be  added  that 
the  language  of  Peter  was  used  by  him  after  all  the  Epistles 
of  Paul  to  the  churches  had  been  written,'  and  that  he  applies 
to  them  a  name  ("Scripture")  which,  though  occurring  fifty 
times  in  the  New  Testament,  is  never  applied  to  any  other 
than  the  present  canonical  books.  The  conclusion,  therefore, 
is  that  these  Epistles  are  Paul's,  and  that  they  have  what 
Paul  claimed  for  them  (§  139),  and  what  the  early  church  and 
a  chief  apostle  ascribed  to  them — inspired,  and  therefore  can- 
onical, authority.  They  are  not  the  words  which  man  teaches: 
they  are  the  words  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

All  the  parts  of  the  New  Testament  mentioned  thus  far 
.  ,.,  were  deemed,  as  soon  as  published,  to  be  Divine,  as 

Antilego-  '  . 

mena.  or  were  1  Peter  and  1  John.  The  remaining  books 
Canonical,  of  the  New  Testament  were  called,  as  we  have 
seen  (§  20),  Antilegomena,  or,  from  their  forming  a  part  of 
the  Canon  only  after  a  second  revision,  the  Deutero-Canoni- 
cal.  That  position  in  the  Canon  they  gained  gradually;  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  they  were  received  by 

a  Rom.  xvi.  22. 

b  Col.  iv.  18:  1  Cor.  xvi.  21. 

<=  Rom.  xvi.  1:  Appendix:  Col.  iv.  7,  S:  Appondix :  Eph.  vl21: 
Philip,  ii.  25. 

a  1  Thess.  V.  27:  2  Thess.  ii.  15;   iii.  fi,  14:   2  Cor.  i.  13:  Col.  iv.  16. 

e  Ign.  to  Eph.  chap,  xii.:  Polyc.  to  Phil.  iii.  11,  12:  Clem,  to  Cor.  i. 
c.  47:  2  Pet.  iii.  15,  16. 

f  Shortly  hefore  the  death  of  Peter,  who  suffered  martyrdom  Uio 
game  year  as  Paul,  2  Pet.  i.  14. 


CANON — NEW   TESTAMENT.  97 

most  of  the  churclies,  and  at  tlie  end  of  that  century  they 
were  received  by  all. 

The  special  evidence  of  each  book  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pive  now.    The  point  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  doubts 

1-1  •         1    1      T  f>  •    •         Their  can- 

which  existed  had  rererence  not  to  the  canonicity  onieity,why 
of  the  writings  of  James,  Cephas,  John,  and  Jude, 
bnt  to  the  question  whether  the  writings  bearing  their  names 
were  really  written  by  them.  Nor  can  these  doubts  excite 
surprise.  The  subject  was  one  of  deep  interest.  Many  spu- 
rious compositions  were  abroad  under  the  names  of  these 
very  apostles.*  Apostolic  teaching  might  be  quoted  in  de- 
fence of  caution.*"  The  internal  evidence  of  the  authorship 
of  these  Epistles  is  peculiar;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for 
example,  is  without  the  author's  name,  and  diifers  in  style 
from  most  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  The  style  of  2  Peter 
differs  in  the  same  way  from  the  style  of  the  first  Epistle. 
In  James  and  Jude  the  authors  are  described  not  as  apostles, 
but  as  "servants"  of  Christ,  while  in  2  and  3  John  the  writer 
describes  himself  as  a  presbyter  or  elder,  not  as  an  apostle. 
Jude  also  refers  to  stories  which  were  supposed  to  be  con- 
tained in  apocryphal  writings.  All  these  Epistles,  moreover, 
were  addressed  either  to  Christians  generally  or  to  private 
persons,  not  to  particular  churches.  No  body  of  men,  there- 
fore, were  interested  in  preserving  them,  and  external  evi- 
dence in  their  favor  was  necessarily  scanty.  All  these  causes 
of  doubt  did  operate,  as  we  know.  In  the  end  there  was  uni- 
versal conviction ;  and  the  very  doubts  which  deferred  the 
reception  of  a  small  portion  of  Scripture  in  certain  parts  of  the 
early  church  now  serve  to  confirm  our  faith  in  the  rest. 

154.   These   facts  sufHcientlv  indicate  the   course  of  argu- 
ment  by  which  the  canonicity  of  the  New  Testament  Natiii-e 
is  proved.     Let  it  be  shown  that  they  were  written  "* '"'"° 
by  the  men  whose  names  they  bear,  and  that  there  is  reason 
for  believing  that  their  authors  wrote  under  the  guidance  of 

»  Jones  on  the  Canon,  i.  37^5. 
b  2Tbcss.  ii.  1,  2:  1  John  iv.  1. 
9 


98  CANON — NEW   TESTAMENT. 

the  Si:)irit,  and  tlie  evidence  of  the  canonicity  of  the  books  is 
complete. 

As  part  of  the  evidence  (in  some  sense  a  subordinate  part, 
Evidence  of  ^^^  ^^^  claims  and  character  of  the  books  themselves 
coundis^°'^  supply  the  chief  evidence),  it  may  be  added  that 
iiow  im-        -tlxe   books  which  now  form  the  Canon  were   read 

l)()Vtant. 

from  the  first  in  Christian  assemblies  as  of  Divine 
authority,*  that  ecclesiastical  authors  quote  largely  from  them,'' 
and  that  they  constituted  the  canonical  books  of  the  early 
church. 

155.  Between  the  years  200  A.  D.  and  400  A.  D.  fifteen 
Ancient  Catalogues  of  such  books  were  published.  Of  these, 
lists.  g^^ — those  of  Athanasius,  Epiphanius,  Euffin,  Aus- 

tin, the  third  council  of  Carthage,  and  of  the  anonymous 
author  of  the  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite — agree  with 
the  present  canon :  three — those  of  Cyril,  the  Council  of  Lao- 
dicea,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen — omit  the  Book  of  Revelation 
only :  one — that  of  Caius,  probably  196 — omits  James,  2  Peter, 
3  John,  and  Hebrews :  another — that  of  Origen — omits  James 
and  Jude,  though  he  elsewhere  owns  them.  The  catalogue  of 
Eusebius  marks  James  and  Jude,  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  and 
Revelation,  as  doubted  by  some.  Philastrius  omits  Hebrews 
and  Revelation.  Amphilochius  inserts  all,  but  marks  the 
Antilegomena,  he  himself  deeming  the  Hebrews  genuine ;  and 
Jerome  speaks  of  the  Hebrews  only  as  doubtful,  and  that 
Epistle  he  elsewhere  receives." 

Add  to  this  evidence  the  authority  of  the  Peshito  and  of 
the  early  Latin  versions.  The  former  contains  all  our  present 
books,  except  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  Jude,  and  revelation; 
and  the  latter  included  probably  all  the  books  afterwards 
inserted  in  Jerome's  version. 

'  Lardner,  ii.  132,  526. 

b  Lardner,  ii.  52,  72,  93,  109. 

"^  These  authorities  may  be  seen  in  the  original  in  Wordsworth  on 
the  Canon,  Appendix  A.  Thirteen  out  of  the  fifteen  are  referred  to  lu 
Jones  on  the  Canon,  i.  73-76. 


\ 
V 


CANON — OLD   TESTAMENT.  99 

156.  Though  the  opinion  of  the  early  church  is  called  sub- 
ordinate or  indirect  evidence,  that  opinion  has  often 

.     -^  .    .         Proves 

been  regarded  as  sufficient  to  decide  the  canonicity  canonicity 

°  .  •  (.     1  indireetlv; 

of  the  books  of  Scripture.     The  reception  of  these  not  itself 

f      p     T     ■      decisive. 

books  by  the  churches  was  taken  as  proof  of  their 
inspiration  ;  just  as  the  decision  of  a  competent  legal  tribunal 
would  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  of  any  fact  proved  be- 
fore it,  or  as  the  opinion  of  an  eminent  mathematician  might 
be  taken  as  proof  of  the  soundness  of  some  demonstration. 
This  practice,  however,  must  not  turn  our  attention  from  the 
real  nature  of  the  proof.  The  question  is  not  one  of  authority, 
but  of  evidence.  To  reckon  a  book  canonical,  because  a  coun- 
cil or  a  church  has  pronounced  it  so,  is  neither  logical  nor 
scriptural.  Our  wisdom  is  to  use  such  a  decision  (according 
to  its  intrinsic  worth)  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
claims  of  the  book  itself.  The  canonicity  of  each  book — its 
right,  that  is,  to  a  place  in  the  Canon — is  a  question  as  large  as 
the  question  of  its  Divine  authority,  and  involves  a  conside- 
ration of  the  same  evidence.  Of  that  evidence  early  oj)inion 
is  only  part ;  an  important  part,  doubtless,  for  the  utmost 
care  was  taken  from  the  first  in  discriminating  the  genuine 
from  the  spurious;  but  it  is  only  part.  It  may  aid,  it  must 
not  control  our  decisions. 

157.  The  canonicity  of  the  Old  Testament  is  best  established 
bv  the  New.     Our  Lord  received  as  Scripture  what 

i^T  IT  1  ^  •  m-  11        Canonicity 

the  J  ews  delivered  to  him  as  Scripture,  and  the  of  Old  Tes- 
apostle  speaks  of  the  advantage  of  the  Jew  as  con-  proved 
sisting  chiefly  in  his  possession  of  the  "  oracles  of 
God."  As  an  evidence  of  the  close  connection  of  the  two 
dispensations,  and  of  the  sanction  given  in  the  New  Testament 
to  the  Old,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  former  has  not  less  than 
263  direct  quotations  from  the  latter,  and  that  these  quotations 
are  taken  from  almost  every  book.  The  obvious  allusions  to 
the  Old  Testament  are  even  more  numerous,  amounting  to  up- 
wards of  350.     See  chap.  vi.  §  1. 

158.  That  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Canon  was  fixed  as 


100  CANON — OLD    TESTAMENT. 

at  pi'esent  is  established  by  decisive  evidence.       In  addition 
to  quotations  in  tbe  New  Testament  from  paritcuhtr 

Philo  and  J-  -^ 

josephuF.  books,  Josepbus  and  Philo  both  testify  to  the  books 
themselves,  and  to  the  reverence  with  which  the  Jews  regarded 
them ;  the  former  expressly  stating  that  the  Canon  he  was  set- 
ting down  was  received  by  all  Jews,  that  they  all  would  con- 
tend for  it  to  the  death,  and  that  none  had  ever  dared  to 
in-^rease  or  diminish  or  change  them.   (Cont.  A  p.  i.  8.) 

159.  Testimonies  no  less  decisive  will  be  found  in  the  next 
.  .  ,  paragraph.  In  examining  this  list  it  must  be  remem- 
lists.  bered  that  when  certain  books  are  omitted  from  pro- 
fessed catalogues  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  there  is  the 
greatest  probability  that  each  of  those  books  was  included  in 
the  preceding  book ;  Esther,  for  example,  in  Nehemiah,  Ruth 
in  Judges,  and  Lamentations  in  Jeremiah.  The  fact  that  some 
books  are  not  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  is  accounted  for 
on  the  simple  principle  that  the  writers  had  no  occasion  to 
quote  them.  That  all  our  present  books  were  included  at  the 
time  of  our  Lord  in  the  Old  Testament  Canon  is  undoubted, 
and  as  such  they  are  quoted  under  the  usual  Jewish  division. 

160.  The  authorities  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph, 
may  be  classed  as  follows  : — 

The  New  Testament,  which  is  really  authoritative,  refers  to  all  Scrip- 
ture under  the  threefold  division  of    Law,  Prophets,  and 
Ancient  Old   ,,.   .  .  -,       ,  i      p    i      i       i  t>      , 

Testament     Viritings.     it  also  appeals  to  each  oi  the  books,  except  Ruth, 

'^  ^'  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Canticles,   Ecclesiastes,   and  perhaps   La- 

mentations. The  version  of  the  LXX,  which  is  evidence,  includes  them 
all.  The  son  of  Sirach,  B.C.  130,  mentions  the  threefold  division;  aa 
does  Fhilo,  A.  C.  41,  quoting  from  all  except  Ruth,  Chronicles,  Nehe- 
miah, Esther,  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel. 
Joseph-US,  h.  A.  D.  37,  enumerates  them  according  to  their  classes,  in- 
cluding all  the  present  books.  Me.lito,  177,  mentions  all  except  Esther 
and  Lamentations.  Origen,  230,  mentions  all,  without  exception. 
Alhavasi%is,  326,  mentions  all  except  Esther.  Cijril  (Jerusalem),  348, 
mentions  all,  as  also  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  363 ;  Epiphanius,  368 ; 
and  Hilary,  of  Poictiers,  370.  Gregory  of  Nazinnzen,  370,  mentions 
all  except  Esther ;  as  does  Amphiluchius,  o7U.     The  Ajiustoiic  Canons, 


CANONICAL    BOOKS — HOW    PRESEKVED,  101 

of  nncertain  date,  but  not  later  than  the  end  of  this  century,  mentions 
all ;  as  also  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.     These  are  Gi-eek  authorities. 

Of  Latin  authorities,  thechief  are  Jerome,  392;  Biifm,od1;  3d  Council 
of  Carthage,  307 ;  and  Augustine,  395 ;  and  all  agree  in  enumerating 
the  whole. 

161.  How  the  books  of  tlie  Old  Testament  were  preserved, 
is  a  question  of  some  difficulty,  and  we  can  but  give  the  most 
probable  solution. 

The  books  of  the  law  were  placed  in  the  Tabernacle  with 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  were  kept  there  during  „ 

'  .  -t  .<-'   How  Old 

the  iourneyings  in  the  wilderness,  and  afterwards  in  Testament 

•'  JO  preserved. 

Jerusalem.*  To  the  same  sanctuary  were  succes- 
sively consi^ied  the  various  historical  and  prophetic  books, 
from  the  time  of  Joshua  to  that  of  David.  On  the  erection 
of  the  temple,  Solomon  deposited  in  it  the  earliest  books,''  and 
enriched  the  collection  with  the  inspired  productions  of  his 
own  pen.  After  his  days,  a  succession  of  prophets  arose,  Jonah, 
Amos,  Isaiah,  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah,  Nahum,  Zephaniah,  Jere- 
miah, Obadiah,  and  Habbakuk.  They  all  flourished  before  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  and  enlarged  the  volume  of  inspi- 
ration by  valuable  additions.  About  420  years  after  the  tem- 
ple was  built,  it  was  burnt  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  What  became 
of  the  MSS.  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  is  not  known.  In 
Babylon,  however,  Daniel  speaks  of  the  book  of  the  law  as 
familiar  to  him,  and  also  of  Jeremiah,  and  of  other  prophets." 
Shortly  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the  Jews  were 
released  from  captivity,  rebuilt  the  temple,  and  restored  Divine 
worship,  being  encouraged  to  persevere  by  the  exhortations  of 
Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

About  50  years  after  the  temple  was  rebuilt,  Ezra  is  recorded 
by  tradition  to  have  made  a  collection  of  the  sacred  writings, 
as  he  certainly  took  great  pains  to  expound  and  enforce  the 

»  Deut.  xxxi.  9,  26:  Josh.  xxiv.  26:  1  Sam.  x.  25. 
•>  2  Kings  xxii.  8:  Isa.  xxxiv.  16. 

«  Dan.  ix.  2,  11.     In  these  passages  the  word  book  or  a  book  is  more 
properly  "  the  book." 
9* 


102  CANON — THE   APOCRYPHA, 

ancient  law  (see  Neh.  viii.  1,  3,  9).  To  this  collection  were 
added  (probably  by  Simon  tbe  Just)  the  writings  of  Ezra  him- 
self, with  those  of  Nehemiah  and  Malachi,  and  thus  was  com- 
pleted the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament ;  for,  from  the  days  of 
Malachi,  no  prophet  arose  till  John  the  Baptist,  who  connected 
the  two  covenants,  and  of  whom  it  was  foretold  that  he  should 
precede  the  great  day  of  the  Lord.     Mai.  iii.  1. 

The  collection  of  the  canonical  books  is  generally  said  to 
have  been  the  work  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  a  body  Avhich 
included  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi,  and 
afterwards,  Simon  the  Just.  The  existence  and  labors  of  this 
body  are  distinctly  referred  to  in  the  most  ancient  Jewish 
writings. 

After  the  captivity,  synagogues  were  established  in  Judea, 
and  throughout  the  world,  and  copies  of  the  inspired  Scrip- 
tures were  so  greatly  multiplied  as  to  make  the  preservation 
of  particular  MSS.  rather  a  question  of  curiosity  than  of  his- 
torical importance."  The  early  existence  and  history  of  the 
LXX.,  have  been  noticed  in  a  previous  chapter. 

162.  If  we  examine  by  these  tests  the  books  called  Apocry- 
Th  A  -  ph'^i^i  we  shall  be  constrained  to  reject  their  authority 
crypha.        as  Divine. 

1G3.  Externally  the  evidence  is  conclusive. 
_,  ^  ^  .  They  are  not  found  in  any  catalogue  of  canonical 

evidence,  writings  made  during  the  first  four  centuries  after 
Christ;  nor  were  they  regarded  as  part  of  the  rule  of  faith 
till  the  decision  of  the  council  of  Trent,  1545.  Philo  never 
quotes  them  as  he  does  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  Josephus 
expressly  excludes  them.'*  The  Jewish  church  never  received 
them  as  part  of  the  Canon,  and  they  are  never  quoted  either 
by  our  Lord  or  by  his  apostles,  a  fact  the  more  striking,  as 
Paul  thrice  quotes  heathen  poets.     It  is  remarkable,  too,  that 

*  See  Stuart  on  the  Canon,  and  Haveruick's  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament,  Edin.,  pp.  18-22. 
''  Cent.  Apiou.  i.  8. 


APOCEYPHA EVIDExNCE    AGAINST.  103 

the  last  inspired  prophet  closes  his  predictions  by  recommend- 
ing to  his  countrymen  the  books  of  Moses,  and  intimates  that 
no  other  messenger  is  to  be  expected  by  them  till  the  coming 
of  the  second  Elijah."- 

Against  this  decisive  external  evidence  must  be  placed  the 
fact,  that  particular  books  have  been  qvioted  as  canonical  by 
one  or  more  of  the  Fathers. 

Baruch  alone  is  quoted  as  canonical  by  Origen,  Athanasius, 
Cyril,  and  Epiphanius.  Of  the  Latin  church,  Augustine  alone 
quotes  as  canonical,  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Ecclc- 
siasticus,  and  1  and  2  Maccabees.  By  other  writers  of  the 
3d  and  4th  centuries,  the  books  are  not  cited,  or  their  canon- 
icity  is  denied. 

164.  Internal  evidence,  moreover,  is  against  their  inspira- 
tion. Divine  authority  is  claimed  by  none  of  the  jnternai 
writers,  and  by  some  it  is  virtually  disowned. ''  evidence. 
The  books  contain  statements  at  variance  with  history,"  self- 
contradictory,*  and  opposed  to  the  doctrines*  and  precepts  of 
Scripture.' 

1G5.   For  historical  purposes,  and  for  "  instruction  of  man- 
ners," so  far  as  they  exemplify  the  spirit  and  pre-        H(>u  far 
cepts  of  the  Gospel,  the  books  are  of  yalue.     But        u.setui. 
they  are  without  authority,  and  form  no  part  of  the  rule  of  faith. 

''Mai.  iv.  4-6. 

'>2  Mac.  ii.  23  ;  xv.  38  :  Prol.  of  Eccles. 

•-■  Baruch  i.  2,  coni]iared  with  Jer.  xliii.  6,  7.  The  story  of  Bel  and 
the  Dragon  contradicts  the  account  of  Daniel's  being  cast  into  the 
lions'  den. 

"iComp.  1  Mac.  vi.  4-16:  2  Mac.  i.  13-16:  2  Mac.  ix.  28,  as  to  the 
place  where  Antiochus  Epiphanes  died.  The  writer  of  the  Book  of 
Wisdom  pretends  that  it  was  composed  by  Solomon,  and  quotes  Isa. 
xiii.  11-18. 

"Prayers  for  the  dead  sanctioned,  2  Mac.  xii.  43-45.  Justification 
by  works  involved,  Tob.  xii.  8,  9:  2  Esd.  viii.  33. 

f  Lying  sanctioned,  Tob.  v.  12;  xii.  15.  Suicide  is  spoken  of  as  a, 
manful  act,  2  Mac.  xiv.  42 ;  assassination  is  commended,  Judith  ix.  2-9, 
cornp.  Gen.  Ixix.  7;  and  magical  incantations  sanctioned,  Tob.  vi. 
16,  17. 


104  ArOCEYPHA — EVIDENCE   AGAINST. 

166.  The  utility  and  relative  importance  of  these  books 
Hoiaiive  ^^^  ^^  further  explained.  The  whole  illustrate 
''f\'i"(-""^*'  the  progress  of  knowledge  among  the  Jews,  their 
bo,)ks.  taste,  their  religious   character,  and  their  govern- 

ment ;  while  sonie  of  the  books  explain  ancient  prophecies, 
and  prove  the  fulfilment  of  them,  and  others  exhibit  the  most 
exalted  sentiments  and  principles  of  uninspired  men. 

Of  least  value  are  1st  and  2d  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  Esther, 
Susanna,  and  the  Idol  Bel  and  the  Dragon.  These  books 
contain  indications  of  childish  credulity,  or  of  wilful  disregard 
of  truth. 

An  intermediate  place  is  due  to  the  book  of  Baruch,  the 
Song  of  the  Three  Children,  and  the  prayer  of  Manasseh. 
The  authorship  of  these  books  is  uncertain,  and  they  contain 
several  mistakes ;  but  they  were  j)robably  written  with  sincere 
intentions,  and  they  show  the  views  which,  in  that  age,  were 
entertained  of  personal  religion. 

The  remaining  books  claim  a  higher  place.  The  AVisdom 
of  Solomon,  though  not  written  by  the  Preacher,  was  probably 
intended  as  an  imitation  of  his  writings,  and  contains  many 
striking  counsels.  Ecclesiasticus,  avowedly  uninspired,  is  often 
excellent.  To  the  student  it  is  also  useful,  as  showing  how  the 
Jews  expounded  their  law,  what  hopes  had  originated  in  the 
Livine  promises,  and  by  what  motives  the  practice  of  godliness 
was  enforced.  The  1st  book  of  the  Maccabees  gives  the  his- 
tory of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews,  under  the  illustrious  family 
from  whom  its  name  is  taken.  It  contains  many  examples  of 
heroic  faith,  and  may  be  perused  with  the  same  design  as  any 
other  portion  of  authentic  history.  The  2d  book  is  less  accu- 
I'iite  than  the  1st,  historically  and  morally,  but  it  illustrates  the 
firm  confidence  of  the  Jews  in  a  future  life,  and  records  sev- 
eral instances  of  devotedness  to  the  religion  and  institutes  of 
the  law. 

For  an  account  of  other  Apocryphal  Books  see  Fabricii  Codex  Pseu- 
digi.  V.  T  1713-41,  and  Codex  Ps.  N.  T.  1713-22,  with  Birch's  Aucta- 
rium,  1804,  or  Jones  on  the  Canon. 


EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL, 


105 


Sculpture  on  Arch  of  Titus,  Representing  the  Vessels  of  the  Temple. 


Sec.  4. — Scripture  Evidences. 


167.  All  that  has  been  advanced  thus  far  on  the  anthority 
of  Scripture  is  taken  from  Scripture  itself.  We  have  only- 
arranged  and  given  expression  to  its  claims.  The  evidence  by 
which  those  claims  are  sustained  is  among  the  most  interesting 
subjects  of  inquiry.  We  can  but  touch  upon  it  here,  and 
must  be  content  to  refer  to  various  authors  for  ampler  infor- 
mation. 

168.  We  have  already  seen  that  Scripture  is  genuine,  aud 
that  from  the  earliest  times,  its  various  books  were  ^y,^^j^  ^^.^ 
received  as  written  by  the  men  whose  names  they  deneeoiMu- 
bear.  Ordinarily,  nothing  more  would  have  been  involved  la 
proved  by  this  j^rocess ;  but  in  this  case  the  evi-  ne»s. 
dence  of  genuineness  is  also  evidence  of  authenticity.  Tlie 
truth  of  the  general  narrative,  its  authenticity,  is  involved  in 
the  very  proofs  of  the  genuineness  of  the  record.  The  books 
are  cpioted  and  copied  as  history,  and  were  received  as  such, 
while  witnesses  of  most  of  the  transactions  they  describe  were 
living.  That  Palestine  was  under  the  Eonian  yoke;  that 
during  the  reign  of  Herod  Christ  was  born ;  that  he  professed 


106  EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL. 

to  be  a  teaclier  sent  from  God ;  that  he  claimed  the  power  of 
wurking  miracles;  that  these  miracles  were  always  beneficent; 
that  they  sustained  a  morality  altogether  unknown  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  novel  even  to  the  Jews ;  that  he  had  several  fol- 
lowers ;  that  he  was  put  to  death  under  Pontius  Pilate ;  that 
many  hundreds,  believing  him  to  have  risen  from  the  dead, 
became  his  disciples ;  that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  his 
disciples  were  scattered  over  the  whole  Roman  world ;  that, 
in  short,  all  the  main  statements  of  the  Gospel  history  are 
facts,  is  involved  •■  (whatever  be  thought  of  their  spiritual 
significancy)  in  the  very  genuineness  of  the  record.  The 
whole  was  deemed  historically  true ;  so  that,  while  many 
rejected  the  gospel,  the  facts,  on  which  in  one  sense  it  was 
founded,  were  acknowledged  by  all. 

169.  An  explanation  of  previous  evidence  (§  16,)  will  make 
„  this   statement  clear.      In   the  first  four   centuries 

Summary 

ofevi.ien-     -^g   ^ave    upwards  of  fifty  authors  who   testify  to 

ces  ol  gen-  .    •      .  .  . 

uineness.  facts  told  Or  implied  in  the  Gospel  narrative.  The 
wdiole  or  fragments  of  the  writings  of  these  authors  remain. 
The  writings  of  about  fifty  others  referred  to  by  Jerome  (392) 
have  perished.  These  authors  belong  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Pyrenees ;  from  Northern 
Germany  to  the  African  Sahara.  They  speak  the  Syrian,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Latin  tongues.  They  represent  the  belief  of 
large  bodies  of  professed  Christians,  and  no  less  the  admissions 
of  multitudes  who  were  not  Christians.  They  agree  in  quoting 
Sci'ipture  as  genuine  and  true.  They  refer  to  it  as  a  distinct 
volume,  universally  received.  They  comment  upon  it  and 
expound  it.  They  refer  to  it  as  Divine.  Heretics  who  sepa- 
rated from  the  great  body  of  the  faithful  received  the  narrative 
of  the  facts,  and  differed  only  on  the  doctrines  which  they 
supposed  those  facts  to  embody ;  and  even  infidels  who  denied 
the  faith,  founded  their  denial  upon  the  very  facts  which  our 
present  record  contains.  So  general  had  a  belief  of  the  facts 
of  the  Gospel  become,  that  we  find  J.  Martyr  (165)  observing 
that  in  every  nation  prayers  and  thanksgivings  were  ofiered  to 


EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL. 


107 


the  Fatlaer  by  the  name  of  Jesus ;  while  only  fifty  years  later 
Tertullian  states  that  in  almost  every  city  Christians  formed 
the  majority. 

Heathen  and  Jewish  writers,  without  speaking  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  without  giving  any  evidence,  there-  jj^j^^j^gj^ 
fore,  of  its  genuineness,  confirm  in  a  general  way  testimonies. 
the  narratives  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  and  of  his  disciples,  or 
incidentally  illustrate  them.  Josephus  in  his  Annals  (A.  D. 
37-93),  Tacitus  in  his  History  (A.  D.  100),  Suetonius  in  his 
Biographical  Sketches  (A.  D.  117),  Juvenal  in  his  Satires  (A.  D. 
128),  and  Pliny  in  his  Letters  (A.  D.  103),  all  confirm  the  his- 
torical statements  of  the  sacred  story.  Indeed  there  is  no 
transaction  of  ancient  history  that  can  exhibit  more  than  a 
fraction  of  the  evidence  by  which  the  narrative  of  the  Gospels 
is  sustained. 

See-the  passages  quoted  in  Paley,  p.  i.  ch.  ii. 

170.  The  following  are  the  principal  ecclesiastical  Egg](,f,ijjgtj. 
writers  who  prove  at  once  the  genuineness  and  gen-  *^5'.^'''j.®''^. 
eral  truthfulness  of  the  New  Testament ;  centmied. 


FIRST  CENTURY. 


Scriptures  quoted  as  genuine 
and  authentic,  and  as  a  dis- 
tinct volume. 


Barnabas,  Epistle  belongs  to 

tlio  2d  cent. 
Hernias,  Shepherd,  do. 
Clement.  Rome,  died  100. 
Ignatius,  flour.  7u.  died  116. 
Polyearp,  died  166. 


Quoted  as  of  peouli.ar 
authority,  or  as  divine : 
expounded  and  com- 
mented upon. 


Barnabas. 

Hermas. 

Clement. 
Ignatius. 
Polyearp. 


Appealed  to  by  various 
sects,  and  by  adversa- 
ries. 


Quadratus.  122. 

Basilides,  Alex.  122. 

Papias.  tlour.  119.  died  lfi.3. 
J.  Martvr.  tlour.  14s,  died  165. 

Valentinians.  Rome 

140. 

.1.  Martvr. 

Scthites,  E«ypt.  140. 

Dionysius  (Cor.),  163. 

Tutian,flou.l58,diedl76. 

Carpocratians,  Ale.x. 

145. 

Ch.  at  Lyons.  170. 

Dionysius. 

Mareion.  1.50. 

Mehto.  flour.  170. 

Montanists.  157. 

Heg('sip))usi.  flour.  175. 

Encratites,  165. 

IrensRUs.  flour.  176,  died  202. 

Irencpus. 

Athenagoras,  176. 

Celsus. 

Thcopliilus(Aut.),  178. 

Theoiiliilus. 

/Throdnius.l  ,„, 
JArtenion,     /  "^• 

108 


EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL. 


THIRD  CENTURY, 


8fii|i(uros  quoted  as  genuine 
and  autlientin,.  and  as  a  dis- 
tinct vdlume. 


Ori.a'en.  flour.  lS.j-2lr'). 
Tertullian.  flour.  198.  d.  220. 
]VIinuriu.>  Feli.\.  died  220. 

rioment,  Alox.  died  217. 
Dionysius.  Alex,  flour.  2.'^2. 
Cyprian.  Cartli.'ijie,  20U-25S. 
Conunodian.  flour.  270. 
Viotoi-in  i(Jei'niany). 
Ai'uohius,  flour.  .'!ti7. 
La<:tanfius.  died  325. 
p:usebius,  270-3iO. 


Quoted  as  of  peculiar 
authontv. oras  divine: 
ex]iouniled  and  com- 
mented upon. 


Origen. 

Tertullian. 

Arnnionius.  Alex.2n0-23.=i. 

Hippolytus,  220,  died  200. 

< 'lenient. 

Dionysius 

(!j-pi'ian. 

Niivafian,  Rome,  250. 

Vietorin. 

Lucian,  died  312. 


Appealed  to  by  various 
sect.s,  and  by  adver.ia- 
ries. 


Hermogenes,   Carthage, 
203. 


Nnvatians.  Rome.  2,il. 
Rabellians,  Egypt.  2.58. 
Porpliyry.  Rome.  2fi2. 
Paid  of  Saniosata,  Anti- 

och.  205. 
Mauichaians,  Persia,  274.. 


FOURTH  CENTURY. 


Hilary.  Poiefiers.  died  368. 

Gregory  Nazien.  328-359. 

Apollinarus.  Laodie.  tiou.  3G2. 

Atlianasius.  died  37.3. 

Arians,  318. 

Iiamasas,  Rome,  .360. 

Epbraoiu.  Syrus.  died  .378. 

Donatists,  328. 

(Jreporv.  Nyssa.  3.j1-396. 

Ba.sil  (Cresarea),  died  378. 

Julian,  Emp.  died,  365. 

'J'heodore.  'J'arsus.  flour.  .376. 

Cyril  ( Jerus.),  315-380. 

Priseillianists,  .'i7S. 

Eiisebius.  Nieo.  flour.  335. 

ApoUinarians,  378. 

Ambrose,  Milan.  374-307. 

Ambrose. 

Didvmus.  Alex.  375-396. 

Amiihilochius,  Iconium,  flou. 

Epiphanius,  Cyprus,  368, 

380. 

d.-403. 
Palladius,  flour.  407. 

Jerome,  329-420. 

Jerome. 

ClirysoHtom,  344-407. 

•Pelagians,  410. 

This  evidence  is  sometimes  called  the  historical,  and  it  forms 
the   subiect   of  the   first   part   of  Palev's   volume. 

Historical  ,  ''  ^  .  *'  .  . 

evidence;     If  its  truth  be  acknowledged,  it  places  an  inquirer 

effect  of.         .  ,  .   .  „  ^  -^  »  T        1   . 

in  tlie  position  oi  a  contemporary  oi  our  Lord, 
leaving  the  claims  of  his  religion  to  be  established  by  other 
evidence. 

171.   Admitting  the  exi.stence  of  a  Being  of  infinite  jiower 
and    o-oodness,   there  are  strong  probabilities   that 

Evidence;       ^^        ^    ^  ^  \  ,  .  ^    ^ .       . 

1 '''"Xs-       He  would  not  leave  his  creatures  m  ignorance  and 

gifiej.  .  ...  " 

misery ;  and  probabilities  no  less  strong  that  any 
communication  from  him  would  contain  a  distinct  reference 
to  iheir  condition,  and  would  present  analogies  to  other  works 
of  the  Creator.     These  probabilities  form  the  presuinpiive  evi- 


EVIDENCES   CLASSIFIED.  109 

dence  of  revelation,  and  are  discussed  by  such  writers  as  Ellis, 
Leland,  and  Butler.  Evidence  founded  on  revelation  itself  is 
called  positive. 

In  God  are  attributes  of  power  and  of  knowledge,  of  holi- 
ness and  love.  Sometimes  the  evidences  of  Scripture  are 
ranged  under  corresponding  divisions,  and  we  speak  of  the 
tniraculous,  the  projjhdic,  and  the  vioral. 

A  message  from  another,  again,  is  susceptible  of  a  two-fold 
evidence  of  truth;  viz.,  credentials  supplied  by  the  messenger, 
and  peculiarities  or  marks  in  the  message  itself.  The  cre- 
dentials are  external^  and  the  marks  are  internal.  In  this 
arrangement  prophecy  often  belongs  to  both :  the  prediction 
is  in  the  message,  and  the  fulfilment  either  in  the  Bible  or  in 
profane  history. 

The  internal  evidence,  again,  is  two-fold  ;  according  as  it  is 
founded  (1),  on  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  the  character  of 
inspired  men,  or  on  the  influence  of  truth  in  promoting  holi- 
ness, which  is  the  tnoral  evidence,  as  it  may  be  called ;  and 
(2),  on  its  internal  harmony — literary,  doctrinal,  and  ana- 
logical— on  the  adaptation  of  the  message  to  human  wants,  or 
on  its  consistency  with  all  our  holiest  conceptions  of  the  Divine 
character  and  purpose,  which  may  be  called  the  spiritual  evi- 
dence ;  and  this  is  the  division  to  which  it  is  intended  to 
adhere. 

172.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  that  each  kind  of  evidence 
abounds  in  directly  spiritual  instruction.  Miracles  ^j^^^ 
prove,  at  least,  that  physical  nature  is  not  fate,  nor  |videncf<,c 
a  merely  material  constitution  of  things.  Projihecy  instruetivo. 
proves  that  things  material  and  moral  (both  nature  and  manj, 
are  governed  by  a  free  and  Almighty  hand.  What  were  once 
grave  questions  of  natxirol  religion,  are  thus  settled  in  the  very 
evidences  of  the  revealed.  The  spiritual  truth  wrapj^ed  up, 
both  in  prophecy  and  miracles,  and  the  obviously  holy  ten- 
dency of  the  moral  evidence  of  the  Bible,  will  be  noticed 
elsewhere.    Contrary  to  what  is  ,sonietiu;ies  allirmed,  the  devout 

10 


no 


EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 


];viilciirc 
a:  1  Jinked. 


-r-> 
X 


study  of  Christian  evidence  may  become  the  means  of  spiritual 
i  iiiprovement. 

173.  The  different  evidences,  then,  of  the  truth 
of  Scripture,  may  be  arranged  as  follows : — 

I.  EXTERNAL  Evidence:  appealing  to  our  senses. 

1.  Direct:  as  in  the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  John  iii.  2;  v.  36;  x. 
37;  xiv.  11 

Works  by  Bishop  Douglas ;   Campbell ;  West ;  Sherlock ; 
Le  Bas. 

2.  Retrospective:  as  in  the  connection  of  Christ  with  the  mir- 
acles and  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  Luke  xxiv.  2(5, 
27:  John  V.  47. 

Leslie;  Stillingfleet ;  Faber;  Kidder;  Brown;  Simpson. 

3.  Prospective  :  as  in  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  since  the  days 
of  our  Lord,  John  xiv.  29. 

Davison  ;  Newton  ;  Keith. 

II.  INTERNAL:  which  is  either 

a.  Moral:  appealing  to  our  conscience;  consisting  of  the 

1.  Moral  precepts  of  the  Bible. 
Jenyns ;  Gregory. 

2.  Character  of  our  Lord  and  of  the  inspired  writers. 
Newcome ;  Lyttelton. 

3.  Character  and  lives  of  the  early  Christians,  and 
the  general  influence  of  truth. 

Chalmers  ;  Warburton  ;  Ryan  ;  Pliny,  etc. 

b.  or  Spiritual  :  appealing  to  our  intellectual  perceptions  and 
to  our  new  nature  generally.     It  includes 

1.  The  Scriptural  or  Literary:  or  the  wisdom  and  har- 
monj'  of  revealed  truth. 

In  its  different  dispensations.- — -Alexander. 

In  the  various  parts  of  the  record. — Graves  on  the 

Pentateuch;  Paley's  Horae  Paulinae;  Blunt;  Birks, 

etc. 
With  nature. — Butler's  Analogy;  Chalmers. 

2.  The  Experimental.    The  gospel  felt  to  be  adapted  to  our 
wants. 

Pascal;  Fuller;  Erskine ;  Sumner;  J.  J.  Ourney. 

3.  The  Spiritual  properly  so  called.     The  Bible  consistent 
with  the  character  and  purpose  of  God. 

Gilb.Wardhxw;  Aldis;  Philosophy  of  Salvation,  Rel. 
Tr.  Soc. 


C3 


o 


Oj 


EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE — MIRACLES.  Ill 

174.  Tlie  success  of  the  gospel  is  connected  in  Scripture, 
and  by  all  ancient  Cliristian  writers,  with  the  posses-   g^temai 
sion  (on  the  part  of  our  Lord)  of  miraculous  power,   evidence. 
Men  believed,  in  the  first  age  at  least,  because  Divine  Miraculous 
works  or  miracles  (facts,  that  is,  which  could  not  have 

taken  place  from  natural  causes  or  without  superhuman  aid) 
attested  the  truth  of  the  message.  To  these  works  our  Lord 
repeatedly  appealed,  as  works  which  none  other  man  did,  and 
as  an  evidence  of  his  mission.  He  healed  the  sick,  he  raised 
the  dead,  not  once  only,  but  in  many  hundreds  of  cases ;  for  it 
is  said  frequently  that  they  brought  sick  people  unto  him,  and 
that  he  healed  them  all. 

Matt.  iv.  24;  xii.  15;  xiv.  14;  xv.  30;  xix.  2,  etc.:  Mark  i.  34;  hi. 
10:  Luke  vi.  17;  ix.  11. 

He  gave  the  same  power  to  his  disciples,  first  to  the  twelve, 
and  then  to  the  seventy.  After  his  departure  his  gij„j,^r 
apostles  received  the  power  of  bestowing  this  mi-  fo^^fs^'^®'^ 
raculous  gift  on  all  upon  whom  they  laid  their  'I'scip'es. 
hands ;  so  that  many  hundreds  and  perhaps  thousands  were 
thus  endowed.  It  is  certain  that  the  apostles  speak  of  it  as 
a  thing  familiarly  known,  and  reckon  it  among  the  signs  of  a 
Divinely  appointed  teacher.  Indeed  (when  there  was  no  New 
Testament)  miraculous  power  seems  the  necessary  evidence  of 
a  mission  from  God. 

175.  The  sufficiency  of  the  evidence  which  our  Lord  exhi- 
bited in  this  form  was  admitted  by  all,  John  vii.  31 ; 

iii.  2.     The  eifect  on  those,  who  witnessed  the  7mr-  of  this 
acles,  in  a  teachable  spirit,  was  a  deep  conviction  of 
his  Messiahsliip,  John  vi.  14;   ii.  11,  etc.,  as  the  effect  of  the 
record  of  those  miracles,  and  of  the  doctrines  they  confirmed, 
ought  to  be  saving  faith,  John  xx.  30,  31. 

176.  But  did  he  not  deceive  the  people ?     How?     He  intro- 
duced his  religion  among  enemies.      He  wrought  his  ^jj  i,o 
miracles  openly.     The  senses  of  men  were  able  to  <^®<^^'^®- 
judge  of  them.     His  adversaries  narrowly  watched  his  pro- 


112  EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 

ceedings,  John  ix.  And  why?  He  foresaw  and  foretold  his 
death.  He  promised  his  disciples  persecution  an,d  sufrering, 
and  he  enforced  and  practised  universal  holiness. 

But  was  he  not  hmiself  deceived?  Whence,  then,  the  so- 
briety and  holiness  of  his  precepts,  the  disheartening  faithful- 
ness of  his  warnings,  the  dissimilarity  between  his  teachings 
and  the  expectations  of  his  countrymen?  No  one  mark  of 
enthusiasm  is  to  be  found  in  Him. 

The  predictions  of  our  Lord  in  this  respect  were  soon 
fulfilled. 

Most  of  the  apostles  seem  to  have  sealed  their  testimony 
w^ith  their  blood,  and  each  nobly  endured  the  trial.  The  fol- 
lowing facts  are  gathered  chiefly  from  ecclesiastical  history. 
They  are  not  all,  however,  equally  certain : 

Matthew  suffered  martyrdom  (by  the  sword)  in  Ethiopia.  Mark 
died  at  Alexandria  after  being  dragged  though  the  streets  of  that  city. 
Luke  was  hanged  on  an  olive-tree  in  Greece.  John  was  put  into  a 
cauldron  of  boiling  oil,  but  escaped  death,  and  was  banished  to  Patmos. 
Peter  was  crucified  at  Eome  with  his  head  downwards.  James  was 
beheaded  at  Jerusalem.  James  the  Less  was  thrown  from  a  pinnacle  of 
the  temple,  and  beaten  to  death  below.  Philip  was  hanged  against  a 
pillar  in  Phrygia.  Bartholomew  was  flayed  alive.  Andrew  was  bound 
to  a  cross,  whence  he  preached  to  his  persecutors  till  he  died.  Thomas 
was  run  through  the  body  at  Coromandel,  in  India.  Jude  was  shot  to 
death  with  arrows.  Matthias  was  first  stoned  and  then  beheaded. 
Parnabas  was  stoned  to  death  by  Jews  at  Salonica.  Paul,  "in  deaths 
oft,"  was  beheaded  at  Rome  by  Nero. 

Does  the  world  furnish  any  such  examples  of  sincerity  and 
ft  ith  Fulness  ? 

177.  In  truth  this  evidence  can  be  set  aside  only  by  sup- 
if  miv.-i/-ies  P^siug  a  miracle  greater  than  all.  If  Christ  were 
Kivutc'r mir-  ^'''^  ^'^'oui  God,  wc  have  a  Jewish  peasant  changing 
.■icUMiiuvthc  the  religion  of  the  world,  weaving  into  the  story  of 
his  life  the  fulfilment  of  ancient  predictions,  and  a 
morality  of  the  purest  order,  as  unlike  the  traditional  teach- 
ing of  his  coinitiyiuoii  ;is  it,  w.ns  superior  to  the  jirccepts  of 
(Jenlile  jihiluriophy ;   enduring  with  most  peculiar  composure 


EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE — MIRACLES.  113 

intense  suffering,  and  inducing  liis  followers  to  submit  to  simi- 
lar privations,  and  many  of  them  to  a  cruel  death,  in  support 
not  of  opinions,  but  of  the  alleged  fact  of  his  miraculous  resur- 
rection. We  have,  then,  these  followers,  "unlearned  men," 
going  forth  and  discoursing  on  the  sublimest  themes,  persuad- 
ing the  occupiers  of  Roman  and  Grecian  cities  to  cast  away 
their  idols,  to  renounce  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  to  reject 
the  instructions  of  their  philosophy,  and  to  receive  instead,  as 
a  teacher  sent  from  heaven,  a  Jew  of  humble  station,  who  had 
been  put  to  a  shameful  death.  And  all  impostors!  To  receive 
this  explanation  of  the  acknowledged  facts  is  to  admit  a  greater 
miracle  than  any  which  the  Bible  contains. 

178.  These  remarks  apply  in  a  similar  way  to  the  miracles 
of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  the  whole  may  be  exa-  ^    ,.  . 

.    ,  Leslie  s 

mined  by  the  tests  laid  down  (in  Leslie's  tract)  as  tests  of 
infallible  marks  of  the  reality  of  miraculous  appear-  aiipeiimn- 
ances.     1.  Were  they  such  as  men's  senses  could 
judge  of?    2.  Were  they  public  ?    3.  Were  public  monuments 
kept  up,  and  some  outward  actions  performed  in  memory  of 
the  events  thus  publicly  wrought?  and  4.  Were  such  monu- 
ments and  observances  set  up  at  the  very  time  when  the 
events  took  place,  and  were  they  afterwards  continued  with- 
out intermission?     'Y:\iq  first  two  tests  render  it  impossible  for 
men  to  be  deceived  at  the  time,  and  the  last  two  as  impossible 
for  deception  to  be  practised  in  any  subsequent  age.     If  the 
reader  will  aj)ply  these  tests  to  the  miracles  of  the  Bible,  and 
then  to  the  alleged  miracles  of  other  teachers,  he  will  see  at 
once  the  distinction  between  the  false  and  the  true. 

179.  Prophecies  are  miracles  of  knowledge,  as  miraculous 
acts  are  miracles  of  power.     These  last  generally 

.  .  .       Pl-riphnny  a 

bring  their  own  evidence  with  them,  w^hile  the  evi-  niiiacie  of 
dence  of  the  former  is  gradual  and  accumulative. 

The  study  of  prophecy  and  of  its  fulfilment  is  highly  in- 
structive, both  for  the  confirmation  of  our  faith  and  for  the 
enlightenment  of  the  chni'ch.     Tlie  want  of  books,  which  Lord 
Bacon  noted  in  this  department,  has  been  largely  supplied  iu 
10* 


114  EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE — PROPHECY. 

later  times,  especially  by  such  works  as  those  of  Newton  and 
Keith. 

180.  In  order  that  predictions  may  form  part  of  the  evi- 

dence of   Scripture,  it  is  necessary,  first,  that  the 

Requisites  itti  ii  ii- 

ofpropiietic  event  foretold  be  beyond  human  calculation  and 
foresight ;  secondly,  that  the  prediction  be  known 
before  the  event  takes  place ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  prediction 
be  fulfilled  without  an  intentional  regard  to  the  Divine  pur- 
pose on  the  part  of  the  agent.  If  prudence  could  h.s,YQ  foreseen 
the  result,  the  prediction  may  be  but  an  instance  of  human 
sagacity.  If  the  result  was  not  foretold,  there  is  no  prophetic 
evidence.  And  if  the  prediction  led  men  to  seek  its  fulfilment, 
the  fulfilment  is  the  result  of  human  contrivance.  There  are, 
indeed,  predictions  to  which  all  these  marks  do  not  apply ;  but 
such  predictions,  though  useful  for  other  purposes,  cannot  be 
regarded  as  decisive  evidence  of  Scripture  truth. 

181.  Prophetic   evidence,  it  may  be  noticed,  runs  through 

the  Bible,  and  each  dispensation  has  its  appropriate 

Pervades 

the  Bii.ieto   predictions. 

Immediately  after  the  fall,  we  have  the  promise 
of  a  Saviour:  in  the  days  of  Enoch,  predictions  of  a  coming 
judgment :  in  the  days  of  Noah,  of  the  flood.  After  the  flood, 
prophecy  gave  a  new  charter  of  temporal  blessing,  and  prom- 
ised a  continuance  of  the  seasons  to  the  end  of  time.  In  Abra- 
ham, it  founded  the  double  covenant  of  Canaan  and  the  gospel, 
promising  to  his  seed  a  country,  of  which  he  jDOssessed  only  his 
burying-place,  and  to  all  nations,  that  in  his  great  descendant 
they  should  be  blessed.*  It  foretold  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  and 
promised  deliverance.''  By  Jacob,  it  foretold  the  future  his- 
tory of  the  patriarchs  and  of  their  descendants." 

During  the  bondage  of  Egypt  the  gift  was  withheld,  but  was 
renewed  at  the  giving  of  the  law.     It  then  foretold 

To  tlie  "iv-  .  -, 

iiig  of  tSe     the  coming  of  a  second  and  mightier  prophet,^  the 
future  dignity  of  Judah,*  and  the  destinies  of  the 

«  Gen.  xii.  2,  3  ;  xv.  13.  •>  (icn.  xv,  14.  «  Gen.  49. 

<*  iJeuL.  iviii.  15.  « I^um.  2'6. 


EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE — PROPHECY.  115 

Hebrew  people  to  the  end  of  time:"  while  the  whole  of  the 
dispensation  foreshadowed  in  types  the  great  doctrines  of  the 
gospel. 

A  pause  of  four  hundred  years  follows  the  giving  of  the 
law  ;  and  a  pause  oi  like  duration  precedes  the  coming  of  our 
Lord. 

In  the  days  of  Samuel,  whose  prophetic  office  is  distinctly 
noticed,''  it  foretold  the  consequences  of  the  election  „,  ,,  , 
of  a  temporal  king,"  the  death  of  Saul,*  the  appoint-  of  Solomon, 
ment  and  character  of  David,*  the  establishment  of  his  king- 
dom,^ the  birth  and  character  of  Solomon  ;8  and  afterwards  the 
division  of  the  kingdom,*"  the  overthrow  of  the  idol-altar  at 
Bethel,'  and  the  dispersion  of  Israel.  Contemporaneously  we 
find  brief  sketches  of  the  nature  and  future  progress  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ. 

The  prophecies  and  miracles  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  occupy  an 
important  place  in  the  narrative  of  the  two  king- 
doms,^ and  reach  in  their  evidence,  nearly  to  the  days  ijiictic  pe^ 
of  Jonah,  with  whom  the  series  of  Hebrew  prophets 
may  be  said  to  begin.  Amos  foretold  the  destruction  of  Sa- 
maria, and  the  final  dispersion  of  the  Ten  Tribes,''  as  does 
Isaiah,'  who  also  foretells  the  temporary  captivity  of  Judah  by 
Babylon,"  a  small  and  fi'iendly  state,  and  the  deliverance  of 
Hezekiah  from  Assyria,  whose  forces  then  surrounded  Jerusa- 
lem." The  most  prominent  circumstances  of  the  captivity 
were  all  foretpld, — the  time  of  its  continuance,  seventy  years," 
the  moral  reasons  for  it,'  the  issues  of  it,  the  course  of  means 

»  Deut.  iv.;  xxviii.;  xxxiii.  •>  1  Sam.  iii.  20. 

«  1  Sam.  viii.  11-18.  ■*  1  8am.  xxviii.  19. 

«  1  Sam.  xvi.  13, 14.  '  2  Sam.  vii.  12-17. 

g  1  Chron.  xxii.9;  seel  Kings  iv.  25.  •>  1  Kings  xi.  SI,  40. 

'  1  Kings  xiii.  J  2  Kings  1-12. 

^  Amos  ix.  9,  etc.  '  Isa.  vii.  6-8. 

"'Isaiah  xxxix.  2-6.  "Isa.  xxxvii. 

"  Jer.  xxix.  10,  etc. 

p  Ezek.xxiv.:  J  ere.  xxx.  1-20:  Isa.  xxvii,  etc. 


116  EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE — PROPHECY.      - 

by  wliic'h  it  w;is  to  terminate.*  The  names  of  nations  scarcely 
then  known,  and  of  a  conqueror  not  yet  born,  are  introduced, 
and  the  whole  prediction  has  given  to  it  the  distinctness  of 
history. 

During  the  whole  period,  the  prophets  pre-signify  an  ap- 
proaching change  of  the  Mosaic  covenant,  give  the  future  his- 
Ijory  of  the  chief  pagan  nations,  and  complete  the  announce- 
ment of  the  Messiah  and  his  work  of  redemption. 

In  the  captivity,  we  have  the  predictions  of  Obadiah,  of 
Daniel,  and  (in  part)  of  Ezekiel.  After  the  captivity,  the 
j)rophecies  of  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  cheered  tlie 
builders  of  the  temjole,  and  point  yet  more  earnestly  to  the 
advent  of  the  gospel. 

Thus  it  is  that  prophecy  makes  its  earliest  and  latest  work, 
preparation  for  Christianity.  The  office  and  work  of  our  Lord 
are  set  forth  as  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  earlier  revelation 
of  God. 

,     ,.        182.   This  subordination  of  prophecy  to  one  great 

All  suljordi-  ... 

natp.  toone    obiect  deserves  closer  investigation. 

end. 

We  know  that  in  fact  the  religion  of  the  Bible  is 
generally  acknowledged  among  two  hundred  millions  of  the 
human  race  ;  and  that  while  other  systems  indicate  speedy  dis- 
solution, it  continues  to  extend  on  all  sides,  and  seems  destined 
to  fill  the  earth.  Little  more  than  eighteen  hundred  years 
ago  it  had  not  one  thousand  followers.  This  fact  is  itself  sig- 
nificant, but  becomes  doubly  so  when  connected  with  the 
Scripture  predictions  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us. 

It  was  distinctly  foretold  that  this  mighty  change  should 
Th  ork  of  ^^-^^^  place  ;  that  it  should  be  effected  by  the  seed  of 
theMessiah.  the  woman*"  (itself  an  apparently  contradictory  ex- 
pression) ;  that  it  should  be  in  connection  with  the  people  who 
were  to  spring  from  Abraham;"  that  though  in  connection  with 

*  Isa.  xiii.  19 ;  xiv.  3 ;  xliv. ;  xlv. :  Jer.  xxv.  1 :  Ei;ck.  ii. ;  xii. ;  xxiii.,  etc. 
•>  Gen.  iii.  15. 
■=  Gen.  xxii.  18. 


EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE — PROPHECY.  117 

tliein,  it  would  be  by  means  of  a  new  covenant;"  that  not  the 
whole  nation,  but  one  out  of  the  nation,  was  to  be  author  of 
this  change ;  that  he  was  to  be  despised  and  condemned  by 
his  countrymen,  and  though  put  to  death,  was  to  establish  a 
lastina:  and  extensive  kingdom.'' 

The  ancient  books  speak  with  equal  clearness  of  his  human 
and  Divine  nature;"  of  his  descent  from  Isaac,  not  Ishmael; 
from  Jacob,  not  Esau;  from  Judah,  not  from  Reuben,''  the 
eldest  son,  or  Levi,  the  father  of  the  priestly  tribe;  and  from 
David,  the  youngest  of  the  sons  of  Jesse.®  They  mention  the 
time  of  his  coming;'  the  place  and  circumstances  of  his  birth ;8 
his  offices  as  prophet,  priest,  and  king;''  the  scene  of  his  earliest 
ministry;'  his  miracles,^  his  sufferings,  and  his  death;''  his 
resurrection  and  ascension ;'  his  bestowment  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;™ 
and  the  final  and  general  extension  of  his  truth."  These  are 
but  specimens  of  upwards  of  one  hundred  predictions  gene- 
rally delivered  in  clear  and  explicit  language ;  all  referring  to 
the  work  or  person  of  our  Lord,  and  exclusive  of  the  typical 
and  allusive  predictions  which  in  their  ultimate  application 
terminate  in  him. 

183.  These  predictions  were  most  of  them  delivered  at  least 
six  hundred  years  before  he  appeared,  were  many  of  ,. 
them  highly  improbable,  and  even  apparently  con-  "«s.s  „f 
tradictory,  and  are  all  so  remarkable  as  to  imjoly  the  dictions  as 
exercise  of  miraculous  wisdom  and  jDower.     A  loose 
general  prediction   (of   some   great   conrjueror,   for   example) 
might  have  been   made  by  guess,  but  a  series  of  predictions 
containing  many  minute  and  seemingly  opposite  particulars, 

»  Jer.  xxxi.  31 ;  xxxii.  40:  Ezek.  xxxvii.  26:  Mic.  iv.  1. 

*>  Isa.  ix.  6;  xi.  1 :  Ezek.  xxxiv.  23.         <=  Isa.  ix.  6. 

^  Gen.  xlix.  10.  >••  1  Sam.  xvi.  11 ;  Jer.  xxiii.5. 

f  Gen.  xlix.  10:  Dan.  ix.  24;  vii. :  Hag.  ii.  G-9. 

g  Mic.  V.  2:  Isa.  vii.  14.  '■  Psa.  ex.:  Zoch.  vi.  13:   Isa.  Ixi.  1. 

'  Isa.  ix.  1 :  Matt.  iv.  14.  J  Isa.  xxxv.  5,  fi. 

k  Psa.  xxii.  16:  Isa.  liii.  '  Psa.  Ixviii.  18. 

'"Joel  ii.  28.  nisa.  liii.:  ix.  7:  Psa.  ii.  vi.;  xxii. 


118  EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE — PKOPHECY. 

all  fulfilled  in  tlie  23er.son  of  our  Lord,  could  liave  beon  given 
only  by  Him.  who  worketh  all  things  after  the  counsel  of  his 
own  will. 

How  instructive  to  notice  that  while  no  man  is  the  theme 
„.  .  of  any  series  of  jJi'ophetic  revelations — not  even 
mony  of      Moses — the  Messiah  is  the  theme  of  all.     When  He 

Jesus  tlio 

spirit  of        came  he  had  his  sign  before  him  as  well  as  with  him. 

prophecy.  .  ° 

It  was  in  the  form  and  for  the  purpose  which  God 
himself  had  foretold  "  by  the  mouth  of  his  holy  prophets,  who 
have  been  since  the  world  began,"  Luke  ii.  70. 

184.  Nor  are  the  destinies  of  other  nations  overlooked.  God 
„  revealed  to  Noah  the  history  of  his  descendants ;  Ca- 

Pagan  na-  •'  ' 

tions  noticed  naan,  a  servant  of  servants,  as  his  descendants  have 

in  conriec-  ' 

tion  with       long  been;  Japheth   enlaro;ed  and  dwellino;  in  the 

the  gospel.  &  '         i  o  o 

tents  of  Shem,  or  Europe  master  of  Asia.  To  Abra- 
ham he  revealed  the  remote  judgment  that  awaited  Egypt  and 
the  Amo rites,  and  the  nearer  judgment  of  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah. Balaam  spoke  of  the  Hebrews,  of  the  rise  of  Christianity, 
and  of  the  visitations  which  were  to  fall  upon  the  Amalekites, 
the  Kenites,  and  the  Assyrians.  Moses  foretold  the  rise  of 
the  Roman  power  eight  hundred  years  before  its  existence. 

Of  Ishmael  it  was  foretold  three  thousand  years  ago  that  his 
family  should  dwell  in  the  presence  of  their  enemies ;  that  their 
hands  should  be  against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand 
against  them.  And  to  this  day  they  are  unsubdued,  though 
Sesostris,  and  Cyrus,  and  the  Romans,  and  the  Turks  have  all 
attempted  to  conquer  them. 

In  the  prophets  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  power  by 
Alexander,"  of  Babylon,  of  Tyre,""  and  of  Egypt,''  is  sketched 
either  before  those  status  had  risen  into  greatness  or  at  the 
time  when  they  were  among  the  mightiest  nations.  The  con- 
quests of  the  Saracens  and  of  the  Turks,''  the  names  of  the 
kingdoms  which  were  to  escape  their  power  or  to  fall  under  it, 

»  Dan.  xi.  2,  4.  ''  Ezek.  xxviii.  1-20 

e  Ezek.  xxix.  H,  15.  "  L»iiu.  xi.  40,  41. 


EVIDENCES — PROPnECY THE    JEWS.  119 

the  history  of  Edom,'' of  Moab,''  of  Ammon,'  and  Philistia,'' are 

all  foretold  with  such  minuteness  and  peculiarity  as  proves 

that   each   must   have    been   present   to    the    vision    of   the 

prophet. 

These   predictions  were  given   amidst   the  decays  of  the 

Jewish  covenant,  and  were  intended  to  rebuke  the 

pride  of  the  nations,  to  administer  consolation  and      Objoct  o{ 
i-  tiicse  pro- 

instruction,  and,  above  all,  to  lead  the  thoughts  of     p'lecies. 

men  to  that  kingdom  which  could  not   be  moved.     In  the 

midst  of  the  captivity  Daniel  numbered  and  weighed  the  kino-- 

doms  of  the  earth,  and  pointed  to  the  dominion  of  the  Ancient 

of  Days.     See  Davison,  p.  303. 

185.  To  these  facts  it  may  be  added  that  every  promise 
realized  in  this  life,  every  answered  prayer,  every 

act  of  honored  faith,  every  spiritual  blessing  ob-  promises 
tained  as  the  result  of  spiritual  obedience,  is  a  projihAey. 
fulfilled  prediction ;  while  the  typical  persons  and  events  of 
the  previous  economy  still  further  swell  the  prophetic  evi- 
dence of  the  faith,  till  we  have  at  length  a  series  of  prophecies 
so  full  and  so  clear  as  to  defy  all  explanation  short  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  Almighty.  See  on  this  subject  Fleming's 
Fulfilling  of  Scripture. 

186.  To  form  a  more  definite  idea  of  these  predictions,  and 
of  the  completeness  v^/ith  which  they  fulfil  tlie  renui- 

.,  „  .  .,  „       -r-,.  Instances  of 

Sites  ol  prophecy  as  an  evidence  of  a  Divme  revela-  fuminient. 
tion  (see  §  180),  the  reader  may  compare  Psa.  xxii.  and  Isa. 
liii.  with  the  Gospels ;  or  he  may  take  the  predictions  of  the 
Pentateuch*  on  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people,  wliich  are 
referred  to  by  Nehemiah,'  and  in  part  repeated  in  the  books 
of  Amos,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.  The  Pentateuch  has  been  in 
hostile  keeping  for  more  than  2500  years,  and  all  the  predic- 
tions were  known  and  quoted  by  other  writers  2000  years  acfo, 

»  Jcr.  xlix.,  etc.  b  jm.  xlviii. 

=  Ezek.  XXV.  2-10:  Zeph.  ii.  9,  etc.  ■)  Ezck.  xxv. 

«Deut.  xxviii.  64,  G5:  Lev.  xxvi.  .32,  33.  f  Neh.  i.  3. 


120  EVIDENCES — PROPHECY. 

The  priority  of  the  propliecy,  therefore,  to  the  fulfilment,  is 
in  this  case  undoubted. 

187.   When  the  promise  was  first  given  to  Abraham  he  was 
„,    r  childless:''  and  nearly  200  years  afterwards,  during 

Tlie  Jews.  .  '  r> 

which  time  the  promise  was  often  renewed,  the 
family  had  increased  to  only  seventy  souls.**  Their  preserva- 
tion and  greatness  was  foretold  by  Balaam*  and  Moses,  when 
such  a  result  was  highly  improbable ;  when  the  whole  nation 
was  under  the  Divine  displeasure,  and  nations  mightier  than 
themselves,  and  whom  they  were  commanded  to  exterminate, 
had  combined  to  destroy  them.  Isaiah  foretold  the  captivity 
in  the  days  of  a  pious  king  and  a  prosperous  government. 
Jeremiah's  predictions  of  deliverance  were  given  when  utter 
destruction  threatened  them  in  Babylon,  and  when  ten  of  the 
tribes  had  already  disappeared.* 

After  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  their  land  became  "trod- 
den down  of  the  Gentiles,"*  and  they  were  driven  from  their 
country.  For  nearly  2000  years  they  have  been  without  dis- 
tinction of  tribes,  without  a  prince,  without  government,  or 
temple,  or  priesthood,  or  sacrifice ;  dispersed,  and  yet  pre- 
served ;  scattered,  and  yet  kept  from  mixture ;  and  they  are  a 
proverb  and  a  bye-word  still.  These  are  events  without  a 
parallel,  and  opposed  to  all  our  experience.  Man  could  not 
have  foreseen  them,  as  certainly  man  has  not,  of  his  own  pur- 
pose, accomplished  them.  To  make  the  lesson  morally  com- 
plete, the  law  remains,  and  the  Jews  guard  the  very  prophecies 
which  their  history  fulfils  ;  so  that  they  have  become  not  only 
"a  reproach  and  a  taunt,"  but  an  "instruction"  unto  the  na- 
tions that  are  round  about  them  (Ezek.  v.  15). 

188.  Their  history  becomes  the  more  impressive  when  com- 
_,  „ ,  pared  with  that  of  the  Edomites.  Both  were  des- 
lies.  cended  from   Isaac.      The   latter  rose  earlier  into 

power,  were  never  scattered  by  captivities,  and  when  Jeru- 
salem was    destroyed,  they  formed  a  flourishing  commujuty. 

"Gen.  XV.  2.  i*  Gen.  xlvi.  27.  «  Numb,  xxiii.  9. 

•I  Jer.  XXX.  10,  11 ;  xxxiii.  25,  26;  xlvi.  27,  28.        ''Luke  xxi.  24. 


EVIDENCES PROPHECY BABYLON.  121 

Thirty  ruined  towns,  -vvithin  three  days'  journey  of  the  Red  Sea, 
attest  their  former  greatness. 

Utter  desolation,  both  of  the  country^  and  of  the  family  of 
Esau,  was  foretold,  Jer.  xlix.  17,  10  :  Obad.  viii,  and  utter  deso- 
lation is  now  their  condition. 

They  were  dist'nguished  for  wisdom ;  now,  the  wanderers 
in  Edom  are  sunk  in  the  grossest  folly,  and  regard  the  ruins 
around  them  as  the  work  of  spirits,  Obad.  viii. 

Edom  lies  in  the  directest  route  to  India:  but  none  "shall 
pass  through  it  for  ever  and  ever,"  and  "even  the  Arabs," 
says  Keith,  "are  afraid  to  enter  it,  or  conduct  any  within  its 
borders,"  Isa.  xxxiv.  10.  The  people  who  visit  it  are  described 
as  a  most  savage  and  treacherous  race,  and  so  the  prophet 
foretold,  Mai.  i.  4. 

Its  desolation  is  said  to  be  perpetual,  Jer.  xlix.  7-22,  and 
travellers  state  that  the  whole  country  is  a  vast  expanse  of 
sand,  drifted  up  from  the  Red  Sea. 

What  human  foresight  could  have  foretold  destinies  so 
distinct  ? 

We  may  add  one  or  two  examples  more : — 
189.  One  hundred  and   sixty   years  before  Babylon   was 
overthrown,  Ij^aiah  delivered  his  prophecv.     Judea  „  ,   , 

■'■■'■•'  Babylon; 

was  then  a  powerful  kingdom.  Persia,  the  native  prophecies, 
country  of  Cyrus,  was  yet  in  barbarism,  and  Babylon  itself 
was  only  rising  into  notice,  its  existence  being  scarcely  known 
to  the  Hebrews. 

One  hundred  yea'rs  later  than  Isaiah,  Jeremiah  prophesied  : 
and  at  that  time  Babylon  was  "  the  glory  of  kingdoms,"  "  the 
praise  of  the  whole  earth."  Nebuchadnezzar  had  enlarged 
and  beautified  the  city,  and  through  all  that  region  his  au- 
thority was  supreme. 

Isaiah  begins  these  predictions,  foretells  the  overthrow  of 
the  city,  calls  its  conqueror  Cyrus  by  name,"  intimating  that 
this  was  his  surname,  and  not  given  him  at  his  birth.**     He 

» Isa.  xliv.  28  :  xlv,  1,  »>  Jsa.  xlv.  4. 

11 


122  EVIDENCES — PROPHECY — NINEVEH. 

summons  people  from  Elam  (Persia,)  and  Media,"  tells  how  the 
city  will  be  entered,  the  river  dried  up,  the  two-leaved  gates 
left  open,  and  the  place  taken  by  surprise  during  a  night  of 
revelry  and  drunkenness.''  Both  prophets  add,  that  the  place 
is  to  be  for  ever  uninhabited,  a  lair  of  wild  beasts,  and  a  place 
of  stagnant  waters." 

A  century  after  the  first  of  these  prophecies  was  delivered, 
they  began  to  be  fulfilled.  Nebuchadnezzar  conquered  Judea, 
and  in  two  independent  historians,  Herodotus  and  Xenophon, 
(the  former  of  whom  lived  250  years  after  Isaiah,  and  the 
latter  350,)  we  have  historical  proof  of  the  minute  accuracy 
of  all  the  predictions.  Herodotus  states  that  Cyrus  assumed 
that  name  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  Bk.  i.  114.  Xeno- 
phon notes  the  miscellaneous  character  of  his  army,  but  spe- 
cially mentions  the  Persians  and  Medes,  Cyrop.  v.  cui.  38. 
Both  writers  have  left  a  careful  account  of  the  siege,  of  the 
diversion  of  the  river,  of  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  of  the 
death  of  the  king. 

Strabo  says  that  in  his  time  the  city  was  a  vast  solitude. 
Lucian  affirms,  that  "  Babylon  will  soon  be  sought  for  and  not 
found,  as  is  already  the  case  with  Nineveh,"  c.  16.  Pausanias 
states  that  nothing  was  left  but  the  walls,  c.  viii.  §  33  ;  Jerome, 
that  in  his  time  it  was  a  receptacle  for  beasts ;  and  modern 
travellers  (including  Sir  R.  K.  Porter),  testify  to  the  universal 
desolation.  "It  is  little  better  than  a  SAvamp,  and  I  could 
not  help  reflecting  (says  one,)  how  faithfully  the  various 
prophecies  have  been  fulfilled." 

190,  A  still  larger  city,  and  no  less  sighal  as  a  monument 
of  Divine  power  was  Nineveh,  a  place  as  ancient  as 

Nineveh.  -^  '■ 

Asshiar,  the  son  of  Shem,  and  at  one  time  nearly 
sixty  miles  round.  This  city  abounded  in  wealth  and  pride. 
"I  am,"  said  she,  "and  there  is  none  beside  me,"  Zeph.  ii, 
15.    Jonah  was  therefore  sent  to  foretell  her  ruin ;  and  though 

^  Isa.  xxi.  2  ;  xiii.  4,  5  :  Jer.  li.  27,  28. 
"Isa.  xliv.  27;  xlv.  1:  Jer.  li.  39,  57;  1.  38. 
"Isa.  xiii.  20-22;  xiv.  23:  Jer.  li.  37,  38. 


EVIDENCES — MORALITY.  123 

she  repented,  yet,  within  a  few  years,  Nalium  was  commis- 
,«ioned  to  repeat  the  message  ;  a  hundred  years  later  still,  but 
filty  years  before  the  city  fell,  Zephaniah  again  foretold  its 
overthrow,  with  the  utmost  literalness,  the  account  of  the 
prophet,  when  compared  with  the  narrative  of  the  historian 
(Diodorus  Siculus),  reading  more  like  history  than  prediction. 
Lucian,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  and 
was  himself  a  native  of  that  region,  affirms  that  it  had  utterly 
perished,  and  that  there  was  no  footstep  of  it  remaining. 
Such  is  "  the  utter  end"  of  all  its  greatness. 

191.  It  is  to  such  facts  God  appeals.  "  Who  hath  declared 
this  from  ancient  times  ?     Have  not  I,  the  Lord  ?  . . . 

Look  unto  me,  and  be  ye  saved,  all  the  ends  of  the  cy  tEe^uiT 
earth  :  for  I  am  God,  and  there  is  none  else,"  Isa.  appeal^" 
xlv.  20,  21,  22. 

192.  The  evidences  of  Christianity  thus  far  considered,  are 
external  and   direct,  and  may  be  divided  into  the 
miraculous  and  prophetic.     A  larger  branch  of  evi-  evidence, 
dence    remains^the    moral,  the  literary,  and   the  Spiritual? 
spiritual ;  or,  to  apply  one  title  to  all,  the  internal. 

193.  If  the  Bible  is  not  of  God,  it  must  be  a  cunningly 
devised  fable ;  and  the  question  which  internal  evi-  , .   .    „ 

.  .        .  Limit  of 

dence  has  to  consider  is, — which  is  the  more  likelv  man's  abiii- 

mi  I         1  •  "      ty  to  judge 

supposition.      Though,  therefore,  it  seems  at  first  o"  iiitcnKai 

•    1  1  in  T      •  1  1  evidence. 

Sight,  that  we  are  hardly  competent  to  decide  what 
a  revelation  from  God  should  be,  yet  we  are  competent  to 
decide  on  this  alternative,  and  to  say,  whether  what  is  taught 
in  Scripture,  is  what  might  be  looked  for  from  enthusiasts 
or  impostors.  This  is  a  question  on  which  all  can  judge, 
though  it  requires  some  experience  and  knowledge  of  the 
world,  as  well  as  an  acquaintance  with  Scripture,  rightly  to 
ajipreciate  it. 

191.  The  first  peculiarity  of  Scripture  morality  is  the  im- 
portance which  is  everywhere  attached  to  holiness.  ].  import- 
Judging  from  what  we  know  of  systems  of  human     holi',',eL 


124  EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 

origin,  a  religion  from  man  would  either  liave  spent  its 
force  on  ritual  observance,  or  have  allowed  active  service 
on  its  behalf  to  make  amends  for  the  neglect  of  other  duties. 
Mohammedanism  gives  the  highest  place  to  those  who  fight 
and  fall  in  conflict.  Hindooism  rewards  most  the  observance 
of  ritual  worship.  Jewish  tradition  taught  that  all  Jews  were 
certainly  saved.  The  Scriptures,  on  the  contrary,  bring  all 
men  iuto  the  presence  of  a  Being  of  infinite  holiness,  before 
whom  the  most  exalted  human  characters  fall  condemned;* 
and  they  declare  plainly,  that  nothing  we  can  say  or  do  in 
the  cause  of  Christ  can  make  up  for  the  want  of  practical 
virtue.  Those  who  have  preached  in  the  name  of  Christ  are 
to  be  disowned  if  they  be  workers  of  iniquity,''  and  the  recep- 
tion of  the  true  faith  makes  Christian  holiness  only  the  more 
incumbent." 

195.  The  kind  of  moral  duty  which  the  Scriptures  teach  is 
2.  Pecu-  i^ot  such  as  man  was  likely  to  discover  or  to  ap- 
morli  °^  prove.  When  our  Lord  appeared,  the  Romans  were 
precepts  proud  of  their  military  glory,  and  the  Greeks  of 
their  superior  wisdom.  Aniiong  the  Jews  a  pl.a,risaic  spirit 
prevailed,  and  the  whole  nation  was  divided  between  opposing 
sects,  all  hating  their  conquerors,  however,  and  the  Gentile 
world  at  large.  An  enthusiast  would  certainly  have  become 
apai-tisan,  and  an  impostor  would  have  flattered  each  sect  by 
exposing  the  faults  of  the  rest,  or  the  nation  by  condemning 
their  conquerors.  Our  Lord  came,  on  the  contrary,  as  an  in- 
dependent teacher,  rebuked  all  error,  condemned  a"ll  the  sects, 
and  yet  did  nothing  to  court  the  favor  of  the  peo[>l<\  liis 
precepts,  bidding  men  to  return  good  for  evil,  to  love  their 
enemies,  to  be  humble  and  forgiving,  to  consider  every  race 
and  every  station  as  on  a  level  before  God,  were  acceptable  to 
none,  and  were  yet  repeated  and  enforced  with  the  utmost 
earnestness  and  consistency. 

a  Job  xl.  4:  Isa.  vi.  5.  Dan,  ix.  4:  1  Tim.  i.  15. 
*  Matt.  vii.  22,  23:  Luke  vi.  46. 
•^  i  Cor.  V.  ii,  12. 


EVIDENCES — MORALITY.  125 

196.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  men  are  always  ready  to 
commend  a  greater  degree  of  purity  than  they  are  Not  only 
prepared  to  practice,  and  that  ancient  philosophers  umwm 
wrote  treatises  describing  a  much  nobler  virtue  than  btuVon^' 
was  found  among  their  countrymen.     This  is  true,  *''''^''^'  ^°  ^*' 
and  if  the  Jewish  fishermen  had  studied  philosophy,  it  would 
not  have  been  wonderful  if  they  had  taught  a  higher  morality 
than  men  generally  practised.    But  they  were  "ignorant  men," 
and  their  precepts  go  not  only  beyond  what  men  practiced, 
but  beyond  what  they  approved.     The  gospel  is  not  only  bet- 
ter than  human  conduct,  it  is  often  contrary  to  it.     The  endu- 
rance of  suffering,  the  forgiveness  of  injury,  and  the  exercise 
of  a  submissive  spirit,  were  not  only  not  practiced,  they  were 
not  admired ;   and  while  the  gospel  teaches  these  duties,  it  ex- 
hibits them  in  combination  with  a  spiritual  heroism  of  which 
the  world  knows  nothing,  and  which  has  ever  been  supposed 
inconsistent  with   the   patient  virtues  which   the   Scriptures 
enjoin. 

197.  Add  to  these  facts  another  (on  which  Paley  has  en- 
larged), namely,  that  Scripture  seeks  to  regulate  the 
thoughts  and  motives  of  men,  and  is  content  with  tion  ot 

1-1  1  ni  i-T-p  Ti    rnotives. 

nothing  less  than  a  state  of  heart  which  refers  all 
our  actions  to  God's  will ;  and  it  must  be  felt  that  the  mo- 
rality of  the  gospel  is  not  of  man.     Bad  men  could  not  have 
taught  such  truths,  and  good  men  would  not  have  deceived 
the  people. 

198.  But  there  is  yet  another  peculiarity  in  the  morality 
of    Scripture,  equally  true  in  itself   and    striking. 

Sin  is  everywhere  spoken  of  as  an  evil  aqainst  God,  arity  in  re- 

-1  ,  .^    .  ,        .  "^  ^  lationto 

and  everywhere  it  is  not  the  instrument  or  human  God  and  sin. 
agent  who  is  exalted,  but  Ood  alone.  The  first  no- 
tion is  inconsistent  with  all  heathen  philosophy,  and  the  second 
with  the  natural  tendency  of  the  human  heart.  "This,"  says 
Cicero,  "is  the  common  principle  of  all  philosophers,  that  the 
•Deity  is  never  displeased,  nor  does  he  inflict  injury  on  man." 
De  Oflf.  iii.  28. 
11* 


126  EVIDEKCES — MORALITY. 

In  Scripture,  on  the  contrary,  sin  is  represented  as  an  evil 
and  bitter  thing,  because  it  is  dishonoring  to  God.  Hence  the 
destruction  of  the  Amalekites,*  of  Sennacherib,''  and  Belshaz- 
zar."  Hence  the  abandonment  of  the  Gentile  world  to  a  re- 
probate mind."^  Hence  God's  controversy  with  the  Jews^  and 
with  Moses/  Hence  Eli's^  punishment  and  David's.''  Hence 
the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,'  of  UzzahJ  and  Herod.''  Hence 
also  the  calamities  of  Solomon,  the  division  of  his  kingdom  into 
Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  captivity  and  destruction  of  both.' 

God  alone  is  honored.  The  great  object  of  aH  the  writers 
seems  to  be  to  lead  men's  thoughts  to  Him.  The  false  teacher 
gives  out  that  he  himself  is  some  great  one  (Acts  viii.  9),  but 
in  the  Bible  it  is  God  only  who  is  exalted.  This  rule  is  illus- 
trated in 

Moses,  Deut.  i.  31;  11.33;  111.3;  iv.  32-38:  Exod.  xviil.  8.  Joshua, 
Josh,  xxiil.  3.  David,  1  Chron.  xxix.  11,  14.  Daniel,  Dan.  11.  20,  23, 
30.  Ezra,  Ezra  vU.  28.  Nehemlah,  Neh.  11.  12.  Peter  and  John,  Acts 
ill.  12-16.     Paul,  Acts  xxi.  19:  1  Cor.  ill.  5:  2  Cor.  Iv.  7. 

Creation  is  represented  in  the  same  way  as  God  in  nature  i™ 
the  revolutions  and  progress  of  kingdoms  as  God  in  history." 
199.   It  is  in  part  with  the  view  of  strengthening  the  feel- 
ings which  these  peculiarities  produce,  that  faith  is 
made  the  principle  of  obedience  and  success.     In 
relation  to  God,  faith  is  the  confession  of  our  weakness,  and 
excludes  all  boasting ;    and  yet,  in  relation  to  success,  it  is 
omnipotent — a  truth  as  profoundly  philosophical  as  it  is  spirit- 
ually important.  And  yet  it  is  a  truth  revealed  only  in  the  Bible. 

«  Exod.  xvil.  16,  marg.  i"  2  Kings,  xlx.  22-37. 

«  Dan.  V.  23.  •>  Rom.  i.  21,  28. 

«  Heb.  111.  19.  f  Numb.  xx.  12. 

6  1  Sam.  11.  29,  30.  h  2  Sam.  xU.  9  (Ps.  11.  4). 

i  Lev.  X.  1-3,  10.  J  2  Sam.  vi.  7. 

k  Acts  xii.  23. 

'  1  Kings  xl.  3-14:  2  Kings  xvil.  14-20:  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  16,  17: 
Luke  xlx.  42-44:  Rom.  xi.  20. 

">  Psa.  civ.  10:  Jer.  v.  24:  Joel  ii.  23,  24:  Matt.  x.  29. 
o  Jer.  xvii.  7-10:  Dan.  iv.  35:  Jer.  xxv.  9:  Isa.  xliv.  28. 


EVIDENCES — MORALITY.  127 

Rom.  iii.  27:  Eph.  ii.  8,  9:  1  Cor.  i.  29-31:  John  xi.  40:  Isa.  vii.  9. 

200.  The  candor  and  sincerity  of  the  inspired  writers  are 
not  less  remarkable  than  their  moral  precepts,  and 

.         .  .,  ,  .   ,        .  ,  ,        .  Candor  and 

are  quite  incompatible  with  either  enthusiasm  or  sincerity  of 

Scripture. 

imposture. 

They  denounce  the  sins  of  the  people.  "  Ye  have  been  rebellious 
against  the  Lord  from  the  day  that  I  knew  you,"  says  Moses  (Deut.  ix. 
24),  and  all  later  writers  give  the  same  view.  Judges  ii.  19 :  1  Sam. 
xii.  12 :  Neh.  9. 

They  speak  of  themselves,  and  of  those  whose  characters  were  likely 
to  reflect  credit  upon  their  cause,  with  equal  plainness.  Moses  foretold 
that  the  Jews  would  break  his  law,  and  that  he  would  be  superseded 
by  a  greater  prophet. 

Gen.  xlix.  10 :  Deut.  xviii.  15,  18  :  Acts  vii.  38. 

He  records  with  all  fullness  the  sins  of  the  Patriarchs,  Gen.  xii. 
11-13;  XX.,  etc.;  of  his  grandfather  Levi,  Gen.  Ixix.  5-7;  of  his  brother 
Aaron,  and  of  his  elder  sons,  Exod.  xxxii.:  Lev.  x. :  nor  less  plainly 
his  own  sins.  Numb.  xx.  12:  xxvii.  12-14:  Deut.  xxxii.  51. 

In  the  same  spirit  the  evangelists  notice  their  own  faults  and  the 
faults  of  the  apostles.  Matt.  xxvi.  31-56:  John  x.  6;  xvi.  32:  Matt. 
viii.  10,  26;  xv.  16;  xvi.  7,  11;  xviii.  3;  xx.  20.  Mark  and  Luke 
speak  no  less  plainly,  Mark  vi.  52;  viii.  18;  ix.  32,  34;  x.  14;  xiv.  50, 
32,  35-45;  xvi.  14:  Luke  viii.  24,  25;  ix.  40-45;  xviii.  34;  xxii.  24; 
xxiv.ll.  With  equal  truthfulness  the  Scriptures  record  the  humiliatioa 
of  our  Lord,  his  sufferings  and  dejection.     Matt,  xxvii.  46:  Ileb.  v.  7. 

The  apostles  record  without  reserve  the  disorders  of  the  churches 
which  they  themselves  had  planted,  and  even  add  that  their  own  apos- 
tolic authority  had  been  questioned  among  them.  1  Cor.  i.  11;  v.  1: 
2  Cor.  ii.  4  ;  xi.  5-23  ;  xii.  20. 

It  is  thus  that  simplicity  distinguishes  the  Bible,  and  forces 
on  the  mind  the  conviction  that  its  authors  had  no  other 
"object  in  view  than  by  manifestation  of  the  truth  to  com- 
mend themselves  to  every  man's  conscience  in  the  sight  of 
God."     Lowth  on  the  Study  of  Scripture. 

201.  But  no  analysis  can  give  a  just  idea  of  the  morality 


128  EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 

No  analysis  0^  ^^16  Bible.  It  must  be  compared  in  tlie  bulk 
^jve adjust  with  other  teaching.  Men  have  praised  7)iaxims 
exi'J'i-'  '"*  ^'f  virtue,  or  appealed  to  the  moral  seiitiments  of  our 
icniMcs.  nature,  or  sought  to  promote  holiness  by  systems  of 
morals.  But  all  these  are  defective.  The  common  maxims 
of  virtue  are  mere  dictates  of  prudence,  without  authority  or 
influence.  Our  moral  sentiments  are  retiring  and  evanescent, 
easily  corrupted  by  the  strong  passions  in  whose  neighborhood 
they  dwell,  and  are  feeblest  when  most  wanted ;  and  systems 
of  morals,  like  all  processes  of  reasoning,  depend  on  the  per- 
fection of  our  faculties,  and  are  too  much  the  subject  of  dis- 
putation to  become  powerful  motives  of  holy  action.  All 
these  plans,  moreover,  are  defective  in  not  taking  into  account 
our  fall,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  for  our  recovery. 
Scripture,  on  the  other  hand,  teaches  the  Christian  to  use 
these  helps,  only  subordinating  "all  to  its  own  lessons.  It 
begins  its  work  with  a  recognition  of  our  ruin,  and  an  intelli- 
gent foresight  of  its  own  end;  brings  the  soul  into  harmony 
with  God  and  with  itself,  enlightens  and  educates  the  con- 
science, quickens  and  purifies  the  feelings,  subjects  instincts 
to  reason,  reason  to  love,  and  all  to  God ;  and  provides  an 
instrumentality  as  effective  and  practical  as  the  truths  it 
reveals  and  on  which  it  rests  are  unearthly  and  sublime. 

202.  Among  the  most  decisive  moral  proofs  of  the  Divine 
„,  ,  _  origin  of  Scripture  is  the  character  of  Christ.  It 
tcrofchnst.  ig  g,  proof,  howcver,  rather  to  be  felt  than  to  be 
described,  and  its  force  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  tone  of 
moral  sentiment  in  the  reader.  Holy  and  purer  minds  will 
feel  it  more  than  others,  and  such  as  are  like  Nathanael,  the 
"  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom  is  no  guile,"  will  exclaim  with 
him,  "  Rabbi,  thou  art  the  Son  of  God ;  thou  art  the  King  of 
Israel." 

Three  things  are  obvious  in  the  history  of  our  Lord.  (1.) 
The  whole  narrative  is  free  from  panegyric.  (2.)  The  char- 
acter is  wholly  unstudied  :  the  story  being  written  by  unprac- 


EVIDENCES — CHARACTER.  129 

tised  authors,  without  learning  or  eloquence ;  and,  moreover, 
(3.)  the  moral  character  of  Christ  is  unimpeached  even  by  the 
opponents  of  the  gosj^el.  His  apostles  appeal  to  all  men's 
testimony  to  his  morality,  as  a  fact  admitted  and  notorious. 
His  own  moral  teaching  was  an  appeal  of  the  same  kind,  for 
had  he  been  guilty  of  the  practices  he  condemns,  his  hearers 
would  have  been  sure  to  detect  and  reproach  his  inconsis- 
tency. 

That  his  holiness  was  admitted  generally  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing passages:  John  vii.  46-51;  viii.  46;  x.  32:  Matt.  xxvi.  59; 
xxvii.  23,  24  :  Luke  xxiii.  13-15 :  Acts  iii.  13-14 :  1  Pet.  ii.  21-23.  His 
benevolence  and  compassion  are  shown  in  John  iv. :  Luke  ix.  55 ;  x. 
30-37:  Mark  vii.  26,  etc.;  x.  13-21;  xlv.  52:  Luke  xiii.  16;  xiv.  12; 
xxii.  50,  51 :  Matt.  ix.  36,  etc. ;  xviii.  11,  etc.  His  kindness  and  affec- 
tion in  Matt.  xiv.  27-31 :  Luke  xix.  5 ;  xxii.  61 :  John  xi. :  xix.  25-27. 
His  meekness  and  humility  in  Matt.  ix.  28;  xviii.  22,  etc;  v.  1-12: 
Luke  xxii.  24:  John  xiii.  4.  His  moral  courage,  firmness  and  resigna- 
tion in  Matt.  xxvi.  39-46 :  Mark  x.  32 :  Luke  iv.  23,  etc. ;  xiii.  31, 
etc. ;  xviii.  29,  etc. :  John  xi.  7 ;  xviii.  4,  etc.  His  sincerity  and  abhor- 
rence of  hypocrisy  and  courting  popularity  in  Matt.  vi.  1-18  ;  x.  16-39; 
xxii.  18,  etc. :  Mark  xii.  38-40 :  Luke  xi.  44,  etc. :  John  xvi.  1-6.  His 
moderation  and  the  absence  of  enthusiastic  austerity,  Matt,  viii  19; 
xxiii.  23:  Luke  v.  29-35:  John  ii.  1,  etc.:  Mark  xii.  17. 

"  The  character  of  Christ  (says  an  eminent  writer),  is  a 
wonderful  proof  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Bible.     The  ^  .  .    ,., 

-'•  _  •'  Originality 

Hindoo    cannot  think  of  his  Brahmin  saint,  other  .ii'cf  beauty 

01  his  char- 

than  as  possessing  the  abstemiousness  and  austerity  acter. 
which  he  admires  in  his  living  models.  The  Socrates  of  Plato 
is  composed  of  el-ements  practically  Greek,  being  a  compound 
of  the  virtues  deemed  necessary  to  adorn  the  sage.  A  model 
of  the  Jewish  teacher  might  be  easily  drawn  from  the  writings 
of  the  Rabbis,  and  he  would  prove  to  be  the  very  reflection 
of  those  Scribes  and  Pharisees  who  are  reproved  in  the  Gospel. 
But  in  the  life  of  our  Redeemer,  a  character  is  represented 
which  departs  in  every  way  from  the  national  type  of  the- 
writers,  and  from  the  character  of  all  ancient  nations,  and  is 
at  variance  with  all  the  features  which  custom,   education, 


130  EVIDENCES — EFFECTS    OF   GOSPEL. 

religion  and  patriotism,  seem  to  have  consecrated  as  most 
beautiful.  Four  diflerent  authors  have  recorded  different 
facts,  but  they  exhibit  the  same  conception,  a  conception  dif- 
fering from  all  they  had  ever  witnessed  or  heard,  and  neces- 
sarily copied  from  the  same  original.  And  more,  this  glorious 
character,  while  borrowing  nothing  from  the  Greek,  or  Indian, 
or  Jew ;  having  nothing  in  common  with  established  laws  of  per- 
fection, is  yet  to  every  believer  a  type  of  excellence.  He  is 
followed  by  the  Greek,  though  a  founder  of  none  of  his  sects ; 
revered  by  the  Brahmin,  though  preached  by  one  of  the  fisher- 
man caste  ;  and  worshipped  by  the  red  man  of  Canada,  though 
belonging  to  the  hated  pale-race." 

203.  One  point  more  remains  on  the  morality  of  Scripture ; 
The  influ-     ^^^  effect  of  its  religion  on  the  character  of  men. 
SciTture  Apart  from  particular  facts  in   support  of  this 

on  individ-  truth,  it  IS  generally  admitted  that  the  doctrines 
society.  of  the  Bible  agree  with  its  precepts,  and  that  they 
contain  in  their  very  substance,  urgent  motives  to  holiness. 
It  is  on  this  principle  that  Fuller  proceeds  in  his  Gospel  its 
own  "Witness,  and  Erskine  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Internal 
Evidences.     See  also  1  Peter  ii.  12. 

We  confine  ourselves,  however,  to  a  few  facts  in  illustration 
of  the  general  truth.  The  effects  of  the  gospel  in  the  first 
age  are  well  known,  and  are  incidentally  told  us  in  the  Epis- 
tles. Paul  has  pointed  out  to  us  what  occurred  at  Corinth 
and  Ephesus,"  and  Peter,  the  efi'ects  which  were  produced  in 
Pontus  and  Galatia.**  In  a  dissolute  age,  and  under  the  worst 
governments.  Christians  (who  had  been  no  better  than  their 
"Neighbors),  reached  an  eminence  in  virtue  which  has  never, 
perhaps,  been  surpassed. 

Similar  appeals  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  early 
apologists.  Clement  of  Rome  (A.  D.  100),  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  commends  their  virtues.  "  Who,"  says  he, 
"ditl  ever  live  among  you,  that  did  not  admire  your  sober  and 

*  1  Cor.  vi.  11  :  Eph.  iv.  19 ;  ii.  1.  ^  1  Pet.  iv.  3. 


EVIDENCES — EFFECTS    OF  GOSPEL.  131 

moderate  piety,  and  declare  the  greatness  of  your  hospitality. 
You  are  humble  and  not  proud,  content  with  the  daily  bread 
which  God  supplies,  hearing  diligently  his  word,  and  enlarged 
in  charity."  Justin  Martyr  (A.  D.  165),  who  had  been  a  pla- 
tonic  philosopher,  says  in  his  Apology,  "Wo  who  formerly 
delighted  in  adultery,  now  observe  the  strictest  chastity ;  we 
who  used  the  charms  of  magic,  have  devoted  ourselves  to  the 
true  God ;  and  we  who  valued  money  and  gain  above  all 
things,  now  cast  what  we  have  in  common,  and  distribute  to 
every  man  according  to  his  necessities."  "You  (says  Minu- 
cius  Felix  to  a  heathen  opponent),  punish  wickedness  when  it 
is  covimitted ;  we  think  it  sinful  to  indulge  a  sinful  thought. 
It  is  with  your  party  that  the  prisons  are  crowded,  but  not  a 
single  Christian  is  there,  except  it  be  as  a  confessor  or  apos- 
tate." Tertullian,  the  first  Latin  ecclesiastical  writer  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us,  (A.  D.  220),  makes  a  similar 
appeal,  and  speaks  of  great  multitudes  of  the  Roman  empire 
as  the  subjects  of  this  change.  Origen  in  his  reply  to  Celsus 
(A.  D.  246),  Lactantius,  the  preceptor  of  Constantino  (A.  D. 
325),  repeat  these  appeals :  and  even  the  Emperor  Julian 
holds  up  Christians  to  the  imitation  of  Pagans,  on  account  of 
their  love  to  strangers  and  to  enemies,  and  on  account  of  the 
sanctity  of  their  lives. 

This  influence  of  the  gospel  was  early  seen  among  ancient 
nations.     In    Greece,  the   grossest   impurities   had     ,        .  , 

"  •■■  In  society 

been  encouraged  by  Lycurgus  and  Solon.  At  generally. 
Rome  they  were  openly  practiced  and  approved.  Among 
nearly  all  ancient  nations  self-murder  was  commended.  Sen- 
eca and  Plutarch,  the  elder  Pliny  and  Quinctilian,  applaud 
it,  and  Gibbon  admits  that  heathenism  presented  no  reason 
against  it.  Human  sacrifice,  and  the  exposure  of  children 
were  allowed,  and  even  enforced.  But  wherever  the  gospel 
came,  it  condemned  these  practices,  discouraged  and  finally 
destroyed  them.  That  it  was  not  civilization  that  suppressed 
them  is  certain,  for  they  were  kept  up  by  nations  far  superior 
to  the  Christians  in  refinement,  and  the  suppression  of  them 


ir>2  EVIDENCES — INTERNAL   AND    LITERARY. 

"Was  always  found  to  keep  pace,  not  with  the  progress  of  hu- 
man enlightenment,  but  of  Divine  truth. 

Xhe  relief  of  distress  and  the  care  of  the  poor  are  almost 
peculiar  to  Christian  nations.  In  Constantinople  there  was 
not,  before  Christianity  was  introduced,  a  single  charitable 
building  :  nor  was  there  ever  such  a  building  in  ancient  Rome. 
After  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  however,  the  former 
city  had  more  than  thirty  buildings  for  the  reception  of  or- 
phans, of  the  sick,  of  strangers,  of  the  aged,  and  of  the  poor. 
In  Rome  there  were  twenty -five  large  houses  set  apart  for  the 
same  purpose.  With  equal  certainty  it  can  be  established  that 
the  gospel  has  abolished  polygamy,  mitigated  the  horrors  of 
war,  redeemed  captives,  freed  slaves,  checked  the  spirit  of  feu- 
dal oppression,  and  improved  the  laws  of  barbarous  nations. 
"Truth  and  candor,"  says  Gibbon,  "must  acknowledge  that 
the  conversion  of  these  nations  imparted  many  temporal  bene- 
fits both  to  the  Old  and  New  World,  prevented  the  total 
extinction  of  letters,  mitigated  the  fierceness  of  the  times, 
sheltered  the  poor  and  defenceless,  and  preserved  or  revived 
the  peace  and  order  of  civil  society."* 

As  therefore  the  providence  of  God  is  seen  in  the  preser- 
vation of  the  Bible,  so  also  is  his  grace  in  its  effects :  and  those 
effects  bear  strong  testimony  to  its  Divine  origin,  1  Thess.  i. 
4-10 :  Gal.  5-22. 

204.  No  work  gives  a  better  view  of  man's  need  of  the 
gospel  than  Leland's,  On  the  Advantage  and  JVeces- 
sity  of  a  ChristioM  Revelation,  shown  from  the  state 
of  religion  in  the  ancient  heathen  world,  with  respect  to  the 
knowledge  and  worship  of  the  one  true  God,  a  rule  of  moral 
duty,  and  the  state  of  future  rewards  and  punishments.  He 
.shows  clearly  that  the  representations  of  Scripture  on  the  state 
of  the  Gentiles  are  literally  true,  and  that  idolatry  gathered 
strength  among  the  nations  as  they  grew  in  refinement ;  that 
the  ancient  philosophers  were  profoundly  wrong  in  the  first 

*  Gibbon's  History,  chap.  55.  For  a  large  collection  of  similar  facts, 
see  Ryan's  Effects  of  Religion,  i.  §  3,  and  App. 


EVIDENCES — INTERNAL   AND    LITERARY.  133 

principles  of  morality;  that  the  best  systems  were  lamentably 
defective,  and  that  all  rules  Avanted  clearness  and  authority ; 
that  as  to  a  future  life,  most  denied  it,  and  that  of  those  who 
professed  to  believe,  none  placed  it  on  grounds  satisfactory  or 
rational. 

205.  On  that  part  of  the  Scriptural  evidence  which  is  called 
the  harmony  of  revealed  truth,  it  is  not  possible  to  ^ 

'■  Literary 

enlarge:  and  the  subiect  has  been  fully  discussed  evidence. 

.  .  Harmonies. 

by  various  writers. 

On  the  agreement  between  the  hvo  Economies,  the  works  of 
Dr.  Kidder,  and  of  Dr.  W.  L.  Alexander,  will  be  found  highly 
interesting. 

On  the  agreement  between  the  doctrines  and  peculiarities 
of  Scripture,  and  the  facts  of  Nature,  the  Analogy  of  Bishop 
Butler  is  unrivalled. 

On  the  coincidences  between  sacred  and  general  history, 
the  works  of  Bryant,  Lardner,  Gray,  Prideaux,  Shuckford, 
and  Russell  may  be  consulted  with  satisfaction. 

On  coincidences  of  a  minute  and  statistical  character,  with 
the  geography  and  naiural  history  of  Palestine,  ample  mate- 
rials may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Harmer,  Clarke,  and 
Keith. 

On  coincidences  between  various  parts  of  the  record  itself, 
much  information  may  be  obtained  in  the  works  of  Graves, 
Blunt,  Paley,  and  Birks." 

These  coincidences  are  literally  innumerable,  and  are  inter- 
woven with  the  whole  texture  of  Scripture.  Some  are  ap- 
parently trifling,  as  when  it  is  said  that  our  Lord  went  down 
from  Nazareth  to  Capernaum ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  points  out  the 
graphic  consistency  of  the  phrase  with  the  geography  of  that 
region.  Others  are  deeply  affecting,  as  when  it  is  said  that 
blood  and  water  issued  *from  the  side  of  Jesus ;  and  medical 
authorities  affirm  that  if  the  heart  is  pierced  or  broken,  blood 

»  See   edition  of  Paley's    Evidence?,  with  Notes,   by  Birks ;    also 
Paley's  Horse  Paulina,  with  Horee  Aijostolioas,  by  Buks,  published  by 
Religious  Tract  Society. 
12 


134 


INCIDENTS — INTERNAL   AND    LITERARY. 


and  water  flow  from  the  wound.  Some  are  critical,  as  when 
it  is  remarked  that  at  no  time  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem could  any  known  writers  have  written  in  the  style  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible :  and  that  at  no  one  time  could  these 
various  books  have  been  written.  They  are  demonstrably 
the  work  of  different  authors,  and  of  different  ages.  Some 
are  historical,  as  when  it  is  noticed  that  after  the  time  of  the 
apostles  all  writers  applied  the  name  Christian  to  designate 
the  followers  of  Christ,  a  name  never  applied  in  the  New 
Testament  hy  Christians  to  designate  one  another:  the  very 
terms  which  the  apostles  employ  indicating  that  the  new  reli- 
gion was  the  completion  of  the  old — "chosen"  and  "faithful." 
Some  are  religious,  founded,  that  is,  on  the  peculiarities  of  the 
religious  system  revealed;  as  when  it  is  stated  that  the  religion 
of  the  New  Testament  is  the  only  one  in  which  is  omitted  the 
one  ordinance  which  would  have  been  natural  and  acceptable 
to  both  Jews  and  Pagans,  namely,  the  offering  of  animals  in 
sacrifice  :  an  instructive  omission. 

The  effect  of  the  whole  is  highly  impressive,  and  is  of  itself 
a  sufficient  proof  of  the  substantial  credibility  of  the  narrative, 
and  of  the  honesty  of  the  authors. 

Some  idea  of  Ptiley's  Horae  Paulinse  may  be  gathered  from 
ofSfi-ipture  fi'"^  examination  of  the  following  passages,  it  being 
witii  Itself,  pi^emised  that  the  books  quoted  were  written  either 
by  different  authors,  or  at  different  times,  and  with- altogether 
diflferent  purposes. 


Eom.  XV.  25,  26. 

Rom.  xvi.  21-24. 
Rom.  i.  13;  XV.  23, 
1  Cor.  iv.  17-19. 
1  Cor.  xvi.  10,  11. 
1  Cor.  i.  12;  iii.  6. 
1  Cor.  ix.  20. 
1  Cor.  i.  14-17. 


24. 


Acts  XX.  2,  3;   xxi.  17;  xxiv.  17-19: 

1  Cor.  xvi.  1-4 :  2  Cor.  viii.  1-4 ;  ix.  2. 
Acts  XX.  4. 
Acts  xix.  21. 
Acts  xix.  21,  22. 
Acts  xix.  21*:  1  Tim.  iv.  12. 
Acts  xviii.  27,  28  ;   xix.  1. 
Acts  xvi.  3 ;  xxi.  23,  26. 
Acts  xviii.  8:  Rom.  xvi.  23:  1  Cor.  xvi.  15. 


A  single  instance  may  be  yet  more  impressive.     Barnabas 


EVIDENCES — SPIRITUAL.  135 

fwe  are  told)  was  a  native  of  Cyprus,  who  sold  his 
property,  and  laid  the  naoney  at  the  apostles'  feet 
(Acts  iv.  36,  37).  We  are  told,  also,  quite  incidentally,  that 
Mark  was  his  nephew  (Col.  iv.  10).  Compare  these  facts 
with  the  following  passages  (where  it  is  stated  that  John 
Mark  went  as  far  as  Cyprus,  his  native  country,  and  soon  re- 
joined his  mother  at  Jerusalem,  greatly  to  the  dissatisfaction 
of  Paul),  and  how  remarkable  the  consistency  of  the  whole : 
1  Cor.  ix.  6,  7 :  Acts  xi.  20,  22 ;  xiii.  4 ;  xv.  37,  39 ;  and  xiii. 
13.  The  harmony  pervading  everything  connected  with  Bar- 
nabas (says  Mr.  Blunt)  is  of  itself  enough  to  stamp  the  Book 
of  Acts  as  a  history  of  perfect  fidelity. 

See  Birks'  Horse  Apostolicas,  published  by  the  Religious  Tract  So- 
ciety, London. 

Compare  in  the  same  way  the  abrupt  termination  of  the 
history  in  Acts  viii.  40  with  Acts  xxi,  8,  9. 

206.  But  in  addition  to  the  moral  evidence  of  Scripture, 
evidence   suggested   by  the   morality  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  character  of  our  Lord,  the  candor 

and  sincerity  and  self-denial  of  the  first  Christians,  and  the 
moral  beauty  of  Christian  principles,  as  illustrated  in  the 
lives  of  consistent  believers,  there  is  evidence  directly  spiri- 
tual. This  evidence  is  partly  appreciated  by  the  intellect,  but 
still  more  by  the  heart  and  conscience.  So  far  as  it  treats  of 
man  as  the  gospel  finds  him,  it  appeals  equally  to  all ;  so  far 
as  it  treats  of  man  as  the  gospel  Jottyis  him,  it  appeals  only 
to  the  believer.  To  the  first  part  of  this  evidence  the  apostle 
refers  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  23-25;  and  to  the  second  in  Eom.  viii. 
16  :   1  John  V.  20. 

207.  This  evidence  consists,  in  part,  in  the  agreement  be- 
tween what  the  awakened  sinner  feels  himself,  and 

what  the  Bible  declares  him  to  be.      The  gospel  Scripture, 
proclaims  the  universal  corruption  of  human  na-  perieneeof 
ture.     It  speaks  not  only  of  acts  of  transgression, 
but  of  a  deep  and  inveterate  habit  of  ungodliness  in  the  soul, 


136  EVIDENCES — SPIRITUAL. 

and  of  tlie  necessity  of  a  complete  renewal.  If  this  descrip- 
tion were  felt  to  be  untrue,  if  man  were  conscious  of  delight 
in  submitting  his  will  to  God's  will,  and  in  obeying  com- 
mands which  rebuke  his  selfishness  and  pride,  he  might  at 
once  discredit  the  truth  of  the  gospel.  But  when  he  finds 
that  the  description  answers  to  his  own  state,  and  that  every 
attempt  at  closer  examination  only  discovers 'to  him  the  coln- 
pleteness  of  this  agreement,  he  has  in  himself  an  evidence 
that  this  message  is  true. 

208.  The  second  stage  of  the  evidence  is  reached  when  a 
Scripture      ^^^  finds   that   the   provisions  of  the  gospel  are 
our'waiits'    adapted  to  his  state.     He  is  guilty,  and  needs  par- 
don.    He  is  corrupt,  and  needs  holiness.     He  is 

surrounded  by  temptation,  and  needs  strength.  He  is  living 
in  a  world  of  vexation  and  change,  and  he  needs  some  more 
satisfying  portion  than  it  can  supply.  He  is  dying,  and  he 
shrinks  from  death,  and  longs  for  a  clear  revelation  of  an- 
other life.  And  the  gospel  meets  all  these  wants.  It  is  a 
message  of  pardon  to  the  guilty,  of  holiness  to  the  aspiring, 
of  peace  to  the  tried,  and  of  life  to  them  that  sit  in  the 
shadow  of  death. 

209.  And  whilst  there    is   perfect    adaptation    to    human 
„  .  want,  no  less  striking  is  the  agreement  between  the 

Harmony  of  '  O  o 

Sci-ipji'i-e.  description  given  in  the  gospel  of  its  results,  and 
porienec  of   the  Christian's  experience.     The  effects  of  the  be- 

the  Chns-  •'■ 

tian.  lief  of  the  truth  are  repeatedly  portrayed  in  Scrip- 

ture. Each  promise  is  a  prediction,  receiving  daily  fulfil- 
ment. Penitence  and  its  fruits,  the  obedience  of  faith  and 
the  increasing  light  and  peace  which  it  sujDplies,  the  power  of 
prayer,  the  influence  of  Christian  truth  on  the  intellect,  and 
the  lieart,  and  the  character,  the  struggles,  and  victories,  and 
defeats  even  of  the  new  life,  all  are  described,  and  constitute 
an  evidence  in  the  liighest  degree  experimental;  an  evidence 
which  grows  with  our  growth,  and  multiplies  with  every  step 
of  our  progress  in  the  kiiowledge  and  love  of  the  truth.  Such 
insight   into    our  moral   being,  and  such  knowledge  of   the 


EVIDENCES — EXPERIMENTAL.  137 

changes  which  religious  truth  is  adapted  to  produce,  could 
never  emanate  from  human  wisdom,  and  they  prove  that 
God  himself  is  the  author  of  the  book  in  which  such  quali- 
ties are  disclosed. 

210.  We  repeat  the  caution,  however,  that  this  evidence  is 
chieflv  of  value  for  the  confirmation  of  the  faith  of   ^^   ^  , , 

•^  _  Useful  for 

a  Christian,  because    none    else  will  appreciate  or  qonfirnia- 

'  .  .  ,  .      tion  of  faith. 

understand  it.  To  such,  however,  this  evidence  is 
so  strong  as  often  to  supersede  every  other.  To  the  Chris- 
tian, the  old  controversy  between  Christianity  and  infidelity 
has  but  little  interest ;  he  already  feels  the  truth  which  evi- 
dences seek  only  to  prove ;  it  seems  needless  to  discuss  the 
reality  of  what  he  already  enjoys;  he  has  the  "witness  in 
himself." 

211.  It  may  be  added,  too,  that  the  evidence  depends  not 
so  much  on  Christianity,  as  adapted  to  our  wants,  cin-istianity 
as  on  Christianity  adapted  to  promote  our  holi-  nmte'our"" 
ness.  When  Christ  appeared,  the  Jews  felt  their  h^'™''®^- 
want  of  an  earthly  deliverer.  A  Messiah  who  should  make 
the  Gentiles  fellow  heirs,  they  did  not  want  at  all.  The 
system  of  Mohammed,  again,  is  adapted  with  great  skill  to 
the  desires  of  a  sensual,  gross-minded,  and  ambitious  people. 
The  Hindoos  adhere  to  a  religion  that  is  without  evidence, 
because  they  find  it  suited  to  their  tastes.  All  these  cases, 
however,  are  very  different  from  the  case  of  Christianity;  it 
came  to  us  not  conformed  to  our  natural  inclinations,  but 
seeking  to  conform  them  to  itself;  and  when  this  process 
is  begun,  then  only  is  its  adaptation  revealed.  Heathen  na- 
tions sought  a  religion  conformed  to  their  own  corruj)t  pro- 
pensities :  and,  on  finding  such  a  religion,  they  embraced  and 
believed  it.  Pagan  systems  are  adapted  to  man  as  he  is, 
and  as  he  desires  to  be,  while  yet  in  love  with  sin  ;  the 
gospel  is  adapted  to  man  as  he  is  and  ought  to  be.  Paganism 
is  the  adaptation  of  a  corrupt  system  to  a  corrupt  nature ;  the 
go.spel  is  the  adaptation  of  a  life-giving  system  to  a  nature 
that  needs  to  be  renewed.      The   first  seeks  to  conform  its 

12* 


138  EVIDENCES — SUMMARY. 

teaching  to  our  tastes;  the  second  to  conform  our  tastes  to  its 
teaching.  And  it  is  while  this  latter  conformation  is  proceed- 
ing that  the  believer  has  the  evidence  of  the  truth.  When  he 
beheves,  he  has  the  hope  of  faith;  then  comes  the  hope  of 
experience — experience  founded  on  the  sanctifying  influence 
of  the  love  of  God,  Rom.  v.  2-5. 

To  the  physician  who  is  intrusted  with  the  cure  of  some 
Analogous  mortal  disease  two  courses  are  open.  He  may  treat 
case.  ^i^g  symptoms,  or  he  may  treat  the  disease  itself.     If • 

in  fever  he  is  anxious  only  to  quench  the  thirst  of  his  patient, 
or  in  apoplexy  to  excite  the  system,  his  treatment  may  be  said 
to  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  sufferer  ;  but  it  is  not  likely 
to  restore  him.  A  sounder  system  treats  the  disease ;  and  that 
medicine  is  the  true  specific  which  is  adapted  ultimately  to 
remove  it.  The  evidence  of  the  virtue  of  such  a  specific  is, 
not  its  palatableness,  nor  its  power  of  exhilaration,  but  the 
steady  continued  improvement  of  the  health  of  the  patient; 
an  evidence  founded  on  experience,  and  strongly  confirming 
the  proofs  which  had  originally  induced  him  to  make  the 
trial. 

And  so  of  the  gospel.  It  may  exhilarate,  and  it  may  please 
the  taste ;  but  the  evidence  of  its  truth  and  of  its  being  truly 
received  is  its  tendency  to  promote  our  holiness. 

212.  What,  then,  is  the  reason  of  our  hope  ?  is  a  question 
which  every  inquirer  may  ask  and  answer.      All 

Summary  . 

evidence       the  answers  of  which  the  question  admits,  no  one 

intelligible  .  ■'■  _  _  '      _ 

to  all.  can  be  expected  to  give,  for  a  full  investigation  of 

Christian  evidences  would  occupy  a  life-time ;  but  it  is  easy 
to  give  such  an  answer  as  shall  justify  our  faith.  Christianity 
and  the  Christian  books  exist,  and  have  existed  for  the  last 
eighteen  hundred  years.  Christian  and  profane  writers  agree 
in  this  admission.  The  great  Founder  of  our  faith  professedly 
wrought  miracles  in  confirmation  of  his  message,  and  gave  the 
same  power  to  his  apostles.  They  all  underwent  severe  suff'er- 
ing,  and  most  of  them  died  in  testimonv  of  their  belief  of  the 
truths  and  facts  they  delivered.     These  facts,  and  the  truths 


EVIDENCES.  139 

founded  on  tliem,  the  apostles  and  first  Christians  emhraced 
in  spite  of  the  ojoposing  influences  of  the  religious  systems  in 
which  they  had  been  trained.  The  character  and  history  of 
the  Founder  of  the  Faith  were  foretold  many  hundreds  of 
years  before  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  He  taught  the  purest 
morality.  He  himself  gave  many  predictions,  and  these  pre- 
dictions were  fulfilled.  His  doctrines  changed  the  character 
of  those  who  received  them,  softened  and  civilized  ancient  na- 
tions, and  have  been  everywhere  among  the  mightiest  influen- 
ces in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  They  claim  to  be  from 
God,  support  their  claim  by  innumerable  evidences,  and  we 
must  either  admit  them  to  be  from  God,  or  ascribe  them  to  a 
spirit  of  most  miraculous  and  benevolent  imposition.  Add  to 
all  this,  that  he  who  receives  them  has  in  himself  additional 
evidence  of  their  origin  and  holiness,  and  can  say  from  expe- 
rience, "  I  know  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come,  and  hath  given 
us  an  understanding,  that  we  may  know  Him  that  is  true. 
We  are  in  him,  even  in  his  Son  Jesus  Christ.  This  is  the  true 
God  and  eternal  life,"  1  John  v.  20. 

These  facts  are  not  abstruse,  but  accessible  to  all,  and  in- 
telligible to  the  feeblest.  For  the  candid  inquirer,  any  one 
department  of  this  evidence  will  often  prove  sufiicient :  no 
other  religious  system  being  founded  on  miracles  and  pro- 
phecy, or  exhibiting  such  holiness  and  love.  The  whole  evi- 
dence combined  is  overwhelmingly  conclusive. 

213.  And  yet  there  is,  in  relation  to  these  evidences,  much 
unbelief  both  among  inquirers  and  professed  Chris-    Evidence 
tians.     Among  inquirers  there  is  unbelief,  for  want    c^alseVin* 
of  candor  and  teachableness :  a  fact  which  is  itself    '^*^"^'^- 
an  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  and  in  har-    J,[lfji"^" 
mony  with  the  general  dealings  of  God.     In  common    inquirer, 
life,  levity,  or  prejudice,  or  carelessness  will  often  lead  men 
astray,  and  even  make  them  incapable  of  ascertaining  what  is 
really  wise  and  true.     And  Scripture  has  expressly  declared 
that  those  who  will  not  love  truth  shall  not  understand  it.    So 
deeply  did  Grotius  feel  this  consideration,  that  he  regarded 


140  EVIDENCES. 

the  evidence  of  Christianity  as  itself  an  evidence  of  the  Divine 
origin  of  the  gospel,  being  divinely  adapted  to  test  men's  cha- 
racter and  hearts. 

De  Verit,  ii.  §  19.  See,  also,  Dan.  xii.  10:  Isa.  xxix.  13,  14:  Ma,tt. 
vi.  23;  xi.  25;  xiii.  11,  12:  John  iii.  19:  1  Cor.  ii.  14:  2  Cor.  iv.  4: 
2  Tim.  iii.  13. 

Among  professed  Christimis,  too,  there  is  want  of  confidence 
.    ,  ^,  in  the  fullness  of  the  Christian  evidence,  and  con- 

And  the  _  _  ' 

careless        sequent  want  of  inquiry.    Baxter  has  acknowledged 

Christian.  ...  . 

that  while  in  his  younger  days  he  was  exercised 
chiefly  about  his  own  sincerity,  in  later  life  he  was  tried  with 
doubts  about  the  truth  of  Scripture.  Further  inquiry,  how- 
ever, removed  them.  The  evidence  which  he  found  most  con- 
clusive was  the  internal ;  such  as  sprang  from  the  witness  of 
the  Spirit  of  God  with  his  own.  "  The  spirit  of  prophecy," 
says  he,  "was  the  first  witness;  the  spirit  of  miraculous  power 
the  second:  and  now,"  he  adds,  "we  have  the  spirit 
of  renovation  and  holiness. "  "  Let  Christians,  there- 
fore," he  concludes,  "tell  their  doubts,  a,nd  investigate  the 
evidence  of  Divine  truth,  for  there  is  amj)le  j)rovision  for  the 
removal  of  them  all." 

Most  of  the  doubts  which  good  men  feel  may  be  thus  dis- 
pelled. Others,  chiefly  speculative,  may  in  some  cases  remain, 
and  are  not  to  be  dispelled  by  the  best  proofs.  Even  for 
these,  however,  there  is  a  cure.  Philosophy  cannot  solve 
them ;  but  prayer  and  healthy  exercise  in  departments  of 
Christian  life  to  which  doubting  does  not  extend  cctn ;  or, 
failing  to  solve  them,  these  remedies  will  teach  us  to  think 
less  of  their  importance,  and  to  wait  patiently  for  stronger 
light.  Ours  is  a  complex  nature,  and  the  morbid  excitability 
of  one  part  of  om'  frame  may  often  be  cured  by  the  inc»eased 
activity  of  another.  An  irritable  faith  is  a  symptom  of  defi- 
cient action  elsewhere,  a-nd  is  best  cured  by  a  more  con-stanf 
attention  to  practical  duty.  Difficulties  which  no  inquiry  can 
remove  will  often  melt  away  amidst  the  warmth  and  vigor 
produced  by  active  life. 


THE   BIBLE  A   REVELATION   FROM   GOD.  141 


CHAPTER    III. 

PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  BIBLE  AS  A  REVELATION  FROM  GOD. 

"  A  man's  love  of  Scripture  at  the  beginning  of  a  religious  course,  ia 
sucli  as  makes  tlie  praise,  which  older  Christians  give  to  the  Bible,  seem 
exaggerated  :  but  after  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  a  religious  life,  such 
praise  always  sounds  inadequate.  Its  glories  seem  so  much  more  full 
than  they  seemed  at  first." — Dr.  Arnold. 

"  To  seek  Divinity  in  Philosophy  is  to  seek  the  living  among  the 
dead :  so  to  seek  Philosophy  in  Divinity  is  to  seek  the  dead  among  the 
living." — Bacon,  Advancement  of  Learning. 

"The  Old  and  New  Testaments  contain  but  one  scheme  of  religion. 

Neither  part  can  be  understood  witliout  the  other They  are  like 

the  rolls  on  which  they  were  anciently  written It  is  but  one 

subject  from  beginning  to  end;  but  the  view  which  we  obtain  of  it 
grows  clearer  and  clearer  as  we  unwind  the  roll  that  contains  it." — 
Cecil. 

Sec.  1. — A  Revelation  of  God,  and  of  Human  Nature. 

214.  There  are  various  aspects  in  which  Scripture  may  be 
regarded.  The  raost  important  is  that  which  represents  it  as 
a  revelation  of  God  and  man :  of  God  in  relation  to  man,  of 
man  in  relation  to  God :  and  of  both  in  relation  to  the  work 
and  office  of  our  Lord. 

215.  Scripture  is  a  revelation  of  God,  of  his  character  and 
will.     That  will  is  indeed  written  on  the  works  of  S(.j.iptm.e  ^ 
his  hands,  and  more  clearly  on  the  constitution  of  0"^';^^^ ""  j 
man :  but  in  the  Bible  alone  is  the  transcript  com-  °^  "''-"• 
plete,  and  there  alone  is  it  preserved  from  decay. 

216.  Or  with  equal  accuracy,  the  whole  may  be  described 
as  the  exhibition  of  human  nature,  in  individuals  and  in  na- 
tions under  every  form  of  development;  holy,  tempted,  fallen, 
degenerate,  redeemed,  believing,  rejecting  the  faith,  struggling, 
victorious,  and  complete.  The  Bible  begins  with  man  in  the 
garden  of  Eden,  his  Maker  as  his  friend;  and  after  a  wondrous 


142       THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

history,  it  exhibits  him  again  in  the  same  fellowship,  though 
no  longer  on  earth,  or  in  paradise,  but  in  heaven:  the  whole 
of  his  forfeited  blessedness  won  back  by  the  incarnation  and 
suffering  of  the  Son  of  God. 

217.  More  generally  still,  the  Bible  may  be  described  as 
A  store-  the  great  storehouse  of  facts  and  duties,  and  of  all 
spirftuai  Spiritual  truth.  It  gives  authentic  information  on 
truth.  ^YiQ  history  of  the  world,  from  the  remotest  times 
on  which  all  human  writings  are  silent,  or  filled  with  fables ; 
the  occasion  and  immediate  consequences  of  the  first  sin ;  the 
origin  of  nations,  and  of  diversity  of  language.  We  thus  trace 
the  progress,  and  mark  the  uniformity  of  those  principles  on 
which  men  have  been  governed  from  the  beginning,  all  bearing 
their  testimony  to  the  wisdom  and  holiness  of  God,  and  the 
mercy  of  the  Divine  administration.  We  trace  the  progress 
and  development  of  human  nature,  and  of  the  plan  of  redemp- 
tion :  the  first,  shown  in  every  possible  diversity  of  position, 
and  the  second,  influencing  all  the  Divine  procedure,  perfected 
in  Christ,  and  exhibited  in  the  gospel.  In  a  word,  we  find 
all  the  great  questions  (whether  of  fact  or  duty),  which  have 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  wisest  men,  settled  by  authority 
and  on  principles  which  neither  need  nor  admit  of  appeal. 
We  have  given  to  us  the  decisions  of  the  infinitely  wise  God 
as  the  ground  of  our  opinions  and  practices,  and  his  promise 
as  the  foundation  of  our  hope. 

218.  In  no  part  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  are  these  questions 

inappropriate : — 

Appropriate  \\     ,    j  -j.   x        i.  •  o 

questions m       What  does  it  teach  concerning  man  c  or  concern- 
ing God  ?  or  concerning  the  grand  scheme  of  redemp- 
tion? or  concerning  the  restoration  of  human  nature  to  its 
primeval  dignity  and  blessedness  ? 

Sec.  2. — The  Bible  a  Revelation  of  Spiritual 
Religious  Truth. 

219.  If  this  view  of  the  subject  of  the  Bible  be  kept  in 


THE  BIBLE  A  EEVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH.         143 

mind, — God  in  relation  to  man,  and  man  in  relation  _    .  , 

'  '  Scripture  a 

to  God,  and  God  and  man  in  relation  to  the  work  i-evelation 

of  spiritual 

and  office  of  our  Lord, — one  peculiarity  of  Scripture  '•■'","•  "" 

_      -^       _  •'  .      -"^  God.  man, 

(as  to  its  fulness  and  brevity),  will  be  explained.         and  saiva- 

It  gives  the  history  of  the  world,  as  "God's 
world,"  and  as  destined  to  become  the  kingdom  of  his  Son. 
It  tells  us  of  its  origin,  that  we  may  know  by  what  God  has 
done,  the  reverence  due  to  him :  what  is  his  power  whose  law 
this  book  has  revealed :  whose  creatures  we  are,  that  we  may 
distinguish  him  from  the  idols  of  the  heathen,  who  are  either 
imaginary  beings,  or  parts  of  his  creation. 

All  the  subsequent  narrative  of  the  Bible,  seems  written  on 
the  same  principle.  It  is  an  inspired  history  of  religion  (of 
man  in  relation  to  God),  and  of  other  things,  as  it  is  affected 
by  them.  Idolatrous  nations  are  introduced,  not  as  independ- 
ently important,  but  as  influencing  the  church,  or  as  influenced 
by  it :  and  thus  narrative  and  prophecy  continue  from  the 
first  transgression,  through  the  whole  interval  of  man's  misery 
and  guilt,  to  a  period,  spoken  of  in  a  great  diversity  of  expres- 
sions and  under  both  economies,  when  the  "God  of  heaven 
shall  set  up  a  kingdom  that  shall  never  be  destroyed." 

That  these  historical  disclosures  sujoply  ample  materials  for 
inquiry,  and  (had  the  narrative  been  false),  for  refutation,  and 
that,  as  they  have  never  been  refuted,  their  antiquity  and 
extent  are  strong  presumptive  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scrip- 
ture is  obvious  :*  but  it  is  the  principle  of  selection,  and  the 
clear  scope  of  the  whole  Avhich  are  now  noticed.  To  convey 
religious  truth  is  clearly  the  author's  design.  Whatever  is 
revealed  must  be  studied  with  this  fact  in  view,  and  whatever 
is  withheld  may  be  regarded  as  not  essential  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  purpose. 

220.  Let  it  be  remembered,  too,  that  it  is  God  as  holi/  in 
relation  to  a  man  as  a  sinner,  and  God  and  man  in  a  revoia- 
relation  to  Christ  as  the  Redeemer,  who  form  the  as'iloiy';"'^' 

*  See  these  remarks  illustrated  in  Bishop  Butler's  Anjilogy,  2il  Part. 


144        THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

great  theme  of  Scripture  ;   and  that  what  is  told  us  has  refer- 
ence Lo  the  relation  of  such  Beings. 

Take,  for  example,  the  liistory  of  the  first  sin.  The  object  of  the 
narrative  of  the  fall  is  clearly  moral.  It  shows  the  progress  of  temp- 
tation, and  directs  our  thoiights  to  the  Saviour.  We  mark  the  convic- 
tion of  duty,  the  contemplation  of  the  pleasure  v?hich  sin  may  produce, 
the  consequent  obtuseness  of  conscience,  and  the  hope  that  desire  may 
be  indulged  and  yet  punishment  be  averted;  desire  becoming  intenser, 
passion  stronger,  conscience  feebler,  till  at  length  the  will  consents  and 
the  act  is  done.  Such  is  all  transgression.  The  moral  lesson  of  the  fall 
is  thus  complete,  though  much  is  concealed. 

Subsequent  portions  of  Scripture  are  written  on  this  same  principle. 
In  the  history  of  Cain,  and  in  the  rapid  progress  of  wickedness,  we 
notice  the  consequences  of  sin,  and  from  the  Deluge  learn  how  deeply 
man  had  fallen.  And  yet  each  expression  of  God's  displeasure  is  ,so 
tempered  with  mercy,  as  to  prepare  us  for  the  double  truth,  that  God 
had  provided  a  Redeemer  to  restore  us  to  Divine  favor,  and  a  Sanctifier 
to  renew  us  to  holiness,  and  that  man  needed  them  both.  Hence  it  is, 
that  amidst  all  this  wickedness,  facts  are  recorded  which  hold  out  the 
prospect  of  recovery,  and  even  foreshadow  the  means  of  securing  it. 
In  Abel  and  Seth,  and  Enoch  and  Noah,  we  find  faith  in  the  Divine 
promise,  and  consequent  holiness.  They  "  called  upon  the  name  of  the 
Lord."  They  "offered  a  more  excellent  sacrifice"  than  their  ungodly 
neighbors,  expressive  at  once  of  their  obligation  and  their  guilt;  they 
"  walked  with  God." 

As  the  world  was  repeopled,  human  sinfulness  is  seen  in  other  forms. 
Men  are  scattered  over  the  earth,  and  ultimately  the  plan  of  the  Divine 
procedure  is  changed.  A  particular  family  is  made  the  depository  of  the 
Divine  will,  and  its  history  is  given.  Of  that  family,  the  son  of  the  promise 
is  chosen  ;  and  of  his  sons,  not  the  elder  and  favorite,  but  the  younger. 
The  history  of  his  descendants  is  then  given  with  a  double  reference, 
first  to  their  own  faith  and  obedience,  and  then  to  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.  There  is  both  an  ultimate  and  an  immediate  purpose,  and 
both  are  moral.  The  institutes  of  this  people  illustrate  the  doctrines 
of  the  cross,  and  we  have,  moreover,  the  record  of  their  sins,  for  our 
warning,  and  of  their  repentance,  for  our  imitation  and  encouragement. 

Concerning  all  these  narratives,  much  might  have  been  told 
All  written  US,  which  is  withheld.  Difficulties  miglit  have  been 
eipie."' '^""    solve<l;  important  physical,  or  historical,  or  ethical 


THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH.         145 

questions  might  liave  been  answered.     But  we  have  to  seeii 
the  solution  of  these  questions  elsewhere. 

Of  Assyria,  for  example,  we  read  in  a  single  passage  of  the  book  of 
Genesis  (Gen.  x.  11,  12),  but  not  again  for  1500  years,  till  the  time  of 
Menaheni  (2  Kings  xv.  19) ;  and  of  Egypt  we  have  no  mention,  between 
the  days  of  Moses  and  tliose  of  Solomon.  The  early  history  of  both 
nations  is  exceedingly  obscure,  perhaps  impenetrably  so.  But  the 
knowledge  is  essential  neither  to  our  salvation  nor  to  the  history  of  the 
church,  and  it  is  not  revealed. 

In  the  prophetic  Scriptures  this  peculiarity  is  equally  obvi- 
ous. They  are  all  either  intensely  moral,  or  evan-  „  „ 
gelical,  or  both.  It  might  have  been  otherwise,  phecy. 
without  injury  to  prophecy  as  an  outward  evidence  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  gifts  of  prediction  and  of  moral  teaching,  might 
have  been  disjoined:  but  in  fact  they  are  not.  What  might 
have  ministered  to  the  gratification  of  natural  curiosity  only, 
is  enlisted  on  the  side  of  practical  holiness.  The  prophet  is 
the  teacher,  and  the  history  of  the  future  (which  prophecy  is), 
becomes  like  the  history  of  the  past,  the  handmaid  of  evan- 
gelical truth  and  of  spiritual  improvement. 

So  is  it  in  all  that  is  revealed  in  relation  to  Christ.  We  read 
of  the  dignitv  of  his  person,  but  it  is  with  a  constant 

1  ^  ■  „        TO    ^         Soof  Christ. 

reierence  to  "us  men,  and  to  our  salvation.  if  he 
is  set  forth  as  the  Light  of  the  world,  it  is  to  guide  us  into  the 
way  of  peace ;  if,  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  it  is  that  he  may  redeem 
us  by  his  blood  ;  if,  as  entering  into  heaven,  it  is  as  our  pro- 
pitiation and  intercessor.  We  call  him  justly  the  "Son  of 
God  :"  he  loved  to  call  himself  as  his  apostles  never  called  him, 
and  with  a  peculiar  reference  to  his  sympathy  and  work,  the 
"Son  of  man." 

Scripture,  then,  is  the  revelation  of  religious  truth,  and  of 
truth  adapted  to  our  nature  as  fallen  and  guilty.  We  use  it 
rightly,- therefore,  only  as  it  ministers  to  our  holiness  and  con- 
solation. It  might  have  revealed  other  truth,  or  the  truth  it 
does  reveal  may  be  regarded  by  us  only  as  sublime  and  glo- 
rious. But  this  is  not  God's  purpose.  He  has  given  it  for  our 
13 


146        THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

instruction,  our  conviction,  our  rectification  (or  correction),  and 
our  establishment  in  righteousness.  All  knowledge  may  be 
useful,  but  this  knowledge  is  necessary.  "Let  it  not  go,  keep 
it,  for  it  is  thy  life,"  Prov.  iv.  13. 

221.  Two  practical  rules  are  suggested  by  these  remarks. 
First.  We  must  not  expect  to  learn  anything  from  Scripture, 
except  what  it  is,  in  a  religious  point  of  view,  important  for  us 
to  know.  Some  seek  "the  dead  among  the  living,"  (as  Lord 
Bacon  jDhrased  it),  and  look  into  the  Bible  for  natural  philoso- 
phy and  human  science;  others  inquire  in  it  for  the  "secret 
things"  which  "belong  only  to  God ;"  and  both  are  rebuked  by 
the  very  character  and  design  of  the  Bible.  It  is  the  record 
of  necessary  and  saving  truth,  or  of  truth  in  its  religious 
aspects  and  bearings,  and  of  nothing  besides :  its  histories 
being  brief  or  full,  as  brevity  or  fulness  may  best  secure  these 
ends. 

222.  Secondly.  It  becomes  the  Christian  to  make  a  practical 
application  of  every  truth  which  Scripture  reveals.  He  must 
believe  and  apply  the  whole.  To  reject  truth  is  wrong:  to 
deny  morality  is  wrong:  and  it  is  equally  wrong  to  disjoin 
them.  It  is  only  as  virtue  is  moulded  on  truth  that  it  becomes 
genuine  and  complete. 

223.  But  though  the  Bible  is  not  a  revelation  of  science,  it 
Scripture  ^^^  ^^  expected  to  be  free  from  error,  and  to  con- 
notincon-  io^ixi,  Under  reserved  and  simple  language,  much 
science.  concealed  wisdom,  and  turns  of  expression  which 
harmonize  with  natural  facts,  known  perfectly  to  God,  but 
not  known  to  those  for  whom  at  first  the  revelation  was 
designed. 

This  expectation  is  just;  and  in  both  respects,  the  Bible 
presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sacred  books  of  heathen 
nations. 

224.  All  ancient  systems  of  religion,  and  all  eminent  phi- 
Ancient  nd  losophers  of  antiquity,  so  far  as  they  are  known, 
Scripture      maintained  notions  on  science  no  less  absurd  than 

cohmogo- 

nie.s.  their  theology. 


THE  BIBLE  A  BEVELATION  OF  EELIGIOUS  TRUTH.         147 

In  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy,  the  heavens  were  a  solid  vault  over 
the  earth,^  a  sphere  studded  with  stars,  as  Aristotle  called  them.  The 
sages  of  Egypt  held  that  the  world  was  formed  by  the  motion  of  air 
and  the  upward  course  of  flame  :  Plato,  that  it  was  an  intelligent  being: 
Empedocles  held  that  there  were  two  suns :  Zeucippus,  that  the  stars 
were  kindled  by  their  motions,  and  that  they  nourished  the  sun  by 
their  fires. 

All  Eastern  nations  believed  that  the  heavenly  bodies  exercised  pow- 
erful influence  over  human  afl"airs,  often  of  a  disastrous*'  kind,  and  that 
all  nature  was  composed  of  four  elements,  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water, 
substances  certainly  not  elementary. 

In  the  Hindoo  philosophy,  the  globe  is  represented  as  flat  and  trian- 
gular, composed  of  seven  stories  ;  the  whole  mass  being  sustained  upon 
the  heads  of  elephants,  who,  when  they  shake  themselves,  cause  earth- 
quakes. Mohammed  taught  that  the  mountains  were  created  to  prevent 
the  earth  from  moving,  and  to  hold  it  as  by  anchors  and  chains.  The 
"  Fathers  of  the  church"  themselves  teach  doctrines  scarcely  less  ab- 
surd. "  The  rotundity  of  the  earth  is  a  theory,"  says  Lactantius,  "which 
no  one  is  ignorant  enough  to  believe." 

Hov\''  instructive,  that  while  every  ancient  system  of  idolatry 
may  be  overthrown  by  its  false  physics,  not  one  of  the  forty 
writers  of  the  Bible,  most  of  whom  lived  in  the  vicinity  of 
one  or  other  of  the  nations  who  held  these  views,  has  written 
a  single  line  that  favors  them.  This  silence  is  consolatory, 
and  furnishes  a  striking  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  their 
message. 

225.  The  exactness  of  Scripture  statements,  and  its  agree- 
ment with  modern  discovery,  is  also  remarkable. 

The  Scriptures,  for  example,  speak  of  the  earth  as  a  globe,  and  as 
suspended  upon  nothing,  Isa.  xl.  22 :  Job  xxvi.  7-10 :  Prov.  viii.  27. 
In  treating  of  its  age,  they  distinguish  between  the  creation  of  unor- 
ganized matter,  and  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  Gen.  i.  1,  2.  They 
give  t&man  a  very  recent  origin,  and  their  accuracy  in  this  respect  is 
attested  by  the  ascertained  state  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  by  the 
monuments  of  antiquity.  They  describe  the  heavens  as  boundless 
space,  not  as  a  solid  sphere ;  and  light  as  an  element  independent  of 
the  sun,  and  as  anterior  to  it,  anticipating  the  generally  received  theory 

*  Pirmamentum,  a-nflai/ux.  *>  Jt/f  aa-ffiov,  "  ill-starred." 


148        THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

of  modern  inquirers.  When  they  speak  of  air,  they  say  that  God  ^rave 
it  weight,  as  Galileo  proved ;  and  of  the  seas,  that  he  gave  them  their 
measure;  a  proportion  of  land  and  sea,  such  as  now  obtains,  being 
essential  to  the  health  and  safety  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
The  waters  above  "the  expanse"  have  an  importance  attached  to  them 
in  Scripture  which  modern  science  alone  can  appreciate ;  many  millions 
of  tons  being  raised  from  the  surface  of  England  alone,  by  evaporation, 
every  day.     (See  Whewell's  "Bridgewater  Treatise.") 

"When  they  speak  of  the  human  race  they  give  it  one  origin,  and  of 
human  language  they  indicate  original  identity  and  subsequent  division, 
not  into  endless  diversities  of  dialect  such  as  now  exist,  but  rather  into 
two  or  three  primeval  tongues;  facts  which,  though  long  questioned, 
ethnography  and  philosophy  have  confirmed,  Gen.  xi.  1 ;  x.  32. 

When  they  arrest  the  course  of  the  sun,  that  is,  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion, they  stay  the  moon,  too  :  a  precaution  which  could  not  have  been 
supposed  necessary  but  on  the  supposition  of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the 
earth.  When  they  speak  of  the  stars,  instead  of  supposing  a  thousand, 
as  ancient  astronomers  did  (Hipparchus  says  1022,  Ptolemy,  1026),  they 
declare  that  they  are  innumerable ;  a  declaration  which  modern  tele- 
scopes discover  to  be  not  even  a  figure  of  speech.  "God,"  says  Sir 
John  Herschel,  after  surveying  the  groups  of  stars  and  nebulae  in  the 
heavens,  "has  scattered  them  like  dust  through  the  immensity  of  space." 
And  when  the  Scriptures  speak  of  their  hosts,  it  is  as  dependent,  ma- 
terial, obedient  things,  Isa.  xl.  26,  27. 

226.  Generally,  however,  it  may  be  added,  Scripture  speaks 
in  relation  to  physical  facts  in  the  lanp;uaa;e  of  com- 

Apparent  _  .  .  . 

exception,  jj^on  life,  and  sometimes  that  language  is  not  strictly 
accurate;  as  in  Job  xxxviii.  6;  ix.  6:  Psa.  civ.  3:  Prov.  iii.  20. 
And  the  reason  is  plain.  If  strictly  philosophical  language 
had  been  employed,  Scripture  must  have  been  less  intelligible: 
and  besides,  such  language  describing  natural  facts,  not  as  they 
appear,  but  as  they  really  are,  would  have  made  all  such  facts 
matters  of  revelation.  It  must  have  excited  doubts  among 
the  ignorant,  and  prejudice  (from  the  necessary  incompleteness 
of  Scripture  teaching  on  such  questions,)  among  the  philo- 
sophic ;  destroying,  among  all,  the  unity  of  impression  which 
the  Bible  seeks  to  produce.  The  Bible  would  have  become,  in 
that  case,  a  Divine,  though  incomplete,  hand-book  of  science  ; 


THE  BIBLE  CONSISTENT  WITH  ETHICAL  SCIENCE.         149 

an  arrangement  as  little  conducive  to  the  cultivation  of  a 
truly  philosophical  spirit  as  to  the  interests  of  religion  itself. 

227.  Nor  less  remarkable  is  the  way  in  which  the  Bible  has 
noticed  abstract  questions,  or  great  principles  of  ggJ.jpt^^ral 
ethical  science.  The  laws  of  our  moral  nature  are  g|^fg^j'^'|"fj 
evidently  known  to  the  author  of  Scripture,  but  experience, 
they  are  not  formally  announced.  They  are  rather  involved 
by  implication  in  the  truths  or  precepts  which  are  revealed. 

Independent  investigation  long  ago  discovered  that  the  heart 
of  man  takes  much  of  its  complexion  from  his  thoughts, 
and  that  what  interests  the  mind  influences  the  char- 
acter. In  harmony  with  this  law  is  the  doctrine  of  Scripture, 
that  habitual  and  believing  attention  to  the  truths  of  Christi- 
anity is  the  great  instrument  of  bringing  the  mind  into  holy 
states. 

1  John  iv.  10;  xvi.  19:  Gal.  ii.  20:  1  Cor.  xv.  2:  2  Cor.  iii.  18:  1 
Tim.  iv.  16 :  Psa.  cxix.  9-11 :  Psa.  xix. :  1  Pet.  i.  22. 

"How  can  man  regulate  his  belief?'-'  is  a  question  which 
long  occupied  the  attention  of  thoughtful  men.  "  By  attend- 
ing to  evidence,  and  then  by  contemplating  truth,"  is  the  reply 
of  philosophy.  And  Scripture  is  in  direct  harmony  with  her 
decision.  Faith  and  affection  are  both  influenced,  not  by  ana- 
lysing them,  or  by  violently  attempting  to  strengthen  or  purify 
them,  but  by  examining  truth  and  holding  communion  with 
the  objects  that  deserve  and  claim  our  love.  The  Bible  bids 
us  consider  and  give  heed,  assuring  us  that  earnest,  humble 
consideration  will  end  in  faith,  and  faith  be  followed  by  holy 
and  appropriate  feeling. 

Men  believe  by  "giving  heed"  to  truth,  Acts  viii.  6,  8:  Heb.  ii.  1: 
Prov.  iv.  1-4;  ii.  1-9:  Mark  iv.  24,  25:  Acts  xvii.  11,  12.  Their  im- 
penitence is  a  consequence  of  their  neglect,  and  their  neglect,  of  a  wrong 
state  of  heart,  2  Thess.  ii.  11,  12:  Mark  viii.  18:  John  iii.  19,  20;  v. 
38,  39  :  2  Cor.  iv.  3,  4 :  Hos.  iv.  10.  Holy  affection  is  influenced  by  atten- 
tion and  faith,  Gal.  v.  6:  2  Cor.  v.  11:  Heb.  xi.  7:  1  John  iv.  16-18; 
Eom.  vi.  6:  Col.  i.  22,  23;  Josh.  xxii.  6. 
13* 


150      THE  BIBLE  A  PROGRESSIVE  REVELATION. 

Scripture  embodies  these  laws  and  acts  upon  tliem  ;  adding, 
however,  the  significant  fact,  that  where  holiness  and  salvation 
follow  in  the  train  of  attention  and  thoughtfulness,  this  result 
is  to  be  ascribed  throughout  every  part  to  the  grace  and  bless- 
ing of  the  Divine  Spirit. 

Attention  is  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  Acts  xvi.  14:  Zech.  xii.  10.  Faith 
which  follows  attention,  is  his  gift,  Acts  x.  44  (see  xi.  17,  18);  xi.  21. 

The  clearer  understanding  of  truth,  which  follows  the  believing  study 
of  it,  is  his  gift,  Isa.  xlii.  7 :  Psa.  cxix.  18 :  Luke  xxiv.  45 :  1  Cor.  ii. 
14:  2Cor.  iii.  16:  Eph.  i.  17,  18. 

The  holy  feeling  that  follows  an  attentive  and  believing  study  of 
truth,  is  his  gift,  Ez.  xxxvi.  27 :  2  Thess.  ii.  13  :  2  Pet.  i.  2,  3 :  Gal.  v.  22. 

Sec.  3. — The  Bible  a  Gradual  and  Progressive 
Eevelation. 

228.  Another  peculiarity  of  Scripture  is,  that  it  is  a  gradual 
and  progressive  revelation. 

229.  The  truths  and  purpose  of  God  are  in  themselves  in- 

capable of  progress ;  but  not  the  revelation  of  those 
sense.  truths.     In  nature,  the  rising  sun  scatters  the  mists 

of  the  morning,  and  brings  out  into  light  first  one  prominence 
and  then  another,  till  every  hill  and  valley  is  clothed  in  splen- 
dor. The  landscape  was  there  before,  but  it  was  not  seen. 
So  in  revelation,  the  progress  is  not  in  the  truth,  but  in  the 
clearness  and  impressiveness  with  which  Scripture  reveals  it. 

230.  In  the  beginning,  for  example,  God  taught  the  unity 
,   ,^  of  his  nature ;  while  the  truth  that  there  is  a  plu- 

In  the  reve-  '  J- 

lationofGod  rality  in  the  Godhead  was  taught  but  indistinctly. 

and  the  Ho-  *'  .  .  °  •' 

ly  Spirit.  Several  expressions  in  the  earliest  books  imply  it, 
and  are  evidently  calculated  to  suggest  it.*   In  the  later  proph- 

»  Such  expressions,  for  example,  as.  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image 
(see  Gen.  i.  26 ;  iii.  22);  and  the  use  of  the  plural  noun,  to  indicate  the 
true  God,  with  a  singular  verb.  Gen.  i.  1 ;  Psa.  Iviii.  11  (Heb.) :  Prov. 
ix.  10  (Heb.),  and  several  hundred  times. 

The  expressions  in  Numb.  vi.  22-27,  compared  with  the  New  Testa- 


THE  BIBLE  A  PEOGKESSIVE  REVELATION.  151 

ets,  the  truth  comes  out  with  greater  distinctness  ;*  and  in  the 
New  Testament  it  is  fully  revealed.  In  the  same  way,  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  recognised  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  with  increasing  clearness  as  we  approach  the  times  of  the 
gospel.  It  is  in  the  New  alone,  however,  that  we  have  a  dis- 
tinct view  of  his  personality  and  work,'' 

2B1.  This  gradual  disclosure  of  the  Divine  will  is  yet  more 
remarkable    in   the    case   of    our   Lord.      The   first 

._,...,  .       ,  ^       .      .      .  SoofChrist. 

promise  (Gen.  in.  15)  contained  a  prophetic  declara- 
tion of  mercy,  and  foretold  his  coming  and  work,  though  in 
mysterious  terms.  The  first  recorded  act  of  acceptable  wor- 
ship (Gen.  iv.  4 :  Heb.  xi.  4)  was  a  type,  expressing  by  an 
action  the  faith  of  the  offerer  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  first 
prediction.  There  was  to  be  triumph  through  suffering,  and 
there  was  to  be  the  substitution  of  the  innocent  for  the 
guilty. 

These  promises  and  types  were  multiplied  with  the  lapse 
of  time.      In  the  person  or  worship  of  Enoch,"  of  patriarchal 
Noah,*  of  Melchizedek,"  and  of  Job,'  there  was  much  ^"""^• 

ment  benediction,  Isa.  vi.  3,  8 ;  xlviii.  16 :  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  6,  are  very 
remarkable. 

The  "angel  of  the  Lord"  probably  refers  in  most  passages  to  the 
Messiah,  as  the  Jewish  writers  generally  maintain,  regarding  him  as  an 
object  of  Divine  worship.  See  Gen.  xvi.  7  and  13,  where  the  incommu- 
nicable name  of  Jehovah  is  given  to  him:  see,  also.  Gen.  xxii.  11-18; 
xxxi.  11-13;  xxxii.  28-30:  Hos.  xii.  4,  5:  Gen.  xlviii.  15,  16:  Ex.  iii. 
2-15;  xix.  19,  20;  XX.  1;  xxiii.  20,  21,  compared  with  Acts  vii.  38: 
Josh.  V.  13-15;  vi.  2:  Judg.  xiii.  3-23:  Isa.  Ixiii.  8,  9:  Mai.  ui.  1. 

»  Isa.  ix.  6 :  Mic.  v.  2 :  Zech.  xiii.  7. 

bGen.  i.  2;  vi.  3:  Psa.  li.  11,  12:  Isa.  xlviii.  16;  ixi.  1;  Ezek.  lii. 
24,  27. 

"=  Jude  xiv. 

■11  Pet.  iii.  20:  Gen.  viii.  20. 

"  Heb.  v.  6. 

'  Job  xix.  25;  i.;  xiii.  7,  8. 


152  THE    BIBLE   A    PEOGEESSIVE   REVELATION. 

that  Wr'ip  typical  and  predictive:  still  more  in  the  history  of 
Abraham*  and  his  immediate  descendants. 

Under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  other  typical  acts  or  per- 
sons, and  places  and  things,  were  instituted,  and 

M(i.-;iic.  ,,.,... 

the  design  of  the  institution  was  most  distinctly  ex- 
plained.''    Prophecies,  also,  became  more  clear  and  frequent." 

Between  the  days  of  Samuel  and  Malachi — a  period  of  more 
than  six  hundred  years,  a  succession  of  prophets  ap- 
pear, who  gradually  set  forth  the  person  and  work 
of  the  Messiah :  they  foretell,  too,  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit, 
and  the  general  prevalence  of  the  truth,* — points  on  which 
the  earlier  revelation  is  silent. 

In  the  extent  of  their  predictions,  the  prophets  have  not 
gone  beyond  the  first  promise  which  was  intended  to  give 
hope  of  complete  redemption ;  but  in  their  clearness,  in  the 
detailed  account  they  give  of  what  redemption  involved,  and 
what  it  cost,  the  diflerence  is  most  marked ;  while  in  the  same 
qualities,  the  Gospels  have  gone  at  least  as  far  beyond  the 
prophets  as  the  prophets  have  gone  beyond  the  law. 

232.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  the  predictions  of  the  old 
Practical  economy  and  its  practical  doctrines  go  hand  in 
doctrines,  j^a^d.  The  revelation  spreads  on  each  point. 
The  light  that  illuminates  the  living  spring,  or  the  harvest- 
field  of  truth,  shows  with  equal  clearness  the  path  that  leads 
to  them.  The  law  gives  Divine  precept  with  more  fullness 
than  previous  dispensations,  and  the  prophets  go  beyond  the 
law,  occupying  a  middle  place  between  it  and  the  gospel. 
They  insist  more  fully  on  the  principles  of  personal  holiness, 
as  distinguished  from  rational  and  ceremonial  purity,  and 
their  sanctions  have  less  reference  to  temporal  promises. 
The  precepts  of  the  law  are  in  the  law  stern  and  brief :  its 
penalties  denounced  with  unmitigated  severity.     In  the  pro- 

»  Gen.  xii.  3  ;  xxvi.  4 ;  xlix.  10,  etc. 
•>  Lev.  i.  4;  vi.  2-7;  xvii.  11. 
<^  Numb.  xxiv.  17:  Deut.  xviii.  15:  Acts  iii.  22,  23 
■ilPet.  1.  11:    Psa.  Ixviii.  18  ;    Joel  ii.  28  :    Isa.  liii, ,    Ixi.  11:    Zech, 
XIV.  9. 


THE    BIBLE   A   PROGRESSIVE   REVELATION.  153 

phets  the  whole  is  presented  in  colors  softer  and  more  at- 
tractive ;  hues  from  some  distant  glory,  itself  concealed,  have 
fallen  upon  their  gloomy  features  and  illumined  them  into  its 
own  likeness.  The  law  had  said,  "  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord 
thy  God  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  strength ; ' '  and 
the  extent  of  this  command  nothing  could  exceed.  The 
prophets,  however,  expound  and  enforce,  and  animate  it  with 
a  new  spirit,  and  direct  its  application  to  greater  holiness. 
The  rule  of  life  thus  becomes  in  their  hands  increasingly 
luminous  and  practical. 

233.  The  Psalms,  again,  are  a  great  instrument  of  piety,  and 
are  so  far  additions  to  the  institutes  of  legal  worship,  which, 
contain  no  specific  provision  for  devotion. 

234.  If  the  reader  will  compare  the  precepts  of  the  Penta- 
teuch on  repentance  with  those  of  the  prophets  on 

the  same  duty,*  or  the  statements  of  both  on  the 
relation  between  the  Jews,  or  of  the  world  generally,  and  Him 
who  came  to  enlighten  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  his  people 
Israel,''  or  will  mark  the  increasing  spirituality  and  clearness'' 
of  the  whole  horizon  of  spiritual  truth  as  the  dawn  of  the 
gospel  day  drew  on,  he  will  not  fail  to  understand  the  con- 
sistency and  progressive  development  of  revelation.  In  both 
he  will  see  evidence  of  the  presence  of  that  God  who  (as 
Butler  expressed  it)  "  appears  deliberate  in  all  his  operations," 
and  who  accomplishes  his  ends  by  slow  and  successive  stages, 
whether  they  refer  to  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  the  move- 
ments of  Providence,  or  the  more  formal  disclosures  of  his 
will. 

235.  This  peculiarity  of  Serij)ture  makes  it  important  that 
the  various  parts  of   the  Bible  should   be  read  in  , 

.  -^  .  .    .  Importance 

the  order  m  which  the  Spirit  revealed  them.     A  ofehrono- 

lo"'icul  iir- 

chronological   arrangement   of    sacred   history,   the  rangement. 

»  Deut.  XXX.  1-6:  Ezek.  xviii.:  Isa.  Ivii.  15,  16:  Paa.  xl.  6-8;  li. 
16,  17. 

•>  Isa.  Ixvi.  21. 

"  See  especially  Jer.  xxxi.  31-34. 


154  SUCCESSIVE   DISPENSATIONS. 

Psalms,  and  the  Prophets,  is  essential  to  the  complete  expla- 
nation of  the  several  parts :  nor  is  it  less  so  to  a  clear  and 
consistent  view  of  the  progressive  unveiling  of  the  Divine 
character  and  plans.* 

236.  It  deserves  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  even  when  we 
On  oti)er  3i'6  iiot  Contemplating  the  gradual  unfolding  of 
grounds.  truth,  the  study  of  Scripture  chronologically  is 
often  essential  to  a  just  appreciation  of  truth. 

Compare,  for  example,  Paul's  first  two  Epistles  with  the  last,  1  and 
2  Thess.  with  1  and  2  Tim.,  as  they  lie  side  by  side  in  the  English  ver- 
sion ;  and  we  shall  see  what  changes  several  years  of  labor  had  pro- 
duced in  the  apostle's  feelings,  and  in  the  state  of  the  church. 

Touching  as  is  the  enumeration  of  the  apostle's  sufferings,  given  in 
ii.  Cor.  11,  chronological  arrangement  reminds  us  that  that  chapter 
supplies  comparatively  little  of  the  evidence  we  have  of  his  sincerity. 
It  was  written  before  his  imprisomeut  in  Judea  and  at  Rome.  Two 
years  of  imprisonment,  shipwreck,  another  imprisonment,  and  finally, 
martyrdom,  are  to  be  added  to  the  account. 

Voltaire  ridicules  the  force  of  the  language  in  which  are  predicted 
(as  he  thinks)  the  fortunes  of  a  people  whose  narrow  strip  of  country 
did  not  exceed  200  miles  in  length.  Chronological  arrangement  would 
have  made  his  remark  the  more  striking,  but  it  might  also  have  sug- 
gested the  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The  prophecy  grows  most  confi- 
dent and  comprehensive  when  the  nation  is  all  but  annihilated.  Is  it 
likely,  therefore,  to  have  had  its  origin  in  national  vanity,  or  to  have 
its  accomplishment  in  national  revival  and  success  ? 

237.  Sometimes  this  gradual  development  of  the  Divine 
Various  dis-  wiU  is  spoken  of  as  successive  disjoensations : — the 
pensations.  ji^^(;iamic,  the  Patriarchal,  the  Mosaic,  and  the  Gospel: 
Dispensation  meaning  the  way  in  which  God  deals  with  men, 
or  (in  this  connection)  the  truth  revealed,  the  ordinances  and 
subsequent  conduct  which  are  enjoined. 

The  Adamic  dispensation  continued  only  during  man's 
innocency.  The  Patriarchal  lasted  more  than  2500  years, 
and  the  history  of  it  is  given  in  Gen.  iii. — Exod.  xx.     It  is 

=>  For  a  chronological  arrangement  of  the  whole  of  the  Bible,  see 
I'art  II. 


SUCCESSIVE   DISPENSATIONS.  155 

SO  called  from  the  fiict,  that  the  heads  of  families  were  the 
governors  and  teachers  of  men — (Patriarchs),  such  as  Adam, 
Seth,  Enoch,  and  Noah,  before  the  flood,  and  Job,  Melchizedek, 
Abraham,  and  his  immediate  descendants  after  it.  They  were 
the  depositaries  of  the  Divine  will,  the  guardians  of  prophecy, 
and  some  of  them  furnished  in  their  history  types  of  our 
Lord.  There  were,  during  this  period,  but  few  predictions, 
though  there  are  distinct  intimations  of  preparation  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  as  in  the  distinction  between  clean 
and  unclean  animals,  in  reference  to  sacrifice.  Gen.  viii.  20,  iu 
sacrifice  itself,  and  in  the  covenant  with  Abraham,  Gen.  xv.  20. 
In  the  Patriarchal  dispensation,  too,  may  be  traced  many  of 
the  first  principles  of  the  Mosaic. 

The  covenant  made  with  the  Jews  through  Moses — the  Mo- 
saic dispensation — lasted  for  about  1,500  years,  and  abounds 
with  typical  persons,  places,  and  things.  The  Jewish  people 
were  in  truth  a  type,  both  in  their  institutions  and  history. 

See  Lev.  vi.  2-9 ;  xvi.  21 ;  xvii.  11 :  Eph.,  Heb.,  and  1  Cor.  10. 

The  Gospel  dispensation,  the  great  principles  of  which  may 
be  traced  in  the  previous  economies,  is  founded  on  the  facts 
given  in  the  Gospels,  the  life  and  death  of  our  Lord.  In  the 
Acts  we  see  truth  in  action,  both  among  individual  believers 
and  in  the  church ;  in  the  Einstles,  the  doctrines  founded  on 
these  facts  are  developed  and  enforced ;  and  in  the  Revelation 
we  have  in  prophetic  visions,  the  history  of  truth  in  its  strug- 
gles with  error,  and  of  the  church  till  the  end  of  time. 

238.  These  books  constitute  the  dispensation  of  the  gospel, 
and  with  them,  the  development  of  evangelical  truth  Deveiop- 
(so  far  as  the  present  state  is  concerned),  ends,  ^uffe^w-fp- 
There  may  be  passages  in  the  Bible,  whose  full  *"''^' 
meaning  is  not  yet  discovered,  and  which  are  perhaps  "  re- 
served," as  Boyle  expressed  it,  "to  quell  some  future  heresy, 
or  resolve  some  yet  unformed  doubt,  or  confound  some  error 
that  hath  not  yet  a  name,"  or  prove  by  fresh  jDrophetic  evi- 
dence that  it  came- from  God.     Scripture,  moreover,  is  like 


156  THE   UNITY    OF   THE    BIBLE. 

the  deep  sea ;  beautifully  clear,  but  immeasurably  profound. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  definable  limit  to  our  insight  into  its 
naeaning.  But  we  are  to  look  for  no  further  revelation :  nor 
are  Ave  to  regard  as  developments  of  Scripture  doctrine,  the 
additions  of  men. 

Examples  of  the  abuses  of  this  truth  it  is  not  necessary  to 
The  (level-  multiply.  Popery  is  the  standing  illustration.  It 
61)111^1"*  pleads  for  the  development  of  truth  out  of  Scrip- 
Senpture.  ^^^^.g^  ^nd  in  the  church.  The  blessedness  of  the 
dead  who  die  in  the  Lord,  for  example,  is  said  on  its  theory 
to  be  the  natural  germ  of  saint  worship.  Christ's  presence 
in  the  supper  is,  in  the  same  way,  the  germ  of  the  adoration 
of  the  host,  and  the  salutation  of  the  angel,  of  the  deification 
of  the  virgin.  But  all  this  is  abuse.  The  gradual  develop- 
ment of  truth  in  Scripture,  is  one  thing.  An  accretion  which 
overlays  the  truth,  is  another;  and  it  is  for  the  former  only  we 
contend. 

Sec.  4. — The  Unity  of  the  Bible. 

239.  Nor  less  instructive  is  the  unity  of  the  sacred  volume. 
It  has  the  first  requisite  of  a  great  book — a  single  purpose, 
and  that  purpose  kept  in  view  throughout  every  page. 

240.  This  unity  is  not  owing  (it  will  be  observed)  to  the 

circumstance,  that  the  volume  is  the  work  of  one 

Not  of  style, 

but  of  doc-  author,  or  of  one  age.  As  many  as  forty  difi"erent 
writers  (including  the  authors  of  smaller  portions,) 
composed  it.  The  style  is  now  history,  now  song,  now  argu- 
ments or  dialogue,  now  biography,  or  prophecy,  or  letters. 
Deejoer  than  these  causes  of  diversity  and  sufficiently  strong 
to  counteract  their  influence,  must  be  the  secret  of  this  mar- 
vellous harmony.  It  is  found,  in  fact,  in  the  superhuman 
care  of  One  who  is  infinite  in  power  and  wisdom.  The  entire 
building  which  was  4,000  years  in  rearing,  is  symmetrical 
throughout,  and  must  have  had  a  Divine  founder,  who  first 
planned  and  then  superintended  the  whole. 


THE    UNITY    OF    THE    BIBLE.  157 

241.  Look  again,  for  example,  at  the  uniformly  moral  pur- 
pose of  the  volume.     It  is  the  story  of  human  beings 

^  •'  °     Unity  of 

in  relation  to  God :  first  of  man,  as  man :  then  of  moral  pur- 
families  :  then  of  a  nation :  then  of  the  wider  society 
of  the  church.  In  all  other  professed  revelations,  the  writers 
dwell  at  length  on  the  origin  of  the  universe  (as  in  the  shas- 
tras  of  the  Hindoos),  or  on  the  physical  theory  of  another  life 
(as  in  the  pretended  revelations  of  Mohammed),  or  on  topics 
which  cannot  even  be  imagined,  to  be  of  any  practical  impor- 
tance (as  in  the  fables  of  the  Talmud,  the  legends  of  the 
Romish  church,  and  the  visions  of  Swedenborg).  All  that  the 
Bible  teaches,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  God  as  connected 
with  man,  singly  or  socially,  or  to  man  as  connected  with 
God :  and  is  moral  and  practical.  It  contains  no  Cosmogony, 
no  mythology,  no  metaphysics,  no  marvels  which  are  not 
moral :  no  ideal  which  is  not  also  a  reality.  In  its  histories, 
biographies,  prophecies  and  psalmody,  it  has  but  one  aim,  to 
knit  together  the  broken  relations  between  God  and  man,  and 
between  man  and  man : — to  redeem  and  sanctify  our  race. 

242.  If  we  look  at  the  doctrines  which  were  believed  and 
taught,  we  find  a  unity  no  less  remarkable.     Under 

every  dispensation,  the  great  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity have  been  recognized  by  all  holy  men.  Religion, 
"subjectively"  regarded,  has  ever  been  faith  and  obedience. 
And  as  a  system  of  truth  ("  objective  religion"),  it  has  never 
changed.  From  the  earliest  times  we  find  a  belief  in  the 
unity  of  God ;  in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  all  things 
by  Divine  power ;  in  a  general  and  particular  providence ;  in 
a  Divine  law,  fixing  distinctions  between  right  and  wrong ;  in 
the  fall  and  corruption  of  man ;  in  the  doctrine  of  atonement 
through  vicarious  sufi'ering ;  in  the  obligation  and  efficacy  of 
prayer  ;  in  direct  Divine  influence  ;  in  human  responsibility  ; 
and  in  the  necessity  of  practical  holiness. 

The  law,  as  given  by  Moses,  abounds  in  ceremonv,  '^"'^  Gospel, 
and  was  evidently  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circum-  rnannatm-e. 
stances  of  one  people.     The  Gosj)el  has  but  few  ceremonies, 
14 


158  THE    UNITY    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

remarkable  for  tlieir  simplicity,  and  the  whole  is  of  uni- 
versal application.  But  though  at  first  sight  so  dissimilar, 
the  two  systems  are  essentially  one.  They  present  the  same 
views  of  God  and  of  man,  suggest  or  plainly  teach  the  same 
truths,  and  are  adapted  to  excite  the  same  feelings. 

One  example  more :  we  have  in  Scripture  several  successive 
portraits  of  human  nature ;  one  taken  before  the  deluge,  an- 
other soon  after  it :  one  probably  800  years  later,  and  pre- 
served in  the  book  of  Job ;  another  500  years  later  still,  by 
David ;  a  fifth,  500  years  later,  by  Jeremiah ;  and  a  sixth,  500 
years  later  still,  by  Paul.  Let  the  reader  compare  these  pic- 
tures with  one  another  and  with  experience,  and  he  will  feel 
that  each  description  had  really  the  same  origin,  and  that  the 
inspired  writers  had  one  purpose — the  elevation  of  our  nature 
by  humiliation,  and  penitence  and  faith. 

Gen.  vi.  5;  viii.  21:  Job  xv.  16:  Psa.  xiv.  2,  3:  Rom.  i.  19;  iii. 

243.  This    unity   comprehends    doctrines    entirely   beyond 

human  knowledge.     The  Bible  reveals  evervwhere 

Its  doc-  ,  r^      -,     ^      ■,  ■  T  T  •  ■,  ^ 

trinesbe-     the  same  trod,  holy,  wise,  and  good:   it  speaks  of 

yond  hu-       ,...  .  .  ,  ",  Tcir.T 

man  know-  his  designs  m  governing  the  world,  and  of  the  final 
issue  of  the  present  struggle  between  good  and  evil.* 
It  treats  of  human  nature  and  of  true  happiness  ;"*  analyses 
with  matchless  skill  the  secret  motives  of  human  action,  and 
points  out  the  grand  source  of  human  misery  :  subjects  which 
have  engaged  the  thoughts  of  the  wisest  men,  whose  views 
are  as  remarkable  for  their  vagueness  and  variety  as  are  those 
of  the  Bible  for  their  consistency  and  clearness. 

244.  Two  remarks  are  suggested  by  these  facts — 

First.  The  Bible  must  be  regarded,  not  as  a  series  of  dis- 
tinct revelations,  but  as  one  and  indivisible.  Doctrines  which 
are  clearly  revealed  in  the  New  Testament  depend  for  many 
of  their  evidences,  and  yet  more  for  their  illustrations,  on  the 
Old.     The  one  dispensation  is  the  completion  of  the  other. 

»Gen.  iii.  15:  Dan.  vii.  14:  1  Jolm  iii.  8. 

''Gen.  i.  26:  Rom.  iii.  23:  Eccl.  xii.  13;  Matt.  v.  iii,  &c. 


THE    UNITY    OF    THE    BIBLE.  159 

The  first  is  the  type,  or  earthly  figure ;  the  second,  the  hea- 
venly reality.  The  nature  of  the  "good  things  to  come"  may 
be  gathered  from  "  the  shadow,"  as  well  as  from  the  things 
themselves.  The  ancient  record,  moreover,  has  many  his- 
torical and  precious  associations.  It  fostered  in  the  ancient 
church  the  same  graces  as  are  required  now.  It  exhibits 
holy  men  struggling  with  our  temptations.  Above  all,  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  in  the  history  of  individuals  and 
of  nations,  as  of  the  race,  there  is  a  time  when  the  delivery 
of  truth,  in  forms  as  elementary  and,  comparatively,  rude  as 
those  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  seems  to  be  essential  to 
the  spiritual  training  of  character.  To  this  day,  it  is  known 
that  some  of  the  narratives  and  practices  of  the  old  economy 
give  to  heathen  nations  a  clearer  idea  of  the  Divine  holiness, 
and  of  human  duty,  than  even  the  more  full  disclosures  of 
the  new. 

245.  Secondly/.  Hence  an  important  test  of  truth,  and  of 
the  relative  value  of  truth.  If  it  be  said,  for  example,  that 
the  sacrifice  and  priesthood  of  Christ  are  not  revealed  in  the 
Gospel,  or  are  subordinate  truths,  we  look  to  the  law,  or  to 
earlier  dispensations;  and  if  it  be  maintained  that  in  the 
Gospel  there  is  no  priesthood  or  sacrifice,  we  have  then  in  the 
law  a  series  of  shadowy  observances,  without  reference  or 
meaning.  The  blood,  the  altar,  the  holy  place,  the  propitia- 
tory intercession,  are  all  types  of  nothing,  and  the  previous 
economy  is  robbed  of  its  significance.  If  it  had  significance, 
but  is  now  abolished,  the  substitution  of  the  Gospel  in  its 
place  implies  a  change  in  the  very  principles  of  the  Divine 
government.  Under  that  dispensation,  law  was  inexorable ; 
now  it  is  yielding  and  remiss.  Then  repentance  alone  was 
powerless  to  save,  now  it  is  mighty  and  efficacious.  At  first, 
man  was  pardoned  through  an  atonement,  at  least,  by  prero- 
gative. As  it  is,  the  mystery  is  solved.  Revelation  is  a  con- 
sistent whole.  The  doctrines  of  the  later  manifestation 
unfold  their  meaning,  and  instruct  with  increased  impresaive- 


IGO  THE    BIBLE    NOT    A    SYSTEM. 

ness  and  consistency,  when  studied  amidst  the  patterns  of  the 
earlier. 


Sec.  5. — Not  a  Eevelation  op  Systematic  Tkuth  or  of 

Specific  Eules. 

246.  Another  of  the  peculiarities  of  Scripture,  no  less  strik- 
ing than  those  named,  is  the  absence  of  all  systematic  form  in 
the  truths  revealed.  There  is  no  compend  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, nor  are  there  specific  rules  on  the  duties  of  the  Chris- 
tian life :  an  omission  the  more  marked,  as  in  the  books  of 
most  false  religions  (the  Koran  and  Shastras,  for  example)  the 
description  of  the  "faith"  is  most  precise,  and  the  minutest 
directions  are  given  concerning  fasts,  ablutions,  and  other 
points  of  religious  service. 

247.  This  jDeculiarity  is  both  natural  and  instructive.  In 
„, .  „  ^       the  Old  Testament,  the  earlier  part  (and  much  of 

This  fact  na-  '  J-  ^ 

turaiandin-  h^q  later)  is  purelv  historical.     Moral  truth  tran- 

structive.  _  .      . 

spires  exclusively  through  narrative,  and  the  narra- 
tive is  fragmentary  and  concise.  God  had  been  in  communi- 
cation with  man  for  more  than  2,000  years  before  he  gave  "the 
law."  Wha,t  he  had  revealed,  or  how  he  revealed  it,  cannot 
be  fully  gathered  from  the  record.  The  very  object,  indeed, 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  Bible,  seems  to  be  not  so  much 
the  disclosure  of  truth,  as  the  embodiment  of  truth  already 
disclosed. 

The  New  Testament,  again,  was  written  for  those  who  had 
received  instruction  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  had  embraced 
it.  It  can  hardly  be  expected,  therefore,  to  contain  regular 
elementary  instruction,  or  an  enumeration  of  articles  of  faith. 
When  the  Epistles  were  written,  the  churches  had  been  formed 
under  Divine  teaching  and  on  a  Divine  model;  while  the  Gos- 
pels are  clearly  historical,  and  rather  imjply  or  suggest  religious 
truth,  than  systematically  reveal  it. 

248.  Keligion  is  objective,  or  subjective;  a  system  of  holy 


THE   BIBLE   NOT   A   SYSTEM.  161 

doctrine,  or  of  active  holy  principles.     The  first  is  How  iruth 
truth,  and  the  second  is  piety.     In  Scripture  both  '^  revealed. 
are  revealed ;  hut  it  is  rather  in  the  form  of  examples,  or  of 
incidental  illustrations,  than  of  systematic  teaching. 

Let  us  notice,  for  example,  how  the  Bible  speaks  of  the 
character  of  God,  as  a  moral  governor,  and  of  man,  illustrated 

1     , 1  •     ,1   1  T  T     1  in  God  aud 

both  as  smku  and  as  holy.  man. 

By  the  character  of  God  is  meant  his  power,  his  ■wisdom,  his  holi- 
ness ;  and  by  his  moral  government,  his  superintendence  of  the  concerns 
of  the  universe  on  fixed  and  holy  principles. 

Everywhere,  throughout  the  Bible,  his  perfections  are  revealed;  but 
they  are  revealed  in  his  works.  They  are  never  defined  or  mentioned 
even,  without  reference  to  some  practical  end. 

When  Abraham,  through  Sarah's  impatience  or  unbelief,  had  taken 
Hagar,  hoping  to  see  an  early  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  promise,  Jehovah 
rebuked  him,  and  for  the  first  time  spoke  of  himself  as  the  "Almighty 
God,"  Gen.  xvii.  1.  When  Israel  exclaimed,  "My  way  is  hid  from  the 
Lord,"  the  answer  was  given,  "liast  thou  not  known  .  .  .  that  the 
everlasting  God  fainteth  not,  neither  is  weary:  there  is  no  searching 
of  his  understanding,"  Isa.  xl.  28. 

Considering  his  government,  we  find  its  principles  embodied  in  facts,  or 
in  practical  precepts,  exclusively.  His  dispensations  are  unchangeable 
like  himself.  In  every  nation  and  age,  he  that  worketh  righteousness 
is  approved.  He  judges  according  to  every  man's  work."  He  controls 
what  seems  most  accidental.''  He  brings  about  his  ends  by  means 
apparently  trifling  or  contradictory ."=  He  makes  even  the  wicked  the 
instruments  of  his  will."^  He  forgives,  and  is  ready  to  forgive."  He 
hears  and  answers  prayer. f  He  marks  the  motives  of  men,  as  in  the 
case  of  Lot's  wife,  and  of  Joash.s  He  chastises  those  whom  he  most 
loves,  as   in   the   case  of  Moses,    of  David,    and   of   Hezekiah.h     He 

»  Deut.  x.  17;  2  Chron.  xix.  7:  Rom.  ii.  11:  Gal.  ii.  6;  Eph.  yi.  9: 
Col.  iii.  25:    1  Pet.  i.  17. 

•>  Jer.  xxxviii.  7-13  :  Acts  xvi.  23. 
"  1  Sam.  ix.  3,  15,  16:  Judges  vii.  13-15. 
dNeh.  xiii.  2:  Acts  ii.  23. 
«  Dan.  ix.  24  :  2  Chron.  vii.  14. 
f  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13:  Gen.  xxiv.  12. 
s  Gen.  xix.  26:  2  Kings  xiii.  9. 

h  Numb.  XX.  12;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  11,  15;  2  Chron.  xxxu.  25. 
14* 


162  THE    BIBLE    NOT    A    SYSTEM. 

preserveth  the  righteous,  and  none  that  trusteth  in  Him  shall  be 
desolate.* 

Man  is  set  before  us  in  lights  equally  instructive.  If  we  would  ana- 
lyze and  describe  our  sinfulness,  we  D:iay  find  scoffing  infidelity  in  the 
antediluvians  ;*>  envy  in  the  brethren  of  Joseph,  and  in  Cain  f  malice 
in  Saul  ■,'^  slander  in  Doeg  and  Ziba ,"  contempt  for  Divine  teaching  in 
Korah  and  Ahab  ;f'  covetousness  in  Achan  and  Balaam,  in  Gehazi,  and 
Judas  ;e  ambition  in  Abimelech  and  the  sons  of  Zebedee ;''  pride  in 
Hezekiah  and  Nebuchadnezzar.' 

To  set  forth  the  inconsistencies  of  human  nature,  it  shows  us,  in 
Ahithophel,  the  friend  and  the  traitor  ;J  in  Joab,  the  brave  soldier  and 
faithful  servant,''  yet  "a  doer  of  evil,"  and  one  who  opposed  God's 
appointment  and  sided  with  Adonijah  ;'  in  Jehoram,  a  destroyer  of  the 
images  of  Baal,  who  yet  cleaved  to  the  sin  of  Jeroboam ;"  in  Herod, 
reverence  for  John,  and  a  spirit  of  hardened  disobedience;"  in  Agrippa, 
belief  of  the  prophets,  and  a  rejection  of  the  gospel ;"  in  many  of  the 
chief  rulers,  a  faith  in  Christ,  combined  with  a  readiness  to  join  in  the 
sentence  of  the  Sanhedrim,  that  he  was  "guilty  of  death. "p 

We  see  the  power  of  self-deceit  in  David  and  Balaam  ;q  of  prejudice, 
in  Naaman,  in  Nicodemus,  in  the  people  of  Athens  and  of  Ephesus;' 
of  habit,  in  Ahab,  who  humbled  himself  before  Elijah,  and  yet  re- 
turned to  his  idols  ;=  and  in  Felix,  of  whom  we  read  that  he  trembled 
once,  though  we  never  read  that  he  trembled  again.' 

The  danger  of  ungodly  connections  is  seen  in  the  antediluvians  and 
Esau,  who  married  with  those  who  were  under  the  curse  of  God ;«  in 
Solomon;'  in  Jehoshaphat's  connection  with  Ahab  (through  Athaliah);" 
and  in  Ahab's  connection  with  Jezebel  ;*  of  worldly  prosperity  in  Ke- 
hoboamy  and  Uzziah.^ 

a  1  Sam.  xvii.  37:  Phil.  iv.  12, 18.  ^  Jude  xiv.  15. 

<=  Gen.  iv.  5 ;  xxxvii.  11.  ^  1  Sam.  xviii.  28,  29. 

e  1  Sam.  xxii.  9  :  2  Sam.  xvi.  1.  f  Numb.  xvi.  3 ;  1  Kings,  xx.  22. 

E  Josh.  vi.  19,  etc.  •»  Jud.  ix.  1-5 :  Mark  x.  35. 

i  2  Kings  XX.  13 :  Dan.  iv.  30.  J  Psa.  Iv.  13 :  2  Sam.  xvi.  15. 

k  2  Sam.  xii.  28 ;  xxiv.  3.  •  2  Sam.  iii.  27-39. 

">  2  Kings  iii.  1-3.  °  Mark  vi.  16-20. 

0  Acts  xxvi.  27,  28.  p  John  xii.  42 :  Matt.  xxvi.  66. 

q  2  Sam.  xii.  5-7 :  Numb,  xxxii. 

r  2  Kings  V.  11,  12:  John  iii.:  Acts  xvii.  18,  19,  28. 

»  1  Kings  xxi.  27 ;  xxii.  6.  «  Acts  xxiv. 

"  Gen.  vi.  1-3 ;  xxvi.  34.  '  Neh.  xiii.  25,  26. 

w  2  Kings  viii.  18-26.  '  1  Kings  xxi. 

y  2  Chron.  xii.  1.  »  2  Chron.  xxvi.  16. 


THE   BIBLE    NOT   A    SYSTEM.  163 

If  we  seek  for  the  exhibitions  of  Christian  excellence,  again,  we  have 
it  not  defined,  but  illustrated :  faith  in  Abraham  ;^  patience  in  Job  •'' 
meekness  in  Moses  ;<=  decision  in  Joshua  ■,'^  patriotism  in  Neheraiah 
friendship  in  Jonathan/  In  Hannah,  wo  have  a  pattern  to  mothers 
in  Samuel,  and  Josiah,  and  Timothy,  to  children  ■,^  in  Joseph,  and 
Daniel,  to  young  men;'  in  Barzillai,  to  the  aged;J  in  Eliezer,  to  ser- 
vants ji^  in  David,  to  those  under  authority;'  in  our  Divine  Lord,  to  all 
of  every  age  and  in  every  condition,  whether  of  duty  or  of  suffering. 

To  make  the  truth  taught  in  these  examples  (except  in  the  last)  com- 
plete, we  must  trace  the  evidence  of  their  weakness.  They  failed  in 
the  very  parts  of  their  character  which  were  strongest.  Abraham 
through  fear,""  Job  through  impatience,"  Moses  through  irratibility  and 
presumption. ° 

If  we  attempt,  again,  to  ascertain  from  Scripture  what  Paley  has 
called  the  "devotional  virtues"  of  religion,  veneration  towards  God,  a 
habitual  sense  of  his  providence,  faith  in  his  wisdom  and  dealings,  a 
disposition  to  resort  on  all  occasions  to  his  mercy  for  help  and  pardon, 
we  shall  find  them  rather  illustrated  than  defined,  embodied,  that  is, 
in  character  and  example,  and  not  in  propositions  ;p  the  whole  adapted 
with  admirable  skill,  and  by  the  very  form  they  assume  to  our  wants. 

It  is  tliis  presence  in  Scripture  of  men  like  ourselves,  that 
brings  it  home  to  our  business  and  bosoms.  There  is  felt  to  be 
something  human  in  it,  as  well  as  Divine.  It  meets  us  at  every 
turn.  We  feel,  as  we  look,  that  it  has  a  power,  which,  like  the 
eye  of  a  good  portrait,  is  fixed  u]Don  us,  turn  where  we  will.** 

See  Miller's  Bampton  Lectures,  p.  128. 

a  Gal.  iii.  7-9.  b  James  v.  11. 

«  Numb.  xii.  3.  d  Josh.  xxiv.  15. 

«  Neh.  i.  4  ;  v.  14.  f  1  Sam.  xix.  2-4,  etc. 

g  1  Sam.  i.  27,  28.  h  1  Sam.  iii.:  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  9;  2 

Tim.  iiji.  15. 

"  Gen.  xxxix.  9.  J  2  Sam.  xix.  34,  35. 

■^  Gen.  xxiv.  '  1  Sam.  xxiv.  6-10,  etc. 

n>Gen.  XX.  2.  "  Job.  iii.  1. 

"  Deut.  xxxii.  51. 

p  Paley  has  some  admirable  remarks,  applying  these  principles  to 
the  character  (given  in  Scripture)  of  our  Lord.  "  Evidences,"  p.  231. 
Jttehgious  Tract  Society's  ed. 

1  Besides  answering  this  moral  purpose,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
the  style  of  Scripture,  consisting  of  figures  and  specific  examples,  or 


164  THE    BIBLE    NOT    A   SYSTEM. 

249.  What  an  essential  quality  in  a  volume  designed  for  all 
g  .  countries  and  for  every  age !  If  articles  of  faith, 
thence  or  minute  rules  of  practice  had  been  given,  they 
all  coun-  must  have  been  retained  for  ever,  and  with  them 

tries. 

the  heresies  and  errors  which  they  were  intended  to 
condemn.  Either  they  must  have  been  very  general,  and 
therefore  useless  for  their  avowed  purpose,  or  they  must  have 
been  so  minute  as  not  to  be  practicable  in  all  countries,  and 
comprehensible  by  all  Christians.  The  Koran,  for  example, 
places  the  utmost  importance  on  the  offering  of  prayer  at  sun- 
rise and  sunset:  a  rule  which  proves  that  the  religion  of  the 
false  prophet  was  never  designed  for  Greenland  or  Labrador, 
where  for  several  months  the  sun  never  sets.  A  summary  of 
doctrine,  too,  perfectly  intelligible  to  a  matured  Christian, 
might  be  nearly  all  mysterious  to  the  converted  Hottentot. 

250.  And  even  if  such  a  summary  could  have  been  made 

generally  intelligible,  its  effects  upon  the  minds  of 
and  reflec-     Christians  would  have  been  disastrous.     They  would 

tion  impor-  •' 

tant.  have  stored  their  memory  with  the  very  words  of 

the  Creed,  without  searching  the  rest  of  Scripture.  There 
would  have  been  no  room  for  thought,  no  call  for  investigation, 
and  no  excitement  of  the  feelings  or  improvement  of  the  heart. 
The  creed  being,  not  that  from  which  the  faith  is  to  be  learned, 
but  the  faith  itself,  would  be  regarded  with  indolent  and  use- 
less veneration.  It  is  only  when  our  energies  are  roused  and 
our  attention  awake,  when  we  are  acquiring  or  correcting,  or 
improving  our  knowledge,  that  knowledge  makes  the  requisite 
impression  upon  us.  God.  has  not  made  Scripture  like  a  gar- 
den, "  where  the  fruits  are  ripe  and  the  flowers  bloom,  and  all 
things  are  fully  exposed  to  view ;  but  Hke  a  field,  where  we 
have  the  ground  and  •  seeds  of  all  precious  things,  but  where 
nothing  can  be  brought  to  maturity  without  our  industry ;  "* 

"singular  terms,"  is  the  kind  of  diction  least  impaired  by  translation. 
See  Whateley's  Ilhet.,  part.  iii.  chap.  ii.  §  2. 

»  More's  Mystery  of  Godliness. 


THE   BIBLE   NOT   A   SYSTEM.  165 

nor  then,  without  the  dews  of  heavenly  grace.  "I  find  in  the 
Bible,"  says  Cecil,  "a  grand  peculiarity,  that  seems  to  say  to 
all  who  attempt  to  systematize  it,  I  am  not  of  your  mind  .... 
I  stand  alone.  The  great  and  the  wise  shall  never  exhaust 
my  treasures :  by  figures  and  parables  I  will  come  down  to  the 
feelings  and  understandings  of  the  ignorant.  Leave  me  as  I 
am,  but  study  me  incessantly." 

251.  Even  good  men,  too,  have  undue  preferences.     If  aU 
truth  of  the  same  order  were  placed  together  in 
ScrijDture,  men  would   read  most  what  they  most  and  duties 
loved,  to  the  neglect  of  what  may  be  as  imjDortant 
though  less  welcome.      But  as  truth  is  scattered  throughout 
the  Bible,  we  learn  to  think  of  doctrine  in  connection  with 
duty,  and  of  duty  in  connection  with  the  principles  by  which 
it  is  enforced. 

252.  These  facts  rebuke  the  system  of  the  Romish  church : 
she    condemns   the   study   of   the   Bible,  fostering  ^,  ,  ^,    , 

_  •'  _         _  '  o    Not  Theolo 

man's  aversion  to  the  investigation  of  truth,  and  gy-bnt?/i6 

"       _  Bible  to  he- 

his  indolent  acquiescence  in  what  is  ready  prepared  studied, 
to  his  hand  :  a  propensity  against  which  the  very  structure  of 
the  Christian  Scriptures  seems  designed  to  guard. 

They  suggest,  too,  a  lesson  to  those  who  regard  the  Bible  as 
influential  only  when  made  a  treasury  of  intellectual  truth. 
Systematic  Divinity,  founded  upon  the  Bible,  is  perhaps  the 
last  perfection  of  knowledge,  but  not  necessarily  of  character. 
A  man  may  be  drawn  to  the  sacred  page  by  its  pictures  of 
Divine  goodness,  and  may  love  it  with  a  return  of  affection 
for  all  its  mercy,  or  of  hope  for  its  promises,  or  may  feed  his 
soul  with  its  provisions,  or  direct  his  life  by  its  counsel,  and 
yet  do  nothing  to  systematize  its  doctrines,  or  at  all  under- 
stand the  technical  phrases  of  theological  truth.  This  life  of 
devotion,  with  its  acknowledgment  of  Providence,  and  imita- 
tion of  Christ,  is  the  chief  thing :  combined  with  systematic 
thinking,  it  makes  a  man  profoundly  holy  and  profoundly 
wise ;  but  without  the  systematic  thinking  there  may  be  both 
holiness  and  wisdom. 


166  THE   BIBLE    NOT   A    SYSTEM. 

253.  They  suggest  a  third  lesson.     Systematic  catechetical 
treatises  on  doctrine  are  of  use,  chiefly  in  defining 

Scripture  .  .  r    r  ■  t        ^ 

the  book  for  or  preserving  unity  oi  laith ;  but  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  the  instruments  of  religious  training,  or 
as  the  store-houses  of  effective  knowledge.  They  address  the 
intellect  only,  and  that,  too,  in  logical  forms,  without  narrative, 
or  example,  or  feeling,  or  power.  They  contain  no  patterns  of 
holiness  ;  no  touches  of  nature.  Use  them,  therefore,  in  their 
right  place ;  but  remember  that  the  Divine  instrument  of 
man's  improvement  is  that  book  which  abounds  in  examples 
of  tenderness,  of  pity,  of  remonstrance ;  which  gives  forth  tones 
and  looks,  and  words,  at  once  human  and  Divine,  ever  the 
same,  and  yet  ever  new — the  Bible. 

[On  the  subjects  of  this  section,  see  "Errors  of  Romanism 
traced  to  their  Origin  in  Human  Nature,"  and  "  Essays  on 
some  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  by  Arch- 
bishop Whately.] 


INTERPRETATION — STUDY.  167 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON   THE   INTERPRETATION    OP   SCRIPTURE. 

"  Man  can  weary  himself  in  any  secular  affair,  but  diligently  to  searclx 
the  Scripture  is  to  him  tedious  and  burdensome.  Few  covet  to  be  mighty 
in  the  Scriptures,  though  convinced  their  great  concern  is  enveloped  in 
them." — Locke,  Com7nonplace  Book,  Pre/. 

"The  generality  of  Scripture  hath  such  a  contexture  and  coherence, 
one  part  with  another,  that  small  insight  into  it  will  be  gained  by  read- 
ing it  confusedly.  Therefore,  read  the  whole  in  order." — Dr.  Francis 
Egberts. 

"The  tropical  sense  is  no  other  than  the  figurative  sense.  As  we  say 
in  language  derived  from  the  Greek,  that  a  trope  is  turned  from  its  lit- 
eral or  grammatical  sense,  so  we  say  in  language  derived  from  the  Latin, 
that  a,  figure  is  then  used,  because  in  such  cases  the  meaning  of  the  word 
assumes  a  new  form.  The  same  opposition,  therefore,  which  is  expressed 
by  the  terms  literal  sense  and  figurative  sense,  is  expressed  also  by  the 
terms  grammatical  sense  and  tropical  sense." — Marsh,  Lectures,  Partiii, 

Sec.  1. — On  the  Necessity  of  Care  in  the  Study  of 

Scripture. 

254.  Ttie  importance  of  carefully  studying  the  Bible  with 
every  accessible  help  may  be  gathered  from  the  cir-  ggi.jpt„re3 
cumstances  connected  with  the  preparation  of  the  "j^^'^^fi'g'dj^. 
sacred  books.  [nwiTicrr^ 

They  were  written  by  different  writers,  of  every  "^*^y  ^®''® 
degree    of    cultivation,    and    of    different    orders —  ,„  . 

"  '  Wntors  of 

priests    as    Ezra,    poets    as    Solomon,    prophets    as  different 

■  T\       •  ^       1        1  A  orders. 

Isaiah,   warriors    as    David,    herdsmen    as   Amos, 
statesmen  as  Daniel,  scholars  as  Moses  and  Paul,  fishermen, 
"unlearned  and  ignorant  men,"  as  Peter  and  John. 

The  first  author,  Moses,  lived  400  years  before  the  siege  of 
Troy,   and   900   before   the  most  ancient  sages  of   ^jj^p,  ^^^ 
Greece  and  Asia,  Thales,  Pythagoras,  and  Confucius;  places. 
and  the  last,  John,  1,500  years  later  than  Moses. 

The  books  were  written  in  different  places ;  in  the  centre 
of  Asia,  on  the  sands  of  Arabia,  in  the  deserts  of  Judai^a,  m 


168    CIECUMSTANCES  IN  "WHICH  THE  BIBLE  WAS  WRITTEN. 

the  porches  of  the  temple,  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets  at 
Bethel  and  Jericho,  in  the  palaces  of  Babylon,  on  the  idolatrous 
banks  of  Chebar,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  western  civilization ; 
the  allusions,  and  figures,  and  expressions,  being  taken  from 
customs,  scenery,  and  habits,  very  different  from  each  other, 
and  from  those  of  modern  Europe. 

Some  of  the  writers,  as  Moses,  frame  laws ;  others  sketch 
Have  differ-  ^i^^ory,  as  Joshua  ;  some  compose  psalms,  as  David ; 
ent  purpos-   gr  provcrbs,  as  Solomon.     Isaiah  writes  prophecies ; 

es,  and  ad-  i-  \  r      r  > 

dress  differ-  the  evangelists,  a  biography ;  several  of  the  apos- 
ters.  ties,  letters. 

Whole  books,  and  parts  of  books,  refer  to  the  heathen,  as 
in  Isaiah  and  Nahum ;  while  parts  are  addressed  to  the  Jews 
only :  one  Gospel  was  intended  for  Hebrew  converts  and 
another  for  Gentiles.  The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  are 
addressed  to  men  who  had  little  respect  for  authority,  and 
were  unwilling  to  be  bound,  except  by  the  fewest  possible 
ties.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  is  addressed  to  those  who 
wished  to  bring  their  converts  under  the  bondage  of  the  law. 
That  to  the  Romans  addresses  (in  part,)  the  pharisaically  self- 
righteous  ;  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  nominal  and  careless 
professor. 

The  time,  the  place,  the  employment  and  previous  history, 
the  character  and  aim  of  the  various  writers,  and  even  the 
position  of  those  they  addressed,  all  need  to  be  considered; 
as  these  circumstances  must  have  exercised  an  influence,  if 
not  upon  the  thoughts  embodied  in  the  language  of  Scripture, 
yet  upon  the  language  itself. 

255.  The  importance  of  a  careful  study  of  Scripture  will 
s  ri  ture  ^^^  more  appear,  when  we  consider  the  difiiculty  of 
needsstudy,  communicating  to  men,  and  in  human  language,  any 

from  impor-  "  '  o       o   •        j 

fection  of      ideas  of  religious  or  spiritual  truth. 

language.  . 

256.  Most  of  the  language  which  men  employ  in 

Use  of  anal-  .    .  .       °   .     „  , 

ogy  in  men-  reference  to  spiritual  things,  is  founded  on  analogy 

or  resemblance.     This  is  true  of  all  language  which 

cpeaks  of  the  mind  or  of  its  acts ;   and  especially  of  the  Ian- 


ANALOGICAL    LANGUAGE    OF    SCRIPTURE.  169 

guage  of  early  times.  In  tlie  infancy  of  races,  language  is 
nearly  all  figure,  and  describes  even  common  facts  by  the  aid 
of  natural  symbols.  The  very  word  "  spirit,"  means  in  its 
derivation,  "  breath."  The  mind  is  said  to  see  truth,  because 
the  act  of  the  mind  by  which  it  is  perceived,  bears  some 
resemblance  to  the  act  of  the  eye.  To  "reflect,"  is  literally 
to  bend  or  throw  back,  and  so  to  look  round  our  thoughts. 
"Attention"  is  a  mental  exercise,  analogous  to  the  stretching 
of  the  eye  in  the  examination  of  some  outward  object.  It  is 
the  necessity  of  man's  state,  that  scarcely  any  fact  connected 
with  the  mind,  or  with  spiritual  truth,  can  be  dascribed,  but 
in  language  borrowed  from  material  things.  To  words  exclu- 
sively spiritual  or  abstract,  we  can  attach  no  definite  conception. 

257.  And  God  is  pleased  to  condescend  to  our  necessity. 
He  leads  us  to  new  knowledge  by  means  of  what  is 
already  known.  He  reveals  himself  in  terms  pre- 
viously familiar.  If  he  speak  of  himself,  it  must  be  in  words 
originally  suggested  by  the  operations  of  the  senses.  If  he 
speak  of  heaven,  it  is  in  figures  taken  from  the  scenes  of  the 
earth. 

We  say  that  God  "condescends  to  our  necessity."  This  is 
true  :  but  it  might  be  said  with  as  much  truth,  that  God  having 
stamped  his  own  image  upon  natural  things,  employs  them  to 
describe  and  illustrate  himself.  "  The  visible  world  is  the  dial- 
plate  of  the  invisible."  Spiritual  thoughts  were  first  embo- 
died in  natural  symbols;  and  those  symbols  are  now  employed 
to  give  ideas  of  s^iiritual  truth.  To  the  devout  man,  espe- 
cially, the  seen  and  the  unseen  world  are  so  closely  blended, 
that  he  finds  it  difficult  to  separate  them.  The  world  of  na- 
ture is  to  him  an  emblem,  and  a  witness  of  the  world  of  spirits. 
They  proceed  from  the  same  hand.     In  his  view, 

Earth 
Is  but  the  shadow  of  heaven,  and  things  therein, 
Are  each  to  other  like. 

It  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  conviction,  that  many  of  the 
15 


170  EXPRESSIONS   TAKEN   FROM   MAN. 

figures  of  the  Bible  have  originated  in  such  a  habit,  and  are 
the  ofFspririg  of  exquisite  taste  and  devout  piety. 

Nor  is  it  only  from  the  nature  of  spiritual  truth,  or  from 
the  marvellous  connection  which  subsists  between  material 
and  spiritual  things,  that  the  inspired  writers  employ  the  lan- 
guage of  figure.  Such  language  is  often  most  appropriate, 
because  of  its  impressiveness  and  beauty.  It  conveys  ideas 
to  the  mind  with  more  vividness  than  prosaic  description.  It 
charms  the  imagination,  while  instructing  the  judgment,  and 
it  impresses  the  memory,  by  interesting  the  heart. 

258.  (1.)  Sometimes,  for  example,  common  things  are  asso- 

ciated in  Scripture  with  what  is  spiritual. 

Common 
things  sug- 
gest reli-  God    dwells   in    "light."      He   sets   up   his    "kingdom." 

Heaven  is  his  "  throne."     The  Christian's  faith  is  described 

in  the  same  order  of  terms.    He  "  handles"  the  word  of  life.  He   "sees" 

him  who  is  invisible.   He  "comes"  to  Christ,  and  he  "leans"  upon  him. 

259.  (2.)  Sometimes  the  Bible,  borrowing  comparisons  from 
ourselves,  speaks  of  God  as  having  human  affections, 
and  performing  human  actions. 


Man. 


Hands,  eyes,  and  feet  are  ascribed  to  God ;  and  the  meaning  is,  that 
he  has  power  to  execute  all  such  acts,  as  those  organs  in  us  are  instru- 
mental in  effecting.  He  is  called  "the  Father,"  because  he  is  the  creator 
and  supporter  of  man,  and  especially  because  he  is  the  author  of  spir- 
itual life.  He  "  lifts  up  the  light  of  his  countenance"  when  he  mani- 
fests his  presence  and  love  (Psa.  iv.  6),  and  "  he  hides  his  face  "  (Psa.  x. 
1)  when  these  blessings  are  withheld. 

In  Gen.  vi.,  it  is  said,  "  It  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made  man," 
i.  e.,  he  had  no  longer  pleasure  in  his  work,  so  unpleasing  and  unprofit- 
able had  man  become  by  transgression. 

In  Gen.  xviii.  21,  he  says,  "  I  will  go  and  see,"  to  imply  that  he  should 
examine  the  doings  of  men  before  he  condemned  them. 

In  Jer.  vii.  13,  he  says,  "I  spake  unto  you,  rising  up  early  and  speak- 
ing," to  imply  the  interest  he  felt  in  their  welfare,  and  the  care  he  had 
taken  to  instruct  them. 

In  Dan.  iv.  35,  it  is  said  "  he  doeth  according  to  his  will,"  i.  e.,  not 
capriciously,  but  independently  of  men,  and  so  as  justly  to  require  our 
entire  submission. 


EXPRESSIONS    TAKEN    FROM   JEWISH    RITES.  171 

It  may  be  observed  generally,  tbat  tbough  there  is  some  analogy 
between  the  love  and  wisdom,  the  knowledge  and  holiness,  which  we 
ascribe  to  God,  and  those  same  faculties  in  men,  there  is  a  great  diflfer- 
ence  between  them.  The  faculties  in  God  are  infinitely  more  noble, 
though  there  is  enough  of  resemblance  in  the  expressions  of  each,  to 
justify  the  application  of  the  same  terms. 

Two  remarks,  in  reference  to  tlie  employment  of  this  ana- 
logical language,  are  important. 

260.  (1.)  The  figures  which  are  used  in  speaking  of  spiritual 
truth  are  not  used,  as  in  common  description,  to  give  such  terms 
an  unnatural  greatness  or  dignity  to  the  objects  they  aggerate'" 
describe.     The  things  represented  have  much  more  *''^^"^- 

of  reality  and  perfection  in  them  than  the  things  by  which  we 
represent  them.  It  is  so  in  all  such  language.  The  mind 
weighs  arguments,  and  that  action  is  more  noble  than  the  me- 
chanical habit  from  which  the  expression  is  taken.  God  sees 
much  more  perfectly  than  the  eye :  and  the  light  in  which  he 
dwells  is  very  feebly  represented  by  the  material  element  to 
which  that  name  is  applied.  When  it  is  said  that  the  church 
is  the  bride  of  Christ,  the  earthly  relation  is  but  a  lower  form 
of  the  heavenly ;  in  the  same  way  as  earthly  kingdoms  and 
earthly  majesty  are  but  figures  and  faint  shadows  of  the  true. 
The  figurative  language,  then,  which  we  are  compelled  to  em- 
ploy when  speaking  of  spiritual  things,  is  much  within  the 
truth,  and  never  beyond  it. 

261.  (2.)  It  is  a  necessary  result  of  the  employment  of  such 
language,  that  figurative  expressions  are  sometimes  q^^^j^  ^^^^^ 
used  in  different  senses.  '"  different 

senses. 

If  God  is  said,  for  example,  to  repent,  and  to  turn  from  the  evil  which 
lie  had  threatened  against  sinners,  and  in  other  places  it  is  said  that  God 
is  "not  a  man,  that  he  should  lie;  neither  the  son  of  man,  that  he  should 
repent"  (Numb,  xxiii.  19),  in  the  first  it  is  meant  that  God  changes  his 
dealings  with  sinners  when  they  change :  and  in  the  second,  that  there 
is  no  fickleness  or  untruthfulness  in  him. 

In  Psa.  xviii.  11,  God  is  said  to  make  "darkness  his  secret  place,"  and 
in  1  Tim.  vi.  16,  he  is  said  to  dwell  in  light.  In  the  first  case,  darkness 
meanis  inscrutableness,  and  in  the  second,  light  means  purity,  intelli- 


172  EXPRESSIONS    TAKEN    FROM    JEWISH    RITES. 

gence,  or  lionor.  In  Exod.  xxxiii.  11,  it  is  said  that  God  "spake  unto 
Moses  face  to  face,"  and  in  ver.  20  he  declares  that  no  man  can  see  his 
face  and  live.  In  the  first  passage,  the  expression  means  to  have  inter- 
course without  the  intervention  of  another;  in  the  second,  to  have  a 
full  and  familiar  sight  of  the  Divine  glory. 

The  same  word  (it  has  been  remarked)  expresses  in  Hebrew  "to 
bless"  and  "to  curse,"  and  this  dissimilarity  of  meaning  has  excited 
surprise.  The  word  originally  means  "to  bend  the  knee,"  and  that  act 
was  equally  appropriate  in  asking  a  favor  for  others  and  in  denouncing 
them. 

262.  (3.)  It  may  be  remarked,  further,  that  the  Bible  often 
speaks  of  spiritual  truth  in  terms  suggested  by  the 
jevvish  his-    facts  of  Jewish  history,  or  by  rites  of  Divine  insti- 
'^''-  tution. 

The  idea  of  holiness,  e.  g.,  for  which  in  its  Christian  sense  the  heathen 
have  no  word,  was  suggested  to  the  Jews  by  means  of  a  special  institu- 
tion. All  animals,  common  to  Palestine,  were  divided  into  clean  and 
unclean.  From  the  clean,  one  was  chosen  without  spot  or  blemish:  a 
peculiar  tribe,  selected  from  the  other  tribes,  was  appointed  to  present 
it;  the  offering  being  first  washed  with  clean  water,  and  the  priest  him- 
self undergoing  a  similar  ablution.  Neither  the  priest,  nor  any  of  the 
people,  nor  the  victim,  however,  was  deemed  sufficiently  holy  to  come 
into  the  Divine  presence,  but  the  offering  was  made  without  the  holy 
place.  The  idea  of  the  infinite  purity  of  God  was  thus  suggested  to  the 
mind  of  observers,  and  holiness  in  things  created  came  to  mean,  under 
the  law,  "  purification  for  sacred  uses,"  and  under  the  Gospel,  freedom 
from  sin,  and  the  possession,  by  spiritual  intelligences,  of  a  "  Divine 
nature." 

The  demerit  of  sin  and  the  doctrine  of  an  atonement  were  taught  in 
words  taken  from  equally  significant  rites.  The  victim  was  slain,  and 
its  blood  (which  was  the  life)  was  sprinkled  upon  the  mercy  seat,  and 
towards  the  holy  place;  and  while  the  people  prayed  in  the  outer  court, 
they  beheld  the  dark  volume  of  smoke  ascending  from  the  sacrifice, 
which  was  burning  in  their  stead.  How  plainly  did  this  suggest  that 
God's  justice  was  a  consuming  fire,  and  that  the  souls  of  the  people 
escaped  only  through  a  vicarious  atonement!  The  ideas  thus  suggested 
were  intended  to  continue  through  all  time,  and  we  find  them  often  ex- 
pressed in  terms  borrowed  from  these  ancient  institutions. 

Under  the  law,  again,  the  priests  were  clothed  in  white  linen,  and 
dressed  in  splendid  apparel.  Expressions  taken  from  these  customs  are 
hence  employed  to  indicate  the  purity  and  dignity  of  the  redeemed. 


FIGURATIVE   EXPRESSIONS.  173 

The  whole  of  Jewish  history  is  in  the  same  way  suggestive 
of  spiritual  truth  and  of  analogous  expressions. 

Men  are  the  "slaves"  of  sin.  Their  road  is  through  the  "desert." 
They  cross  the  "  Jordan  "  of  death.  They  enter  the  "rest"  that  remains  for 
the  people  of  God.  They  have  their  "forerunner:"  their  prophet:  their 
priest,  who  is  also  called  in  prophecy  after  the  days  of  Saul,  their  king. 

263.  (4.)  It  may  be  remarked  again,  that  many  of  the  ex- 
pressions of  the  New  Testament  are  employed  in  jy^.^^  tp^ms 
senses  entirely  unknown  to  the  common  writers  of  '^^ed  in  new 

-'  senses. 

the  Greek  tongue. 

The  New  Testament  term  for  humility  meant,  in  classic  Greek,  mean- 
spiritedness,  and  though  Plato  has  used  the  word  once  or  twice,  to  indi- 
cate a  humble  spirit,  this  is  confessedly  an  unusual  meaning,  De  leg.  iv. 
The  Greeks  had  no  virtue  under  that  name,  and  even  Cicero  remarks, 
that  meekness  is  merely  a  blemish.  De  Off.  iii.  32.  Grace  in  the  sense 
of  Divine  unmerited  favor:  Justification  as  an  evangelical  blessing:  God 
as  a  holy,  self-existent  merciful  Being :  Faith  as  an  instrument  of  holi- 
ness, and  essential  to  pardon:  all  these  terms  are  used  in  Greek,  and 
in  all  versions  of  the  New  Testament,  with  peculiar  meaning.  To  us 
all,  they  are  old  words  in  a  new  sense.  All  language  exhibits  similar 
changes:  "calamity"  meant  cft-iginally,  in  the  language  from  which  it  is 
taken,  the  loss  of  standing  corn  (calamus):  "sycophant"  meant  fig- 
informer,  and  "sincerity,"  without  wax,  alluding  to  the  practice  of  the 
potter  in  concealing  the  flaws  of  his  vessels:  but  in  Scripture,  such 
changes  are  unusually  numerous.  Happily,  however,  there  need  be  no 
misapprehension  concerning  the  terms  which  are  thus  employed,  as 
Scripture  itself  has  defined  the  ideas  they  convey,  sometimes  by  a  refer- 
ence to  the  old  dispensation,  sometimes  by  a  formal  or  indirect  explana- 
tion of  the  terms  themselves. 

264.  It  may  aid  the  reader  in  interpreting  Scripture,  to 
know  how  the  various  figures  which  our  condition  Figures 
compels  us  to  use  in  speaking  of  spiritual  truth,  are  classified, 
classed  and  named  by  grammarians.  A  knowledge  of  the 
names  is  not  essential,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  differences  on 
which  the  classification  is  founded  may  often  prove  so. 

265.  When  a  word,  which  usage  has  appropriated  to  one 
thing,  is  transferred  to  another,  there  is  a  trope  or 

figure :  and  the  expression  is  tropical  or  figurative.  ' 

15* 


174  ALLEGORICAL   NARRATIVES. 

If,  however,  the  first  signification  of  a  word  is  no  longer  used, 
the  tropical  sense  becomes  the  proper  one.  The  Hebrew 
word  "  to  bless,"  for  example,  meant  originally  "  to  bend  the 
knee,"  but  it  is  not  used  in  Scripture  with  that  sense,  and 
therefore  "to  bless"  is  said  to  be  the  proper,  and  not  a  figura- 
tive meaning. 

When  there  is  some  reseniblance  between  the  two  things  to 
which  a  word  is  applied,  the  figure  is  called  a  Metaphor,  as 
"  Judah  is  a  lion's  whelp,"  Gen.  xlix.  9.  "  I  am  the  true  Vine," 
John  xy.  1. 

When  there  is  no  resemblance,  but  only  a  connection  between 
them,  the  figure  is  called  Synecdoche  :  as  when  a  cup  is  used 
for  what  it  contains,  1  Cor.  x;.  27 :  or  as  when  a  part  is  put 
for  the  whole,  "  my  flesh"  for  "  my  body,"  in  Psa.  xvi.  9. 

When  the  connection  is  not  visible,  or  is  formed  in  the 
mind,  as  when  the  cause  is  put  for  the  eff"ects,  or  the  sign  for 
the  thing  signified,  the  figure  is  called  Metonymy,  as  in  John 
xiii.  8.  "  If  I  wash  thee  not,  thou  hast  no  part  with  me," 
where  by  wash  is  meant  purify  or  cleanse.  Sometimes  the 
figure  is  explained  in  Scripture  itsdW,  as  in  1  Pet.  iii.  21,  where 
baptism  is  explained  as  there  meaning  "the  answer  of  a  good 
conscience  toward  God." 

All  the  foregoing  figures  refer  to  single  words.  The  follow- 
ing refer  to  several  words,  as  they  make  a  continued  represen- 
tation or  narrative. 

266.  Any  statement  of  supposed  facts  which  admits  of  a 
Aiieo-ories  literal  interpretation  and  requires  or  justly  admits 
classified.  ^  moral  or  figurative  one,  is  called  an  Allegory. 
It  is  to  narrative  or  story  what  trope  is  to  single  words,  adding 
to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  terms  employed  a  moral  or  spir- 
itual one.  Sometimes  the  allegory  is  pure,  that  is,  contains 
no  direct  reference  to  the  application  of  it,  as  in  the  history 
of  the  prodigal  son.  Sometimes  it  is  mixed,  as  in  Psa.  Ixxx., 
where  it  is  plainly  intimated  (ver.  17)  that  the  Jews  are  the 
people  whom  the  vine  is  intended  to  represent. 

When  the  allegory  is  written  in  the  style  of  history,  and  is 


ALLEGORICAL   NARRATIVES.  175 

confined  to  occurrences  that  may  have  taken  place,  P^raWes, 
it  is  called  a  Parable. 

When  the  allegory  contains  statements  of  occurrences, 
which,  from  their  very  nature  could  not  have  happened,  it 
is  called  a  Fable.  (Judges  ix.  6-21 :  2  Kings  xiv.  9 :  2 
Chron.  xxv.  18.) 

When  the  resemblances  on  which  an  allegory  is  founded  are 
remote  and  abstruse,  it  is  called  a  Riddle.  Nothing,  however, 
need  be  said  of  Scripture  riddles,  as  their  hidden  meaning  is 
always  explained.     (Judges  xiv.  14:  Prov.  xxx.  15-21.) 

When  the  resemblance  between  two  persons  or  things  is 
represented,  not  in  words,  but  in  some  action  or  object,  the 
object  or  action,  which  has,  so  to  speak,  the  double  meaning, 
a  literal  and  a  spiritual  one,  is  called  a  Type.  It  is  a  double 
representation  in  action,  as  an  allegory  is  a  double  represen- 
tation in  words. 

When  the  act  or  thing  which  is  represented  is  present,  or 
past,  or  near  at  hand,  the  act  which  represents  it  is  called  a 
Symbol,  and  is  said  to  be  symbolical.  Baptism  is  thus  an 
outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace ; 
and  the  bread  we  eat  in  the  holy  supper,  and  the  wine  we 
drink,  are  symbolically  the  body  and  the  blood  of  Christ. 
(See,  also,  1  Kings  xi.  30 :  2  Kings  xiii.  14-19 :  Jer.  xxvii. 
2-8 ;  xiii:  1-7 ;  xviii.  2-10.)  Some  things,  as  the  Passover, 
are  both  symbols  and  types.  They  commemorate  one  event, 
and  they  prefigure  another.  Language  drawn  from  types 
and  symbols  is  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  ordinary  figures 
of  speech. 

267.  Troincal,  or  figurative,  then,  is  a  general  term,  applied 
to  words  or  single  expressions,  and  includes  meta- 

,      ,  ,  „  .      J  .        Firarative 

phor,  synecdoche,  and  metonymy  ;  alleqorical,  again,  and  aiie- 

.  ,  ,.,.  .  gorieal. 

IS  a  general  term,  applied  to  continuous  narrative, 
and  is  used  whenever  the  narrative  (whether  it  be  a  riddle,  or 
fable,  or  parable,  or  common  history)  has,  or  receives,  a  double 
meaning.      Typical  refers  to  an  action  with  a  double  meaning, 
and  generally  relates  to  something  future ;  sytnbolical  refers 


176  STUDY   NEEDED. 

to  actions   witli  a  double  meaning,  and  relates  generally  to 
something  past  or  at  hand. 

268.  These  figures  of  speech,  it  may  be  noticed,  are  not 
c<^mmon  in  Peculiar  to  the  language  of  the  Bible.  They  are 
all  language,  found  in  all  languages;  but,  as  they  are  most  com- 
mon in  those  which  are  most  ancient,  and  are  necessary  to 
enable  us  to  speak  impressively  or  intelligibly  even,  of  spir- 
itual truth,  they  are  very  frequent  in  Scripture.  To  compre- 
hend parts  of  Scripture,  therefore,  and  to  avoid  error  in  inter- 
preting it,  it  is  specially  important  that  we  should  understand 
them. 

269.  Let,  then,  these  various  facts  be  combined.     Scripture 

was  written  by  different  persons,  at  remote  periods, 

Summary.       .        ,.  .  .  ,  -, 

in  distant  countries,  amidst  manners  and  customs 
altogether  unlike  our  own,  on  subjects  of  the  greatest  extent 
and  variety — civil,  ecclesiastical,  historical,  prophetic ;  the 
latter,  especially,  requiring  terms  both  precise  and  ambiguous, 
and  the  whole  expressed  in  dead  languages,  and  in  terms  to  a 
great  degree  analogical  and  figurative.  Be  it  remembered, 
also,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  grand  theme  of  Scripture  ex- 
tends through  all  time,  involving  truths  and  precepts  (the 
former  both  physical  and  moral),  with  which  our  reason  and 
experience  are  but  little  conversant ;  that  it  is  not  confined 
to  time,  but  includes  in  its  connections  both  worlds ;  that  all 
its  disclosures  are  comprehended  in  a  narrow  space,  and 
treated  with  much  brevity ;  and  it  will  at  once  be  clear  how 
much  learning  is  needed  to  make  these  things  plain.  There 
is,  in  fact,  in  Locke's  definition  of  theology,  a  literal  truth. 
It  is  the  direction  of  all  knoiolcdge  to  its  true  end,  the  glory 
of  the  eternal  God,  and  the  everlasting  welfare  of  the  human 
race. 

Sec.  2. — Of  the  Spikit  in  which  the  Bible  should  be 

Studied. 

"God  has  determined  that  Divine  things  shall  enter  through  the  heart 
into  the  mind,  and  not  through  the  mind  into  the  heart.     In  Divine 


SPIRIT   OF   STUDY.  177 

things,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  love  them,  in  order  to  know  tliem, 
and  we  enter  into  truth  only  through  charity." — Pascal  (Ft.  i.,  §  3). 

"  He  who  has  not  believed  will  not  experience,  and  he  who  has  not 
experienced  cannot  know." — Anselm. 

"  The  theologian  must  himself  believe  the  doctrines  which  he  studies. 
Without  this  moral  qualification,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  true  insight 
into  theological  truth." — Tholuck  [Lectures  on  Methodology,  Bibl. 
Rep.,  1844). 

"An  inward  interest  in  the  doctrines  of  theology  is  needful  for  a  Bib- 
lical interpreter.  The  study  of  the  New  Testament  presupposes  as  an 
indispensable  requisite,  a  sentiment  of  piety  and  religious  experience. 
The  Scripture  will  not  be  rightly  and  spiritually  comprehended  unless 
the  Spirit  of  God  become  himself  the  interpreter  of  his  words ;  the 
angelus  interpres  to  open  to  us  the  true  meaning." — Hagenbach. 

"  Pectus  est  quod  facit  theologum." — Neander's  Motto. 

270.  Tlie-  first  place  is  due,  when  we  speak  of  the  study  of 
the  Bible,  to  the  exercise  of  a  humble  and  devout     „     ^  ,., 

'  _  Teachable 

mind.  It  becomes  us,  first  of  all,  to  cherish  the  spirit, 
habit  of  earnest  and  reverential  attention  to  all  it  reveals,  and 
to  seek  that  inward  teaching  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  God 
has  promised  to  them  that  ask  him.  This  is,  perhaps,  not 
strictly  a  rule  of  interpretation,  but  it  is  essential  to  the  appli- 
cation of  all  rules.  An  analogous  truth  is  admitted  in  relation 
to  every  other  subject  of  inquiry.  To  appreciate  true  poetry, 
there  must  be  a  poetic  taste.  The  study  of  philosophy  requires 
a  philosophic  spirit.  An  inquirer  into  the  processes  of  na- 
ture needs,  above  all,  to  be  imbued  with  the  temper  of  the 
inductive  system  which  Bacon  taught ;  nor  should  this  truth 
be  questioned  when  it  is  applied  to  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

271.  Men  need  Divine  teaching,  not  because  of  the  peculiar 
difficulty  of  Scripture  language,  nor  because  of  the  „..  . 
incomprehensibility  of  Scripture  doctrine— for  the  ^^^^  need. 
things  most  misunderstood  are  the  things  which  are  revealed 
most  clearly- — but  because,  without  that  teaching,  men  will 
not  learn,  nor  can  they  hwtv  those  truths  which  are  revealed 
only  to  those  who  feel  them.  When  Christ  appeared,  the  light 
shone  in  the  darkness,  and  the  darl^ness  comprehended  it  not. 
Unholy  affection  had  surrounded  the  mental  eye  with  the  very 
opposite  of  clear,  "  dry  light,"  and  had  impaired  the  organ 
itsel£     Blindness  of  heart  produced  ignorance  ;  and  alienation 


178  SPIRIT   OF   STUDY. 

"  from  the  life  of  God"  was  at  once  the  cause  and 
andiiow  the  aggravated  effect  of  an  "understanding  dark- 
Mippiec.       gj^g(-|^"  Ep];i_  iv.  18.     The  source  of  this  teaching  is 

clearly  revealed:  Christians  are  "all  taught  of  the  Lord;" 
and  he  who  gave  to  the  Ejohesian  Church  '^the  sj^irit  of  wisdom 
and  revelation,"  was  "the  God  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Father  of  glory,"  EjdIi.  i.  17.  The  means  of  securing  this 
teaching  is  equally  revealed.  "  The  meek  will  he  guide  in 
judgment,  the  meek  will  he  teach  his  way."  He  that  is  will- 
ing to  do  His  will  "  shall  know  of  the  doctrine,  whether  it  be 
of  God,"  John  vii.  17.  "  If  any  of  you  lack  wisdom,  let  him 
ask  of  God  .  .  .  and  it  shall  be  given  him."  A  child-like  do- 
cility, an  obedient  heart,  a  dependent  and  prayerful  frame,  are 
evidently  essential  to  the  successful  study  of  Divine  truth. 
*^  Bene  orasse  est  bene  studuisse,"  is,  therefore,  an  aphorism, 
subordinately,  indeed,  of  Luther's,  but  really  of  God's. 

272.  It  is   necessary,  however,  in   order  to  complete  this 

truth,  to  add,  that  the  spirit  of  God  does  not  com- 

A  teachable  .  ■     t      f  tit         it 

Rpirit  dis-      municate  to  the  mmd  of  even  a  teachable,  obedient, 

covers  only 

revealed  and  devout  Christian,  any  doctrine  or  meaning  of 
Scripture  which  is  not  contained  already  in  Scrip- 
ture itself.  He  makes  men  wise  up  to  what  is  written,  but  not 
beyond  it.  When  Christ  opened  the  understanding  of  his 
apostles,  it  was  "that  they  might  understand  the  Scriptures," 
Luke  xxiv.  45.  When  he  opened  Lydia's  heart  she  attended 
to  the  things  that  were  spoken  by  Paul:  David  prayed  that 
God  would  be  pleased  to  open  his  eyes,  that  he  might  behold 
wondrous  things  out  of  the  Divine  law,  Psa.  cxix.  18.  "  The 
Bible,  and  through  the  Bible,"  indicates,  therefore,  at  once, 
the  subject  and  the  method  of  Divine  wisdom.  AVhatever  is 
taught  contrary  to  it,  or  in  addition,  or  without  its  aid,  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  spirit  of  darkness,  or  to  ourselves. 

273.  This  first  principle  of   Bible  interpretation  is  taken 

from  the  Bible  itself.     It  occupies  the  same  place, 

This  order  -"^  .  . 

f<anctinnpd     foo,  in  the  teaching;  of  our  Lord,  who,  in  his  first 

by  our  Lord.  _  " 

recorded   discourse,   assured  Nicodemus  that   "ex- 


RULES    OF    INTERPRETATION — FIRST    RULE.  179 

cept  a  man  be  born  again,  he  cannot  see" — can  neither  under- 
stand the  nature  nor  share  the  blessedness  of — "  the  kingdom 
of  God,"  John  iii.  3. 

Compare,  also,  1  Cor.  ii.  14 :  1  Cor.  xii.  8 :  1  Cor  i.  21 :  1  John  ii.  20, 
27:  2  Cor.  iv.  1-6:  1  Pet.  ii.  1:  James  i.  21:  Psa.  zxv.  4,  5;  cxix.  12^ 
18 :  2  Tim.  iii.  13,  etc. 

Sec.  3. — Of  Rules  of  Interpretation. 

"  Strict  grammatical  analysis,  and  the  rigid  observance  of  exegetical 
rules,  lead  to  the  same  views  of  truth  as  are  entertiiined  by  the  theolo- 
gians, who  bring  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  strong  sense  and  devout 
piety." — Tholuck. 

"  The  various  controversies  among  interpreters  have  commonly  led 
to  the  admission  that  the  old  Protestant  views  of  the  meaning  of  the 
sacred  text  are  the  correct  views." — Winer. 

"  He  that  shall  be  content  to  use  these  means,  and  will  lay  aside  the 

Prejudices  .  .  .  which  many  bring  with  them  to  every  question,  will  be 
onored  to  gain  an  understanding  of  Scripture ;  if  not  in  all  things, 
yet  in  most ;  if  not  immediately,  yet  ultimately." — Whitaker  {Disput. 
of  Scrip.,  p.  473). 

"  The  most  illiterate  Christian,  if  he  can  but  read  his  English  Bible, 
and  will  take  the  pains  to  read  it  in  this  manner,  will  not  only  attain 
all  that  practical  knowledge  which  is  essential  to  salvation,  but,  by 
God's  blessing,  he  will  become  learned  in  everything  relating  to  his 
religion  in  such  a  degree  that  he  will  not  be  liable  to  be  misled,  either 
by  the  refuted  arguments,  or  the  false  assertions  of  those  who  endeavor 
to  engraft  their  own  opinions  upon  the  oracles  of  God." — Horsley. 

274.  Whether  words  are  used  literally  or  tropically,  the  first 
rule  of  interpretation  is  to  ascertain  the  sense  in 

^  First  rule: 

which   general   usage   employs   them.      As  all  the    usage  of 

p     ^  1    oi      ■  language. 

writers  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  wrote  or  spoke  to 
be  understood,  we  must  interpret  their  language  as  we  inter- 
pret the  language  of  common  life. 

They  tell  us,  for  example,  that  "  there  is  none  that  doeth  good ;"» 

figuratively,  that  "all  flesh  has  corrupted  his  way  ;"''  affirm- 

.  Examples. 

ing  the  same  truth  in  two  different  forms.     They  state  that 

repentance  is  necessary  to  forgiveness  ;•=  and  that  both  repentance  and 

forgiveness  are  the  gifts  of  Christ.'^     All  the  great  doctrines  of  the  Goa- 

»Rom.  iii.  12.  ^Gen.  vi.  12. 

?Isa.  Iv.  7.  ''Acts  V.  31. 


180  FIRST   E.ULE — HEBRAISMS. 

pel  are  stated  in  language  equally  simple  and  decisive :  the  existence 
and  perfections  of  God  ;  the  unity  of  Jehovah,  of  God  the  Father,  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  fall  of  man ;  the  corruption  of  human 
nature  ;  our  moral  responsibility  ;  redemption  through  the  atonement  of 
Christ ;  the  renewal  of  the  heart  by  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
the  freeness  and  sovereignty  of  Divine  grace ;  the  progressive  holiness 
of  Christians,  and  their  final  and  eternal  blessedness.  If  language  have 
meaning,  these  doctrines  are  taught  in  innumerable  passages  of  the 
Bible,  and  in  terms  incapable  of  mistake. 

275.  Simple,  however,  as  this  rule  is,  it  is  often  broken  in 
This  rule      the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 

violated. 

Origen,  for  example,  reading  that  Abraham  married  Keturah,  in  his 
old  age,  and  learning  that  Keturah  meant,  in  Hebrew,  "sweet  odour," 
and  that  "sweet  odour"  is  specially  applicable  to  such  as  have  the  fra- 
grance of  righteousness  in  their  character,  thought  that  one  most 
important  meaning  must  be,  that  in  his  old  age  Abraham  became  emi- 
nently holy. 

276.  A  kindred  error  changes  the  plainest  history  into 
fable,  and  teaches  us  to  regard  the  whole  of  the  miracles  of 
Christ  as  common  occurrences,  obscurely  described.  On  this 
principle,  Scripture  history  means  nothing  that  is  definite,  or 
it  means  anything  which  a  vivid  fancy  can  imagine  it  to  mean. 
In  either  case,  the  meaning  is  not  in  the  Bible,  but  in  the 
mind  of  the  inquirer. 

277.  But  while,  as  a  general  rule,  we  are  to  understand  the 

words  of  Scripture  in  their  common  sense,  there  are 
some  peculiarities  which  need  to  be  noticed.  Being 
translated  from  the  Hebrew  with  great  literalness,  the  Eng- 
lish version  often  employs  the  idioms  and  expressions  of  that 
tongue,  and  those  are  to  be  understood,  not  according  to  the 
English,  but  according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom. 

(a.)  The  Jews,  for  example,  frequently  expressed  a  qualifying  thought 

by  the  use,  not  of  an  adjective,  but  of  a  second  noun;  a 

lio'w  ex-"'    practice  which  may  be  traced  in  the  Hebrew  Greek  of  the 

pressed.        jq-g^  Testament.     "  Your  work  of  faith,  and  labor  of  love, 

and  patience  of  hope,"  means,  "  your  believing  work,  and  loving  labor, 


FIRST    RULE — HEBRAISMS.  181 

and  hopeful  patience,"  1  Thess.  i.  3.  So  in  Eph.  i.  13,  the  "  Spirit  of 
promise"  means  the  "promised  Spirit."  It  must  be  carefully  noted, 
however,  that  the  second  noun  is  not  always  to  be  regarded  as  an  adjec- 
tive. Thus  Rom.  viii.  21,  "  the  glorious  liberty,"  should  rather  be  "  the 
liberty  of  the  glory,"  v.  18. 

(h.)  It  was  a  common  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  to  call  a  person 
having  a  j^eciiliar  quality,  or  subject  to  a  peculiar 
evil,  the  child  or  son  of  that  quality. 

In  1  Sam.  ii.  12,  Eli's  sons  are  called  "  sons  of  Belial,"  that  is,  of 
wickedness.  In  Luke  x.  6,  a  "  son  of  peace,"  means  a  person  of  gentle 
and  attentive  mind,  disposed  to  give  the  gospel  a  willing  reception.  In 
Eph.  V.  6-8,  "children  of  disobedience,"  and  "children  of  light,"  mean 
respectively,  disobedient  and  enlightened  persons. 

So  Matt.  xxiv.  15:  Mark  xiii.  14:  Rom.  vii.  24:  1  Johniii.  10:  Jas. 
ii.  4:  Heb.  i.  3:  Rev.  iii.  10.  In  some  of  these  passages,  however,  the 
idiom  is,  perhaps,  emphatic. 

(c.)  Comparison,  again,  is  very  peculiarly  ex-  comparison. 
pressed  in  Hebrew. 

To  love  and  to  hate,  for  example,  is  a  Hebrew  expression  for  pre- 
ferring one  thing  to  another.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Luke  xiv.  26,  "  If  any 
man  come  to  me,  and  hate  not  his  father;"  for  which  we  find,  as  in 
Matt.  X.  37,  "  He  that  loveth  father  more  than  me."  The  same  ex- 
pression is  used  in  John  xii.  25 :  in  Rom.  ix.  13 :  in  Gen.  xxix.  18,  30, 
31 :  and  in  Deut.  xxi.  15. 

Comparison  is  sometimes  intimated  by  the  use  of  adverbs 
of  negation. 

Thus  in  Gen.  xlv.  8,  "not  you  sent  me  hither,  but  God ;"  it  was  God 
rather  than  you.  So  Ex.  xvi.  8 :  1  Sam.  viii.  7 :  Prov.  viii.  10 :  Hos. 
vi.  6:  Jer.  vii.  22,  23.  So  in  Mark  ix.  37,  "Whosoever  shall  receive 
me,  receiveth  not  me,  but  him  that  sent  me  ;"  not  so  much,  or  not  only 
me,  but  him.  So  in  Matt.  v.  39:  Luke  xiv.  12:  John  v.  22,  30,  45; 
vi.  27:  Acts  V.  4  :  1  Cor.  i.  17:  Eph.  vi.  12:  1  Thess.  iv.  8. 

(d.)  Plural  nouns  are  sometimes  used  in  Hebrew  to  imply 
that  there  are  more  than  one,  though  it  may  be  to     „,     , 
one  only  that  reference  is  made.  •  ''"jw  used. 

i6 


182  FIRST   RULE — HEBRAISMS. 

Gen.  viii.  4;  xix.  29:  Judges  xii.  7:  Neh.  iii.  8:  Matt.  xxiv.  l.Tvhere 
"his  disciples"  means  one  of  them:  Mark  xiii.  1:  Matt.  xxvi.  8,  and 
John  xii.  4 :  Matt,  xxvii.  44 :  Mark  xv.  32,  and  Luke  xxiii.  39 :  Luke 
xxiii.  36,  and  Matt,  xxvii.  48.  In  some  of  these  instances,  however,  all 
or  several  shared  in  the  sentiment,  John  xiii.  4.  "Garments,"  i.  e.,  one 
of  them,  the  upper ;  see  Mark  v.  27,  30  (original). 

(e.)  The  names  of  parents,  or  ancestors,  are  often  used  ia 
Scripture  for  their  posterity. 

Names 
of  ances- 
tors, etc.  Thus  in  Gen.  ix.  25,  it  is  said,  "Cursed  be  Canaan,"  {.  e.; 

his  posterity.      This  curse,  it  will  be  remembered,  did  not 

affect  those  of  his  posterity  who  were  righteous ;  for  both  Melchizedek 

and  Abimelech  were  Canaanites,  as  was  the  woman  who  came  to  Christ, 

and  whose  daughter  was  healed.  Gen.  xiv.  18-20;  xx.  6:  Matt.  xv.  22- 

28.     In  the  same  way  Jacob  and  Israel  are  often  put  for  the  Israelites, 

as  in  Ex.  ii.  24 :  Psa.  xiv.  7 :  1  Kings  xviii.  17,  18. 

(/.)  The  word  "  son"  is  sometimes  used,  by  a  HelDraism, 
(common,  indeed,  to  nearly  all   languages),  for  a 
remote  descendant. 

The  priests  are  called  the  sons  of  Levi.  Mephibosheth  is  called  the 
son  of  Saul,  though  he  was  the  son  of  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  xix.  24  :  so 
Gen.  xlvi.  22.  Zechariah,  the  grandson  of  Iddo  (Zech.  i.  1),  is  called 
his  son,  Ezra  v.  1.  "Son"  is  thus  used  for  any  descendant,  as  "father" 
is  used  for  any  ancestor,  1  Chron.  1.  17. 

"Brother"  is  used  in  the  same  way  for  any  collateral  relation.  It 
is  thus  applied  by  Abraham  to  Lot,  who  was  his  nephew.* 
In  one  instance,  too,  the  descendants  of  a  man  who  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Barzillai  are  called,  from  the  name  of  their  maternal 
ancestor's  father,  the  children  of  Barzillai.''  In  the  same  way,  Jair 
is  called  the  son  of  Manasseh,  because  his  grandfather  had  married 
the  daughter  of  one  of  the  heads  of  Manasseh.  Mary  is  also  thought 
to  have  descended  from  David  in  this  way ;  so  that  our  Lord  was 
David's  son,  not  only  through  his  reputed  father,  but  by  direct  descent 
through  his  mother. 

»  Gen.  xiv.  16 ;  xxix.  12,  15 :  so  the  word  is  probably  used  in  John 
vii.-3:  Gal.  i.  19. 
»>  Ezra  ii.  61 :  Neh.  vii.  63. 


FIRST   RULE — HEBRAISMS.  183 

278.  A  knowledge  of  these  last  rules  of  speech  will  often 
correct  apj^arent  contradictions.     Atlialiah,  for  ex-  Apparent 
ample,  is  called  in  2  Kings,  viii.  26,  the  daughter  of  t^ns''  '°' 
Omri,  and  in  ver.  xviii.  she  is  called  the  daughter  of  ^°''''*^°*®<^- 
Ahab.     She  was  really  Ahab's  daughter,  and  Omri's  grand- 
daughter.    See,  also,  1  Kings  xv.  10,  and  2  Chron.  xiii.  2,  and 
1  Chron.  iii.  15,  compared  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  10. 

279.  There  are  other  peculiarities,  semi-Hebraisms,  which 
need  to  be  named. 

(a).  Some   numbers  in  Hebrew  are  used  for  an  liarftLl^u^e 

•     1   £    •.   •  1  of  numbers. 

mdeiinite  number. 

"Ten,"  for  example,  means  "several,"  as  well  as  that  precise  num- 
ber, Gen.  xxxi.  7 :  Dan.  i.  20. 

"Forty"  means  "many."  Persepolis  is  called  in  Eastern  language, 
"  the  city  of  forty  towers ;"  though  the  number  is  much  larger.  This 
is  probably  the  meaning  in  2  Kings  viii.  9,  where  Hazael  is  said  to 
have  brought  as  a  present  to  Elisha  forty  camels'  burden  of  the  good 
things  of  Damascus.  This  is  probably  the  meaning,  too,  in  Ezek.  xxix. 
11,  13. 

V Seven"  and  "seventy"  are  used  to  express  a  large  and  complete, 
though  an  uncertain  number,  Prov.  xxvi.  16,  25:  Psa.  cxix.  164:  Lev. 
xxvi.  24,  etc.  We  are  commanded,  for  example,  to  forgive  till  seventy 
times  seven,  to  indicate  that,  if  our  brother  repent  of  his  sin,  there 
must  be  no  end  of  our  forgiveness.  The  seven  demons  cast  out  of 
Mary  of  Magdala  indicate  her  extreme  suffering,  and,  perhaps,  her 
great  wickedness. 

(b).  The  Scriptures  sometimes  use  a  round  number  when 
not  perfectly  accurate. 

From  Numb.  xxv.  9,  and  1  Cor.  x.  8,  we  learn  that  between  23,000 
and  24,000  were  slain  by  the  plague.  The  first  passage  mentions 
24,000,  and  the  second  23,000.  In  Judges  xi.  26,  300  years  is  put  for 
293.  See  Josh.  iv.  19  :  Numb,  xxxiii.  3  :  and  compare  xiv.  33:  Judges 
XX.  46,  85:  ix.  5,  18,  56. 

(c).  Occasionally,  in  Scripture,  verbs  denoting  simple  being 
or  action  are  used,  when  only  a  declaration  is  in- 
tended, or  even  a  mere  supposition  that  the  act  is  or     veT^^o^ 
will  be  done,  or  regarded  as  done.  action. 


184  FIRST   RULE — PROPER   NAMES. 

In  Lev.  xiii.  3,  13,  for  example,  where  the  priest  is  said  to  cleanse 
the  leper ;  i.  e.,  he  declares  him  to  be  clean.  The  letter  killeth  ;  that 
is,  declares  death  as  a  consequence  of  sin,  Eom.  v.  20:  Phil.  iii.  7. 
See,  also,  Rom.  iv.  15;  vii.  9;  2  Cor.  iii.  6.  So,  in  prophecy,  the 
speaker  is  said  to  do  what  he  only  foretells,  Jer.  i.  10 :  Ezek.  xliii.  3 ; 
Isa.  vi.  10. 

(d).  In  interpreting  the  words  of  Scripture,  it  needs  to  be 
Use  of  pro-    noticed,  that  the  proper  names  are  used  very  pecu- 

per  names.    j-^^^y_ 

Different  persons  have  often  the  same  names. 

Pharaoh,  (or  ruler,  from  Phre,  the  sun)  was  the  general  name  of  the 
kings  of  Egypt  from  the  time  of  Abraham  till  the  invasion  of  Egypt 
by  the  Persians,  as  Ptolemy  was  the  common  name  of  their  kings  after 
the  death  of  Alexander.  Abimelech  (meaning  my  father,  the  king) 
seems  to  have  been  the  common  name  of  the  kings  of  the  Philistines ; 
Agag  was  the  name  of  the  kings  of  the  Amalekites ;  as  was  Benhadad 
(the  son  of  the  sun)  of  the  kings  of  Damascus.  Among  .the  Romans, 
Augustus  Csesar  was  the  common  title  of  their  emperors.  The  Augus- 
tus mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  1  was  the  second  of  that  name.  The  Caesar 
who  reigned  when  Christ  was  crucified  was  Tiberius.  The  emperor  to 
whom  Paul  appealed,  and  who  is  called  both  Augustus  and  Cassar,  was 
Nero,  Acts  xxv.  21.  The  Egyptian  and  the  Philistine  kings  seem  to 
have  had,  like  the  Romans,  a  proper  as  well  as  a  common  name.  We 
read,  for  example,  of  Pharaoh  Necho  and  of  Pharaoh  Hophra;  and 
the  Abimelech  mentioned  in  Psa.  xxxiv.  is  called  Achish  in  1  Sam. 
xxi.  11. 

In  the  New  Testament,  several  very  different  persons  are  known 
under  the  common  name  of  Herod.  Herod  the  Great,  as 
'  '  he  is  called  in  profane  history,  was  he  who  slew  in  his  old 
age  the  young  children  at  Bethlehem.  It  was  he  who  rebuilt  and  de- 
corated the  Temple,  and  enlarged  Cassarea.  He  was  notorious  for  his 
jealousy  and  cruelty.  On  his  death,  the  half  of  his  kingdom  (includ- 
ing Judaea  and  Samaria)  was  given  to  his  son  Archelaus ;  most  of  Gali- 
lee was  given  to  his  son  Herod  the  Tetrarch,  or  king,  Luke  iii.  1:  Matt, 
xiv.  9 ;  and  some  other  parts  of  Syria  and  Galilee  to  his  third  son, 
Philip  Herod.  It  was  Herod  the  Tetrarch  who  beheaded  John,  and 
mocked  our  Lord  in  his  last  sufferings.  His  conduct  towards  Herodias, 
his  niece  and  sister-in-law,  ended  in  his  being  banished  to  Gaul.  The 
dominions  of  both  Herod  and  Philip  were  ultimately  given  to  his 
nephew,  the  brother  of   Herodias,  Herod  Agrippa,  who  is  called  ia 


FIRST    RULE' — PROPER    NAMES.  185 

Scripture,  Herod  only.  In  the  end,  he  possessed  all  the  territory  iu 
Palestine  which  had  belonged  to  his  grandfather,  Herod  the  Great. 
Pie  was  the  murderer  of  the  apostle  James,  and  died  miserably  and 
suddenly  at  CsBsarea.  His  son  was  Herod  Agrippa,  called  in  the  Now 
Testament  Agrippa  only.  It  was  before  him  that  Paul  was  brought 
by  Festus.  The  character  of  this  man  was  very  different  from  that  of 
his  father,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  they  were  not  the  same 
man  is  essential  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  history. 

Difterent  places  have  often  the  .same  name. 

Ccesarea  is  the  name  of  two  cities;  one  called  Csesarea  Philippi,  in 
Galilee ;  the  other  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  one  men- 
tioned throughout  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  the  port  whence  travel- 
lers generally  left  Judeea  for  Rome. 

Antioch,  in  Syria,  again,  is  the  place  where  Paul  and  .Barnabas 
commenced  their  labors,  and  where  the  followers  of  Christ  were  first 
called  Christians.  The  Antioch  of  Acts  xiii.  14,  and  of  2  Tim.  iii.  11, 
is  in  Phrygia. 

There  is  a  Mizpeh  ("watch-tower")  in  Mount  Gilead,  where  Jephtha 
resided,  where  Jacob  and  Laban  made  their  covenant.  Gen.  xxxi.  49: 
Judges  xi.  34 ;  a  Mizpeh  of  Moab,  1  Sam.  xxii.  3,  perhaps  the  same  as 
the  previous;  a  Mizpeh  of  Gibeah,  where  Samuel  resided,  and  where 
Saul  was  chosen  king,  1  Sam.  vii.  11 ;  and  there  is  also  a  Mizpeh  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  Josh.  xv.  38. 

Sometimes  ihe  same  name  is  applied  to  a  person  and  to  a 
place. 

Magog,  for  example,  is  the  name  of  a  son  of  Japheth,  and  it  is  also 
the  name  of  the  country  occupied  by  a  people  called  Gog,  probably  the 
Scythians,  or,  as  they  are  now  called,  the  Tartars,  Ezek.  xxxviii.:  Rev. 
XX.  8.     The  Turks  have  sprung  from  the  same  stock. 

The   same   persons  and  places  have   sometimes   different 

names. 

• 

The  father-in-law  of  Moses,  for  example,  is  called  Hobab  and  Jethro, 
Judges  iv.  11:  Ex.  iii.  1.  Reuel  was  perhaps  his  wife's  grandfather, 
though  called  her  father,  Ex.  ii.  18.  Levi  is  the  same  as  Matthew. 
Thomas  and  Didymus  are  the  same  person;  the  words  meaning  a  twin. 
Thaddeus,  Lebbisus,  and  Judas,  are  all  names  of  the  apostle  Jude.  Syl- 
vanus,  Lucas,  Timotheus,  are  Latin  forms  of  Silas,  Luke,  and  Timothy; 
the  last  throe  belong  to  our  translation,  not  to  the  original. 
16- 


186  FlKST    RULE — PROPER   NAMES. 

Horeb  and  Sinai  are  names  now  and  anciently  applied  to  different 
peaks  of  the  same  range  of  mountains ;  and  both  names  are  sometimes 
applied  to  the  whole  range. 

Cesarsea  (of  Galilee)  was  called  Laish,  and  then  Dan,  1  Kings  xii.  29: 
Judges  xviii.  29. 

The  Lake  of  Gennesareth  was  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  Cinnereth, 
afterwards  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  Matt.  iv.  18 :  Joha 
xxi.  1. 

The  modern  Abyssinia  is  called  Ethiopia,  and  sometimes  Gush ;  the 
latter  name,  however,  being  applied  generally  to  Arabia  or  to  India; 
hence,  probably,  Chusistan.  Greece  is  called  Javan  and  Greece,  Isa. 
Ixvi.  19  :  Zech.  ix.  13.  Egypt  is  called  Ham  and  Eahab,  Psa.  Ixxviii. 
51 :  Isa.  li.  9. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  called  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  from  its  occupying,  or 
adjoining,  the  plain  on  which  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  once 
stood;  tile  East  Sea,  from  its  position  in  relation  to  Jerusalem;  and 
sometimes  the  Salt  Sea,  2  Kings  xiv.  25 :  Gen.  xiv.  3. 

The  Nile  is  called  in  Scripture  Sihor,  Josh.  xiii.  3,  but  more  com- 
monly the  River ;  both  names,  however,  being  applied  also  to  other 
streams. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea  is  sometimes  called  the  Sea  of  the  Philistines, 
who  resided  on  its  coasts  ;  or  the  Utmost  Sea ;  or,  more  commonly,  the 
Great  Sea,  Ex.  xxiii.  31 :  Deut.  xi.  21 :  Numb,  xxxiv.  G,  7. 

The  Holy  Land  is  called  Canaan ;  the  Land  of  Israel,  of  Judsea ; 
Palestine,  or  the  Land  of  the  Shepherds ;  and  the  Land  of  Promise,  Ex. 
XV.  14 :  1  Sam.  xiii.  19  :  Isa.  xiv.  29 :  Heb.  xi.  9. 

280.  The  careful  recognition  of  the  different  application  of 
proper  names  is  of  great  moment,  especially  in  reconciling 
apparent  contradictions  in  sacred  Scripture. 

Ahaziah,  for  example,  the  son  of  Jehoram,  is  called  Azariah  and 
Jehoahaz,  2  Kings  viii.  29:  2  Chron.  xxii.  6;  xxi.  17. 

Jehoahaz,  the  son  of  Josiah,  is  called  Johanan  and  Shallum,  2  Kings 
xxiii.  30:  1  Chron.  iii.  15:  Jer.  xxii.  11.  , 

Jehoiada,  the  priest,  is  called  Johanan  and,  probably,  Barachias,  2 
Chron.  xxiv.  20 :  1  Chron.  vi.  9 :  Matt,  xxiii.  35.  The  meaning  of  all 
these  names  is  similar. 

Uzziah  is  called  Azariah ;  Nathaniel,  Bartholomew.  In  such  instauces, 
the  different  names  have  often  the  same  meaning. 

281.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  a  word  has  often  various 


RULES  OF  INTERPEETATION — SECOND  RULE.     187 

senses,    euch    of   which   is    sanctioned    by   general  fufe°."'Jsage, 

usage.     We  need,  therefore,  a  second  rule  of  inter-  ^^,!^^'^{; 

pretation;    to   fix   the   meaning   of   a   word,  it  is  ^Jjgg^^^^^ 

necessary  to  mark  the  meaning  of  the  other  words  tence. 

with  which  it  is  connected  in  the  sentence;  i.  e.,  we  must 
ascertain  the  sense  in  which  general  usage  employs  it  in  its 
particular  connection. 

Faith,  for  example,  boinetimes  means  the  gosj^el  (of  which  faith  in 
Christ  is   the  great  doctrine),  as  in  GaL  i.  23,  "he  now 
preacheth  the  faith  which  once  he  destroyed."     And  so  in    tions!™" 
1  Tim.  iii.  9  ;  iv.  1 :  Acts  xxiv.  24.     It  means,  again,  truth 
or  faithfulness,  as  in  Kom.  iii.  3,  "shall  their  unbelief  make  the  faith 
of  God  without  effect  ?"     An  so  in  Titus  ii.  10  (orig.),  and  probably  in 
Gal.  V.  22.     It  means,  further,  in  one  passage,  proof  of  evidence.  Acts 
xvii.  31  (Gr.)     It  means  a  conscientious  conviction  of  duty,  as  in  Rom 
xiv.  23  ;  or,  most  comprehensively,  that  exercise  of  the  mind  and  heart 
which  receives  spiritual  and  Divine  truth  (Heb.  xi.) ;  or,  more  speciii- 
cally,  the  repose  of  the  mind  and  heart  in  the  work  of  Christ  as  the 
ground  of  our  pardon  and  the  means  of  our  holiness  (Rom.  iii.  28). 

Flesh  means  sometimes  what  is  tender  and  teachable,  as  in  Ezek. 
xi.  19,  "I  will  give  you  a  heart  of  flesh;"  where  it  is  opposed  to  a  heart 
of  stone.  It  means,  also,  human  nature,  without  any  reference  to  its 
sinfulness,  John  i.  li:  Rom.  i.  3;  ix.  3';  or,  more  commonly,  human 
nature  as  corrupt  and  sinful,  Rom.  viii.  5:  Eph.  ii.  3.  Another  mean- 
ing is,  all  that  is  outward  and  ceremonial  in  religion,  as  distinguished 
from  what  is  inward  and  spiritual,  as  in  Gal.  vi.  12 ;  iii.  3 ;  where  it 
refers  more  especially  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  ritual  (compare 
Phil.  iii.  3). 

Salvation  means  in  some  places  outward  safety  and  deliverance,  as 
in  Ex.  xiv.  13 :  Acts  vii.  25  (orig.) ;  or  healing,  as  in  James  v.  15 ; 
where,  in  the  case  of  a  sick  Christian,  the  prayer  of  faith  is  said  to 
save,  i.  e.,  heal,  the  sick.  Its  more  common  meaning,  however,  is  in 
reference  to  spiritual  blessing  ;  when  it  sometimes  includes  justification 
for  as  much  of  our  salvation  as  is  completed  on  earth ;  as  in  Eph.  ii. 
8 :  Luke  i.  77 ;  or,  more  frequently,  the  whole  of  the  blessing  which 
Christ  has  secured  for  believers,  beginning  with  forgiveness,  and  ending 
in  eternal  glory,  Rom.  xiii.  11.  Sometimes  it  means  simply  the  Gospel, 
as  in  Heb.  ii.  3,  where  it  is  said  to  be  "spoken  by  the  Lord,  and  con- 
firmed unto  us  by  them  that  heard  him." 

In  tlie  same  way,  blood  is  used  in  Scripture  with  several  meanings: 


188  SECOND   EULE— FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE. 

God  "hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,"  Acts  xvii.  26,  i.e., 
they  have  a  common  origin  or  nature.  To  give  the  wicked  blood  to 
drink,  is  to  place  in  their  hands  the  cup  of  death.  In  Matt,  xxvii.  25, 
"His  blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  children,"  means,  the  guilt  of  having 
put  him  to  death  :  "  his  death"  (that  is,  the  guilt  of  it)  be  upon  us.  In 
Eom.  v.  9,  the  Christian  is  said  to  be  justified  by  the  blood  of  Christ; 
and  in  Heb.  ix.  14,  the  blood  of  Christ  is  said  to  "purge  our  consciences 
from  dead  works."  The  robes  of  the  redeemed  are  made  white  in  the 
blood  of  the  Lamb.  In  these  passages,  the  blood  of  Christ  means  his 
"obedience  unto  death,"  "the  offering  of  himself "  on  the  cross,  the 
ground  of  our  justification,  the  instrument  and  motive  of  our  holiness. 

The  general  meaning  of  the  word  geace  is  "favor."  As  applied  to 
God,  it  means  the  unmerited  favor  exercised  by  him  towards  men,  as  in 
2  Tim.  i.  9,  "According  to  His  own  purpose  and  grace."  It  means, 
moreover,  all  the  different  gifts  of  that  grace:  justification,  as  in  Rom. 
V.  15;  strength  and  holiness,  as  in  2  Cor.  xii.  9,  "My  grace  is  sufficient 
for  thee;"  and  eternal  glory,  1  Pet.  i.  13.  The  "word  of  his  grace"  is 
the  Gospel,  in  Acts  xiv.  3.  So  in  Heb.  xiii.  9,  it  means  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel,  and  not  meats  or  rites. 

In  nearly  all  these  passages,  the  meaning  of  the  words  is  fixed  by 
the  position  in  which  they  stand.  The  general  ideas  which  the  words 
suggest  are  defined  by  their  particular  connection. 

282.  The  rule  which  thus  helps  us  to  select,  out  of  the  many 
„  ,  meanings  of  a  word,  the  single  meaning  which  is 

Rule  ap-  D  '  o  D 

piled  to  appropriate  to  the  place,  helps  us  also  to  determine 
language,  whether  the  word  is  used  literally  or  figuratively. 
If,  on  reading  the  sentence,  it  is  found  that  the  words,  in  their 
proper  sense,  involve  a  contradiction  or  an  impossibility,  it 
becomes  plain  that  there  is  a  figure  of  speech. 

In  1  Pet.  ii.  5,  for  example,  Christians  are  called  "  living  stones."  In 
Rom.  xiii.  12,  they  are  exhorted  to  "put  on  the  armor  of  light."  In  1 
Pet.  i.  13,  they  are  said  "  to  gird  up  the  loins  of  their  mind."  In  all 
these  passages,  the  connection  of  each  word  shows  it  to  be  figurative. 
Taken  alone,  it  may  be  figurative,  or  it  may  be  literal ;  but  in  its  pre- 
sent connection,  the  literal  interpretation  would  be  incongruous.  Thus, 
again,  the  washing  which  the  apostle  states  Christians  to  have  received 
(1  Cor.  vi.  11)  is  clearly  figurative;  for  it  is  "by  the  Spirit  of  our  God." 
The  command  of  our  Lord,  "  Let  the  dead  bury  their  dead"  (Matt.  viii. 
22),  must  be  understood  figuratively,  and  means,  let  the  worldly-minded 


TIIIED   EULE — CONTEXT.  189 

attend  to  worldly  concerns.  The  words  of  Christ,  "  This  is  my  blood," 
are  figurative ;  the  literal  interpretation  of  them  being  repugnant  to 
reason  and  Scripture. 

In  the  use  of  figurative  language,  the  inspired  writers  seem 
to  have  selected  their  expressions  on  the  principle  ^^  ,     „ 
of  resemblance.  figurative 

language  of 

What  is  grand  in  nature  is  used  to  express  what  is  digni-     "^"^^  ^""^^ 
fied  and  important  among  men;  the  heavenly  bodies,  mountains,  stately 
trees,  designating  kingdoms,  or  those  in  authority;  the  lower  ground, 
the  branches,  and  the  earth  generally,  designating  the  mass  of  the 
people. 

Political  changes  are  represented  by  earthquakes,  tempests,  eclipses, 
the  turning  of  rivers  and  seas  into  blood,  Jer.  iv.  23-28 :  Isa.  xiii.  10, 
33:  Matt.  xxiv.  29:  Acts  ii.  19. 

Things  which  have  a  fertilizing  influence,  as  dew,  showers,  streams, 
are  used  to  represent  spiritual  blessings,  Isa.  xxv.  6:  John  iv.  13,  14. 

The  qualities  of  animals  are  referred  to  in  figurative  expressions; 
beasts  and  birds  of  prey  being  emblems  of  oppressors. 

A  horn  signifies  power,  Dan.  viii.  A  rod,  the  exercise  of  power  in 
chastening.  Light  and  darkness  express  joy  and  sorrow,  knowledge 
and  ignorance,  prosperity  and  adversity,  holiness  and  sin.^  ]\Iarriage 
often  denotes  a  covenant  with  God ;  adultery,  the  violation  of  that 
covenant  by  idolatry.  A  vineyard  often  denotes  a  church ;  if  it  bear 
wild  grapes,  it  is  unfruitful ;  if  its  enclosures  are  broken  down,  it  is 
afflicted  or  corrupt,  Isa.  v.  1-7. 

This  rule  will  not  determine,  in  all  cases,  whether  words 
are  to  be  understood  literally  or  figuratively ;  but  it  will  go 
far  to  decide  in  most.  Other  rules  will  be  found  noticed 
below. 

283.  But,  while  the  words  'employed,  or  their  connection  in 
the  sentence,  will  often  suggest  the  meaning,  it  is  Third  rule- 
sometimes  necessary  to  look  beyond  the  words,  and  *^'^"  context. 
even  the  sentence,  to  the  context;   and  there  we  find — 

284.  (1.)  Words  and  passages  explained  in  the  language  of 
the  inspired  writers  themselves,  sometimes  by  definitions,  and 
sometimes  by  examples ;  sometimes  by  expressions  which  limit 
the  meaning. 

a  Esther  viii.  16:  Isa.  v.  20:  Psa.  xcvii.  11:  Eph.  v.  14. 


190  THIED   EULE — CONTEXT. 

In  Heb.  xi.,  for  instance,  Faith  is  first  described,  and  then  illus- 
trated. It  is  said  to  be  a  confident  expectation  of  things 
hoped  for :  a  perfect  persuasion  of  things  not  seen :  and 
then  examples  are  given  of  both  parts  of  the  definition.  In  Noah,  it 
was  perfect  persuasion  of  the  truth  of  God  in  regard  to  the  Deluge.  In 
Abraham  it  was  confident  expectation  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise 
made  to  himself,  and  to  his  seed.  If  the  Divine  word  speak  of  mercies, 
faith  hopes  for  them ;  if  of  things  purely  spiritual  and  future,  faith 
believes  in  them. 

Perhaps  no  passage  illustrates  better  than  this  the  difficulty  of  mak- 
ing a  good  translation ;  and  the  wisdom  of  God  in  giving  us  a  Bible 
of  examples,  rather  than  of  definitions.  The  word  "substance"  is  a 
literal  translation  of  the  original ;  and  means,  whatever  stands  under 
and  sustains  all  that  is  attached  to  it,  whether  subjects  or  qualities. 
No  one  word  could  have  expressed  more  completely  the  idea  of  the 
original :  and  yet  it  is  not  clear.  In  Heb.  i.  3,  the  same  word  is  trans- 
lated "person,"  and  in  2  Cor.  xi.  17,  "confidence"  (of  boasting);  and 
both  translations  are  correct.  The  full  idea  is  that  of  well-founded  or 
confident  expectation.  Faith  is  therefore,  as  to  things  hoped  for,  a 
thing  on  which  real  or  substantial  confidence  may  rest.  It  is,  more- 
over, the  evidence  of  things  not  seen.  The  full  idea  here,  again,  is, 
Buch  evidence  of  things  not  seen  as  silences  doubt  and  refutes  opposi- 
tion ;  or  rather,  it  is  the  conviction  which  such  evidence  produces. 
All  this  extent  of  meaning  is  found  in  the  original  words  :  but  no  one 
word  can  express  it.  If  the  Bible  were  made  up  of  definitions,  a 
translation  without  a  paraphrase  would  be  impossible.  We  may  well 
feel  thankful,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  book  of  examples  chiefly:  and  that 
it  illustrates  its  principles  rather  in  the  lives  of  believers  than  in  logi- 
cal and  abstruse  terms. 

Peefectiok,  again,  is  defined  in  several  parts  of  the  Bible. 

In  Psa.  xxxvii.  37,  it  is  used  as  synonymous  with  uprightness  or  sin- 
cerity, a  real  unfeigned  goodness :  and  this  is  its  general  meaning  in 
the  Old  Testament,  1  Chron.  xii.  33,  38.  In  the  New  Testament  it 
means  either  the  possession  of  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  of  Divine 
truth,  or  the  possession  of  all  the  graces  of  the  Christian  character,  in 
a  higher  or  lower  degree.  The  first  is  the  meaning  in  Ileb.  v.  14,  where 
strong  meat  is  said  to  belong  "to  them  that  are  of  full  age  (marg.  per- 
fect) :  even  to  those  who  by  reason  of  use  have  their  senses  exercised 
to  discern  both  good  and  evil."  So  in  1  Cor.  ii.  G:  Phil.  iii.  15.  Tlie 
second  is  the  meaning  in  James  i.  4 :  where  "perfect"  is  defined  as 
"entire,  wanting  nothing."  In  2  Pet.  i.  5-7,  the  graces  which  make 
up  the  perfect  Christian  are  enumerated. 


THIRD    RULE — CONTEXT.  .  191 

In  Eph.  iii.  4,  5,  Mystery  is  defined  by  example,  as  the  truth,  that 
the  Gentiles  should  bo  partakers  of  the  promise  in  Christ  by  the  Gospel. 

The  course  of  this  world,  means  man's  natural  state  and  life,  as 
opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ :  it  is  the  outgoing  of  the  spirit  that 
worketh  in  the  children  of  disobedience. 

In  Gal.  iv.  3,  the  expression,  the  elements  of  this  world  is  used ; 
and  is  explained  in  ver.  9,  10,  of  the  same  chapter.  See,  also,  Heb.  ii. 
5;  vi.  5:  1  Cor.  X.  11. 

Not  unfrequently  the  meaning  is  limited,  or  explained  by 
the  context,  even  in  simple  narrative. 

Compare  Gen.  vi.  19,  20;  vii.  2,  .3,  where  "  pairs,"  and  the  number  of 
pairs  are  spoken  of  respectively :  so  from  Gen.  xlviii.  8,  10,  we  gather 
that  Jacob's  blindness  was  partial.  From  Exod.  vi.  3,  and  Gen.  xiii.  4, 
(Heb.  Jehovah),  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  faithfulness  of  Jehovah 
in  giving  effect  to  his  promises,  was  not  revealed  to  the  Israelites  till 
the  Exode.  From  Exod.  ix.  6;  ix.  20,  it  is  clear  that  "all,"  means  all, 
with  specified  exceptions.  The  Levites  spent  five  years  on  probation^ 
before  fully  entering  upon  their  office,  hence  Numb.  iv.  3 ;  viii.  24. 
Modify  in  the  same  way,  Numb.  xiv.  30,  by  Josh.  xiv.  1 ;  and  Josh.  xi. 
19,  by  XV.  63. 

285.  (2.)  Sometimes,  where  there  is  no  formal  definition, 
the  meaning  is  made  clear  by  the  use  of  some  analo-  ^^^^.^^  g^. 
gous  or  similar  expression ;  or  by  the  use  of  opposite  pJ^\'i"*;o,','^ 

ones.  oroppo.sito 

ex])res- 
In  Gal.  iii,  17,  the  "covenant  with  Abraham"  is  explained  sious. 

as  the  promise  which  God  made  to  him. 

In  Rom.  vi.  23,  the  meaning  of  the  word  death  (the  wages  Examples, 
of  sin),  is  gathered  from  the  opposite:  "the  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life, 
through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 

In  Col.  ii.  7,  the  expression,  "rooted  and  built  up  in  Christ,"  is  ex- 
plained as  meaning,  "established  in  the  faith." 

In  Rom.  iv.  5,  it  is  said,  that  "  to  him  that  worketh  not,  faith  is 
counted  for  righteousness^'  the  expression  "worketh,"  being  explained 
in  several  places  in  the  same  chapter.  In  ver.  2,  the  phrase  is  " justifii'd 
by  works."  From  the  same  verse  we  learn  that  it  means  the  contrary 
of  "believing  in  Him  that  justifieth  the  ungodly."  So  in  James  ii.  14, 
the  faith  that  cannot  save,  is  the  faith  that  spends  itself  in  words,  and 
not  in  deeds.  It  is  a  faith  that  is  without  obedience:  it  is  a  faith  sudi 
as  devils  feel  (vor.  19),  and  it  is  not  such  ns  Abraliam  felt  (ver.  2.".).    To 


192  ^         THIRD    RULE — PARALLELISMS. 

be  "justified  by  works,"  therefore,  expressly  includes  in  Paul,  the  rejec- 
tion of  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the  guilty,  and  an  adherence  to  the 
whole  covenant;  while  the  "works"  of  which  James  speaks  imply  faith 
in  Christ.  The  same  truth  is  taught  by  our  Lord  in  John  iii.  36  ;  where 
it  is  said,  "  He  that  believeth  on  the  Son  hath  everlasting  life  :  and  he 
that  believeth  not  the  Son  shall  not  see  life :"  where  the  word  "believeth 
not"  is  in  the  original,  "is  not  obedient  to,;"  showing,  as  Doddridge 
well  observes,  that  the  faith  to  which  the  promise  of  eternal  life  is  an- 
nexed, is  a  principle  of  unreserved  obedience. 

In  1  John  iii.  9,  it  is  said,  "Whosoever  is  born  of  God  doth  not  com- 
mit sin."  But,  on  comparing  this  expression  with  other  parts  of  the 
Epistle,  we  find  that  to  commit  sin,  means  "  to  walk  in  darkness,"  i.  6: 
"to  keep  not  the  commandments,"  ii.  4:  "to  hate  his  brother,"  ii.  9: 
"to  love  the  world,"  ii.  15:  expressions  that  bespeak  settled  habit;  a 
habit  alien  to  the  spirit  of  a  Christian. 

286.  To  this  class  of  expressions  belong  the  parallelisms  or 
„,    ,  metres   of  the   original   Scriptures,    in   which   one 

Words  ex-  o  r  ' 

plained  by    p^xt  of  a  Sentence  answers  more  or  less  accurately 

parallel-  ^  •' 

isms.  to  another. 

Sometimes  the  parallelism  is  synonymous  or  gradational, 
giving   precisely  the  same  thought,  or   the   same 
monsorgra-  thought  with  some  addition. 

dntional.  " 

The  first  Psalm  is  a  bea -itiful  instance  of  this  gradual  extension  of 
thought : 

Blessed  is  the  man 

That  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly, 

Nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners. 

Nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful.  I 


The  gradations  are  obvious- 


Walketh — has  casual 

intercourse. 
Standeth — has    close 

intimacy. 
Sitteth — has    perma- 


Counsel — has  public 

resort. 
Way — chosen  path. 

Seat — habitual    rest- 


nent  connection.     '     ing  place. 


Ungodly — negative- 
ly wicked. 

Sinners  —  positively 
wicked. 

Scornful  —  profanely 
wicked. 


Similar  instances  may  be  found  in  Psa.  xxiv.  3,  4  :  Isa.  Iv.  (3,  7. 
Prov.  xvi.  32,  is  an  instance  of  the  synonomous  parallel.     He  that  is 
slow  to  anger  is  commended,  not  because  he  is  listless  or  indifferent,  but 


THIRD    RULE — PARALLELISMS.  193 

because  he"ruletli  his  own  spirit;"  the  one  expression  defining  the 
meaning  of  the  other. 

Occasionally  these  parallelisms  extend  over  whole  chapters,  or  over 
books  of  Scripture.  In  this  case  the  similarity  of  thought  needs  to  be 
traced  with  some  care.     Thus  in  Psa.  cxxxii., 

Ver.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  is  answered  by  ver.  12. 
Ver.  7,     .         .         .  "  by  ver.  13. 

Ver.  8,     .         ,        .  "  by  ver.  14. 

Ver.  9,     .         .        .  "  by  ver.  15,  16. 

Ver.  10,  .         .         .  "  by  ver.  17,  18. 

In  Psa.  cxxxv.  15-18,  there  is  a  similar  instance. 

An  attention  to  these  parallelisms  is  often  necessary  to  bring  out  the 
meaning  of  Scripture.  In  Luke  xii.  47,  48,  for  example,  the  compari- 
son of  the  expression,  "he  who  prepared  not,  neither  did  according  to 
his  will,"  with  the  expression,  "he  that  did  commit  things  worthy  of 
stripes,"  suggests  the  reason  that  acts  of  omission,  in  spite  of  know- 
ledge, are  to  be  punished  with  many  stripes,  while  sins  of  commission, 
without  knowledge,  are  to  be  punished  with  few. 

Sometimes  the  Parallelisms  are  antithetic,  containing  op- 
posite terms,  and  sometimes  opposite  sentiments.         Antithetic. 

In  Prov.  X.  7,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  "  the  memory  of  the  just  is 
blessed;"  where  the  meaning  of  the  word  "memory"  is  fixed  by  the 
following  line  ;  "but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot."  "Name"  and 
"memory"  are  synonymous.  In  Prov.  xi.  24,  the  scattering  which 
tends  to  increase,  is  not  the  scattering  in  which  extravagance  may  in- 
dulge, but  the  exercise  of  a  wise  generosity :  for  the  following  clause 
opposes  it  to  the  withholding  of  more  than  is  meet,  which  tends  to 
poverty. 

In  Hosea  xiv.  9,  it  is  said,  "The  ways  of  the  Lord  are  right,  and  the 
just  shall  walk  in  them:  but  the  transgressors  shall  fall  therein:" 
where  the  just  are  obviously  the  obedient. 

Other  kinds  of  metrical  parallelism  are  also  frequent  in 
Scripture  :  but  as  they  are  parallelisms  of  construe-  n^^^^^ 
tion  only,  (called,  therefore,  synthetic  or  construc-  t'^'^. 
TIVE,)  and  refer  only  to  the  form  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not 
necessary  here  to  notice  them.     Psa.  xix.  7-11 :  Psa.  cxlviii. 
7-13 :  Isa.  xiv.  4-9,  are  instances. 
17 


194  INTERPRETATION — CONTEXT. 

287.  (3.)  Very  often  tlie  meaning  is  decided  by  the  general 
reasoning,  or  allusions  of  the  context. 

Words  ex-  °  . 

plained  by        (a.)  Sometimes  the   meaning  is   defined   by  the 

the  reason-       ,,      .  „     ,  ,      ,  ,  , 

iug  or  a,i-      allusions  of  the  context :  and  the  words  are  to  be 

lusions.  .  T      •,     1 

taken  m  a  nmited  sense. 

In  Psalm  vii.  8,  for  example,  David  prays,  "Judge  me,  O  Lord,  ac- 
cording to  my  righteousness  ;"  i.  e.,  according  to  bis  innocency,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  charge  of  Gush,  the  Benjamite.  He  often  uses  the  same 
expression  with  similar  limitations.  The  word  "righteous,"  or  "more 
righteous,"  is  even  applied  to  wicked  men :  as  in  1  Kings  ii.  32,  and  in 
2  Sam  .iv.  11.  In  the  second  instance,  Ishbosheth  is  said  to  be  righteous 
(though  he  bad  opposed  what  he  knew  to  be  God's  promise  in  reference 
to  David),  merely  to  imply  that  he  had  done  no  injury  to  his  murder- 
ers. The  same  phrase  is  applied  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  because  they 
were  less  guilty  than  Jerusalem,  Ezek.  xvi.  52.  The  counsel  of  Ahi- 
thophel  is  called  good,  and  the  conduct  of  the  unjust  steward  wise,  not 
because  they  were  absolutely  so,  but  because  they  were  likely  means 
of  accomplishing  the  ends  of  each. 

In  John  ix.  3,  it  is  said,  "Neither  hath  this  man  sinned,  nor  his  pa- 
rents." The  meaning  is  simply,  that  his  blindness  was  not  the  punish- 
ment of  any  particular  sin. 

In  James  v.  14,  the  elders  of  the  church  are  commanded  to  anoint  the 
sick,  and  to  pray  over  him;  "and  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save  him." 
The  church  of  Rome  founds  on  this  one  passage  the  doctrine  of  extreme 
unction  ;  which  they  say  is  to  save  the  soul  of  the  dying.  But  from  ver. 
15,  16,  it  is  plain  that  by  "save"  is  meant  "heal."  So  that,  whatever 
this  practice  implied,  it  was  to  be  observed,  not  with  the  view  of  saving 
the  soul ;  but  in  the  case  of  one  already  a  Christian,  with  the  view  of 
restoring  his  health. 

(h.)  The  context,  or  general  arrangement  of  a 

Cp-posite  ^     ^  '  o  o 

sense  some-  passage,  may  even  prove  that  words  are  to  be  iin- 
tended.         derstood  in  the  very  opposite  of  their  usual  sense. 

In  1  Kings  xxii.  15,  "Go,  and  prosper"  was  spoken  ironically,  and 
meant  the  reverse.  In  Numb.  xxii.  20,  "  Rise  up,  and  go"  appears  from 
ver.  12,  32,  to  imply  "  If,  after  all  I  have  told  you,  your  heart  is  set 
on  violating  my  command,  do  it  at  your  own  risk."  The  use  of  this 
form  of  speech  may  bo  seen  in  1  Kings  xviii.  27:  Judg.  x.  14:  Mark 
vii.  9 :  1  Cor.  iv.  8. 


INTERPRETATION — CONTEXT.  195 

288.  The  general   reasoning  of  the   various  passages   of 
Scriptures  is,  comruonly,  sufficiently  plain  to  indi- 
cate the  meaning  of  the  words  employed.     Great  iug  of 
attention,  however,  needs  to  be  paid  to  the  use  of  parentheses 
parentheses  and  of  particles ;  the  particles  connect-  cies  import- 
ing different  branches  of  a  sentence,  or  argument, 
together,  and  the  parentheses  withdrawing  from  the  direct 
line  of  argument  the  words  which  are  included  in  them.     The 
latter  interrupt  the  grammatical  couvstruction  of  the  sentence, 
and  the  former  perfect,  or  complete  it. 

289.  When  the  parenthesis  is  short,  it  creates  no  difficulty, 
and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  interrupt  the  reasoning,     paren- 
as  in  Phil.  iii.  18,  19  :  Acts.  i.  15.    When  it  is  long,     *'^^'""- 

it  seems  to  embarrass  the  argument,  and  often  ends  in  the 
repetition  of  the  words  of  the  preceding  clause.  Eph.  iii.  2 
to  iv.  1  (first  clause)  is  all  in  parenthesis;  so  in  Phil.  i.  27  to 
ii.  16,  and  perhaps  iii.  2  to  iii.  14.  In  the  first  and  last  of 
these  cases,  "therefore"  is  an  evidence  of  the  end  of  the  pa- 
renthesis. 

The  parenthesis  is  often  indicated  in  the  argumentative  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture by  the  use  of  the  word  "for:"  as  in  Kom.  ii.  11-16,  or  13-16:  2 
Cor.  vi.  2 :  Eph.  ii.  14-18. 

290.  Attention  to  particles  is  often  important. 

Then,  for  example,  is  often  emphatic ;  sometimes  as  an  p  .-  , 
adverb  of  time,  as  in  Mai.  iii.  4,  and  16.  And  again  in  1 
Thess.  iv.  16,  "  The  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first.  Then,  we  which  are 
alive,  and  remain,  shall  be  caught  up  together  with  them  in  the 
clouds."  It  is  not  said  here  that  the  dead  in  Christ  rise  before  the  rest 
of  the  dead,  but  that  the  dead  rise  before  the  living  are  changed.  But 
it  is  much  oftener  used  as  an  equivalent  for  therefore.  Theeefoke, 
itself,  generally  expresses  an  inference  or  conclusion  from  what  pre- 
cedes: but  it  sometimes  indicates  that  the  sentence  has  been  interrupted 
by  a  parenthesis,  or  is  repeated:  and  means  "As  I  before  said,"  or  "  to 
resume."  Matt.  vii.  24  (see  ver.  21) :  1  Cor.  viii.  4  (see  ver.  1) :  Mark 
iii.  31  (see  ver.  21) :  John  vi.  24  (see  ver.  22) :  Gal.  iii.  5  (see  ver.  2). 
Through  means  sometimes  "by  means  of:"  as  in  John  xv.  3.  "  Tiirough 
the  word  I  have  spoken  unto  you:"  and  sometimes  "for  the  sake  of," 


196  INTEKPRETATION — CONTEXT. 

Eom.  V.  1 ;  or  "in  the  midst  of,"  as  in  Gal.  iv.  13.  Now  is  sometimes 
an  adverb  of  time  :  sometimes  it  means  "  as  the  case  is,"  contrasting  an 
actual  with  a  snpposable  one,  John  xviii.  36,  where  "then"  means  "in 
that  case,"  and  asserts  the  consequence;  Luke  xix.  42:  Heb.  viii.  6 
(ver.  4).  "Eatheb"  means  "on  the  contrary,"  Eom.  xi.  11;  xii.  19: 
Eph.  V.  11.  The  comparison  implied  in  the  modern  use  of  the  word  is 
expressed  in  Scripture  by  "  and  not."     See  ^  277  (c). 

291.  The  connection  is  sometimes  obscured  through  the  use 
Other  of  a  covert  dialogue;  objections,  responses,  and  re- 
diffi^iity  in  pHes  not  being  distinctly  marked. 

the  coniiec- 

See  Eom.  iii.  4,  etc.,  where  we  have  a  dialogue  between  the 
apo.stle  and  an  objector.  Isa.  Iii.  13;  liii.  54,  a  dialogue  between  God, 
the  prophet,  and  the  Jews. 

Psa.  XX.  15 ;  xxiv.  104,  are  responsive. 

The  abrujDtness  of  transition  in  historical  narrative,  and 
especially  in  prophecy,  creates  difficulty.  Different,  and 
often  distant  events  are  joined  in  what  seems  to  be  the 
same  paragraph. 

Frequently  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  con- 
clusion of  an  argument  is  omitted,  or  a  premise  is  suppressed, 
or  an  objection  is  answered,  without  our  being  told  what  the 
objection  is. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Eomans  furnishes  examples  of  all  these  difficulties. 
Eom.  iii.  22-24;  viii.  17,  18;  ix.  6:  chapters  3  and  4. 

292.  Attention  to  the  context  is  of  great  moment  in  ascer- 
Context  taining  the  meaning  of  the  figurative  language  of 
applied  to      Scripture,  and  in  determining  whether  the  lan>>;uage 

mterpret  J-  '  o  o      o 

figures.  is  figurative  or  literal.  That  the  expressions  are 
figurative  is  sometimes  stated  or  implied,  and  then  the  mean- 
ing is  appended.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  look  to  the 
general  argument  or  allusions  of  the  passage. 

In  1  Pet.  iii.  21,  the  baptism  which  saves  us  is  defined.  It  is  "  not 
the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good 
conscience  towards  God."  "To  bear  one's  sin"  is  a  figurative  expres- 
sion, meaning  to  suifer  the  punishment  of  it.     Hence  die  .synonymous 


INTERPRETATION — SCOPE.  197 

expressions  to  be  cut  off,  and  to  die,  are  connected  with  it,  Exod.  xxviii. 
43  :  Lev.  xix.  8. 

In  Hosea  iv.  12,  and  elsewhei'e  (especially  in  Ezekiel),  a  spirit  of  las- 
civiousness  is  said  to  have  drawn  the  Israelites  astray ;  but  then  it  is 
immediately  added,  "  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of  the  mountains, 
and  burn  incense  upon  the  hills;"  to  show  that  it  is  spiritual  unfaith- 
fulness of  wlucli  the  prophet  is  sjoeaking. 

When  Christ  said  "  He  that  eateth  rae,  even  he  shall  live  by  me," 
John  vi.  57,  the  Jews  misunderstood  his  meaning,  but  he  had  himself 
already  explained  it :  for  in  the  same  discourse  he  had  repeated  the 
truth  in  literal  terms,  "  He  that  believeth  on  me  hath  everlasting 
life."  This  text  is  understood  literally  by  most  Eoman  Catholic  wri- 
ters ;  though  our  Lord  expressly  gave  it  this  figurative  interpretation  ; 
and  the  ordinance  of  the  Supper,  to  which  they  suppose  it  to  refer,  had 
not  then  been  instituted,  and  was  entirely  unknown  to  his  hearers. 

In  Matt.  xxvi.  28,  Christ  calls  the  wine  his  blood:  and  again,  in  ver. 
29,  he  calls  the  same  cup  the  fruit  of  the  vine :  implying,  that  his  first 
expression  was  figurative.  The  expression  in  1  Cor.  iii.  15,  "  He  him- 
self shall  be  saved,  yet  so  as  by  fire,"  is  the  passage  in  Scripture  gene- 
rally quoted  in  favor  of  the  popish  doctrine  of  purgatory.  Attention 
to  the  context  will  show  that  the  whole  is  figurative.  The  wood,  hay, 
.stubble,  which  man  may  build  on  the  foundation,  are  expressions  con- 
fessedly figurative.  The  foundation  itself  is  figurative,  and  means 
Christ;  and  the  expression  "so  as  by  fire,"  must  be  understood  in  a 
sense  consistent  with  the  general  argument  of  the  passage. 

Similarly  figurative  expressions  may  be  seen  in  1  Cor.  v.  8 :  Matt. 
xvi.  6,  12.  See  also  Isa.  li.  1 ;  Eph.  v.  32,  where  the  union  of  Christ 
and  his  church  (and  not  marriage)  is  spoken  of  as  the  mystery. 

293.  When  tlie  words,  the  connection  of  the  sentence,  and 
he  context,  fail  in  removing  all  ambiguity,  or  in  Fourth  rule 

giving  the  full  meaning  of  the  writer,  it  is  then  tetJonYget- 
necessary  that  we  look  at  the  scope  or  design  of  ^^^^  scope, 
the  book  itself,  or  of  some  large  section,  in  which  the  wol-ds 
and  expressions  occur.  The  last  preceding  rule  touches  this ; 
and,  indeed,  all  the  rules  of  interpretation  glide  by  degrees 
into  one  another. 

294.  Sometimes  the  scope  of  a  section,  or  of  the  scope 
book  itself,  is  mentioned.  Slonld. 

In  Rom.  iii.  28,  for  example,  St.  Paul  tells  ub  that  the  conclusion  to 

17* 


198  INTERPRETATION — SCOPE. 

which  his  reasonings,  up  to  that  point,  had  brought  him:  namely,  that 
man  is  justified  by  faith,  without  the  deeds  of  the  law. 

The  principal  conclusions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  are  stated, 
the  first  doctrinal  in  ii.  11,  12,  that  the  Gentiles  were  no  longer  aliens; 
the  second  practical  in  iv.  1-3,  exhorting  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  exercise 
the  spirit  and  temper  which  become  their  new  relation.  Subordinate 
conclusions  are  expressed  in  iii.  13;  iv.  17,  25;  v.  1,  7 ;  vi.  13,  14, 
where  the  words  "therefore,"  or  "wherefore,"  generally  indicate  the 
result  of  each  successive  argument. 

The  design  of  the  Proverbs  is  told  us  in  i.  1-4,  6 ;  of  the 
The^Bftle     Gospels  in  John  xx.  31;  of  the  Bible  itself  in  Rom.  xv.  4: 
2  Tim.  iii.  16,  17. 

295.  The  design  of  some  parts  of  the  Bible  can  be  gathered 

.^    .  only  from  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  written. 

Design  •'  •' 

(gathered 

rom  the  The  90th  Psalm  was  probably  written  by  Moses,  at  the 

time  when  God  sent  back  the  ciiildren  of  Is_rael  to  wander 

in  the  wilderness.     The  scope  of  Psa.  xviii.,  xxxiv.,  iii.,  li., 

is  illustrated  by  their  inscriptions.      The  Psalms  which  are  headed 

"Songs  of  Degrees,"  cxx.-cxxxiv.,  were  written  for  the  Jews,  to  be 

sung  during  their  annual  journeys  to  Jerusalem.     Many  of  the  verses 

will  be  seen  to  have  additional  meaning  from  the  knowledge  of  this 

fact. 

The  Epistles  to   the  Colossia-ns,  the  Ephesians,  and  the  Galatians, 

were  all  written  to  illustrate  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the 

sians,  Ep.       Gospel,  and  to  answer  the  misrepresentations  of  the  Judai- 

En^^Gala-^'     ^^"^8  teachers  of  the  church.     Many  expressions  will  be  ex- 

tians.  plained  by  a  reference  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 

especially  to  the  15th  chapter,  where  we  have  the  history  of  the  whole 

uestion  which  these  Ei^istles  discuss. 

296.  The  great  means,  however,  of  obtaining  a  knowledge 


occasion. 
Psalms 


Scope  gath 


of  the  scope  of  the  various  books  of  the  Bible,  or  of 

>cope  gatn-  J- 

ered  from     particular  passages,  is  the  repeated  and  continuous 
study  of       study  of  the  books  themselves.     When  once    this 

Scripture.  -^  -n      i  t    ^ 

knowledge  is  gained,  it  will  throw  great  light  on 

particular  expressions,  and  illustrate  other  parts  of  the  Bible 

in  a  way  both  instructive  and  surprising. 

To  understand  the  precept  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  xix.  17,  "  If  thou 

wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  commandments,"  we  look  to 

xampes.     ^^^  scope.     An  inquirer,  proud  of  his  own  righteousness 


INTERPRETATION — SCOPE.  199 

asks  what  he  must  do  to  obtain  eternal  life,  and  our  Lord  refers  him  to 
the  law,  to  rebuke  and  humble  him. 

The  subjects  of  the  predictions,  Isa.  1-39,  are  generally  indicated. 
The  subjects  of  subsequent  chapters  are  less  marked,  and  the  connec- 
tion can  be  traced  only  by  repeated  perusal.  When  traced,  it  throws 
light  upon  the  meaning.  Chapters  li.-lv.,  for  example,  form  one  pro- 
phecy; li.  1-8,  containing  an  earnest,  thrice-repeated  appeal  to  the 
people  to  hear,  verses  1,  4,  7;  li.,  ix.-lii.  12,  contains  an  earnest  appeal 
to  God  and  to  Zion  ;  verses  9,  17;  lii.  1;  lii.;  xiii.-liii.  12,  is  a  glorious 
description  of  the  work  of  the  Messiah,  and  forms  the  centre  of  the 
prophecy ;  liv.  describes  the  results  of  his  work  on  the  destiny  of  the 
church,  and  Iv.  on  the  destiny  of  the  world. 

297.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whetlier  the  immediate 
scope  of  the  passage,  or  the  general  scope  of  the  g^opeof 
book,  is  to  be  regarded.  of  bofk^"** 

sonietimea 
In  Luke  xv.,  for  example,  there  are  several  parables  ad-   ditfeient. 

dressed  to  the  Pharisees,  who  complained  that  our  Lord  received  sin- 
ners :  and  among  those  parables  is  that  of  the  prodigal  son.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  scope  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke  is  to  exhibit  and  recommend 
the  Gospel  to  tiie  Gentiles:  and  the  question  arises,  who  is  meant  by  the 
elder  son,  and  who  by  the  younger  ?  Some  say  the  Pharisee  and  the 
sinner ;  others  say  the  Jew  and  the  Gentile.  The  first  interpretation  is 
sanctioned  by  the  scope  of  the  context ;  and  the  second  by  the  general 
scope  of  the  Gospel.  It  will  be  seen  that  both  interpretations  are  con- 
sistent and  probable.  A  due  regard  to  the  scope  of  the  parables  is  of 
great  importance. 

It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  "rest"  (or  the  keeping  of  a  rest  or 
Sabbath,  as  it  may  be  translated,)  spoken  of  in  Heb.  iv.  refers  to  the 
literal  Sabbath,  to  heaven,  or  to  the  peace  which  the  Gospel  brings,  end- 
ing however  in  eternal  life  :  a  question  that  can  be  decided  only  by  the 
argument.     Comp.  verses  3,  9,  10. 

In  the  same  Epistle,  the  description  of  Melchisedec  as  without  descent 
has  created  some  difficulty.  It  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  the 
apostle  is  comparing  his  priesthood  with  that  of  Chri.st ;  and  it  is  said, 
that  both  are  alike  m  this,  that  they  are  equallj'-  without  succession ; 
and  so  differ  from  that  of  Aaron.  The  limited,  and  not  the  universal 
meaning  of  the  words,  is  therefore  the  only  one  required  by  the  argument. 

In  the  same  way,  if  we  need  further  light  on  the  apparent  contra- 
diction between  St.  Paul  and  St  James,  we  look  at  the  scope  of  their 
Epistles.     That  to  the  Eomans  is  designed  lo  prove,  that  by  the  per- 


200  INTERPRETATION — SCOPE. 

Comparison    formaticG   of  the   duties  of  the  law,  no   man  is  iustified, 
of  the  scope  ,  .  .      .  ,.  mi  1  • 

ofKpisdes      becanse   his   obedience   is   imperfect.      The   object  of  the 

apparciit^      Epistle  of  James  is  to  prove  that  no  man  can  be  justi- 

conti-adic-       fied  by  a  faitli  which  does  not  tend  to  holiness.     If  these 
tions.  . 

designs  be  kept  in  view,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ap- 
parent contradictions  cease.  The  object  of  the  first  Epistle  of  John 
is  defined  in  cliap.  ii.  1,  as  similar  to  the  object  of  the  Epistle  of 
James. 

The  scope  of  the  Romans,  as  compared  with  the  scope  of  the  Gala- 
tians,  explains  an  apparent  contradiction  between  these  Epistles.  In 
the  one,  the  observance  or  days  is  allowed,  Rom.  xiv.  5.  In  the  other, 
it  is  forbidden,  Gal.  iv.  10,  11.  The  permission  is  given  to  Jewish 
converts  who  had  a  tender  conscientious  scruple  about  setting  aside  the 
precepts  of  the  law  in  which  the}*  had  been  trained.  The  prohibition 
is  addressed  to  Gentile  converts,  who  supposed  that  the  cross  could  not 
save  them,  but  tlirough  circumcision.  Their  observance  of  days  was 
owing  to  that  feeling  and  therefore  condemned. 

298.  The  most  comprehensive  rule   of  interpretation   yet 
Fittii  rule  •    i"6mains.       Compare     Scripture     with     Scripture ; 


ompnrison  "  thinQ;s  spiritual  with  spiritual,"  1  Cor.  ii.  13.     It 

.•itli  other      .  °       -"■  ■'■         . 

pavtsof        ig  jjy  the  observance   of  this   rule  alone   that  we 

Scripture.  •' 

become  sure  of  the  true  meaning  of  particular 
passages ;  and,  above  all,  it  is  by  this  rule  alone  that  we 
ascertain  the  doctrines  of  Scripture  on  questions  of  faith  and 
practice.  A  Scripture  truth  is  really  the  consistent  explana- 
tion of  all  that  Scripture  teaches  in  reference  to  the  question 
examined ;  and  a  Scripture  duty  is  the  consistent  explanation 
of  all  the  precepts  of  Scripture  on  the  duty  examined.  It  is 
in  studying  the  Scripture  as  in  studying  the  works  of  God. 
■  We  first  examine  each  fact  or  phenomenon,  and  ascertain  its 
meaning  ;  and  then  classify  it  with  other  similar  facts,  and 
attempt  to  explain  the  whole.  Such  explanation  is  called  a 
general  law. 

299.  The  importance  of  studying  Scripture  in  this  way  is 

strikingly  manifest  from  the  mistakes  of  the  Jews. 

Importance  o  j 

of  this  com-  "We  have  heard  out  of  the  law"  (said  they)  "that 

panson.  ^  . . 

Christ  abideth   forever,"  Isa.    ix.    7 :  Dan.  vn.  14, 
"and  hoAV  sayest  thou  the  Son  of  man  must  be  lifted  up?" 


INTEEPRETATION — PARALLEL   PASSAGES.  201 

The  everlasting  duration  of  his  kingdom  was  often  foretold ; 
but  that  he  should  be  lifted  up  and  cut  off,  though  not  for 
himself,  had  been  foretold  too,  Isa.  liii. :  Dan.  ix.  26.  A  com- 
parison of  these  passages  would  have  removed  the  ground  of 
their  objections. 

300.  (1).  Sometimes  we  compare  the  words  of  Scripture 
with  one  another,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  pj^yj^ueiigm 
their  meaning.  of  words. 

David,  for  example,  is  called  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  14,  and  in  Acts  xiii.  22, 
"a  man  after  God's  own  heart:"  and  the  question  has  been  asked, 
whether  this  expression  is  meant  to  exhibit  David  as  a  model  of 
perfection.  On  referring  to  1  Sam.  ii.  35,  however,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  phrase  is  again  used,  "I  will  raise  me  up  a  faithful  priest, 
who  shall  do  according  to  that  which  is  in  mine  heart:"  and  this 
suggests  the  primary  meaning ;  namely  that  David,  especially  in 
his  public  official  conduct,  should  fulfil  the  Divine  will,  and  maintain 
inviolate  the  laws  which  God  had  enjoined. 

From  the  Psalms  and  history,  we  gather  that  David  was  also  an 
eminently  devout  man,  but  it  was  in  reference  to  his  kingly  office, 
primarily,  that  this  description  was  given  ;  however  applicable  it  may 
also  be  to  the  general  spirit  of  piety  which  David  evinced,  and 
to  the  unfeigned  penitence  which  he  manifested  after  having  been  be- 
trayed into  sin. 

In  reading  Gal.  iii.  27,  we  find  the  expression  "As  many  as  have 
been  baptized  into  Christ  have  put  on  Christ:"  and  we  Put  on 
turn  to  Rom.  xiii.  14;  and  there  find,  that  to  put  on  Christ. 
Christ,  is  opposed  to  making  provision  for  the  flesh ;  and  then  again 
to  Col.  iii.  10,  where  the  same  phrase  of  "putting  on"  the  new  man, 
implies  renewal  in  knowledge  after  the  image  of  the  Redeemer, 
(ver.  12,)  kindness,  humbleness,  meekness,  and,  above  all,  charity,  the 
bond  of  perfectness.  In  Gal.  vi.  17,  the  apostle  says,  "From  henceforth, 
let  no  man  trouble  me,"  (by  such  calumnies,  as  if  I  were  a  friend  of 
the  ceremonial  law);  "for  I  bear  in  my  body  the  marks  of  the  Lord 
Jesus."  We  turn  to  2  Cor.  iv.  10,  where  we  find  a  similar  phrase, 
"bearing  about  in  the  body  the  dying  of  the  Lord  Jesus:"  and,  turn- 
ing again  to  2  Cor.  xi.  23-27,  we  gather  that  these  marks  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  were  simply  the  scars  of  his  sufferings  for  Christ;  not  (as  some 
interpreting  the  passage  literally  have  supposed,)  the  marks  or  stigmata 
of  the  cross. 


202  INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL   PASSAGES. 

The  comparison  of  the  words  of  Scripture  is  often  essential 
to   the    rio;ht    understandino;   of    Scripture    truth, 

Importance  o  o  i  ' 

of  compari-  especially  in  reference  to  proper  names. 

sonini'eier-        i  ^  J-       -i. 

ence  to 

names.  jn  pg^.  cvi.,  for  example,  it  is  said,  "  They  make  a  calf 

in  HoEEB :"  i.  c,  as  appears  from  Exod.  xxxii.,  in  the  very  place  where 

God  had  taken  them  into  covenant,  and  immediately  after  they  had 

pledged  themselves  to  renounce  all  idolatry. 

In  Numb.  xxii.  24,  we  have  an  account  of  the  character  of  Balaam  ; 

and  his  j^osition  as  a  prophet  malves  us  question  at  first  whether  he  was 

not  a  good  man,  though  greviously  mistaken.     On  turning  to  the  New 

Testament,  however,  we  find  the  question  decided.     The  apostle  Peter 

tells  us  that  covetousness  was  his  snare.     The  apostle  Jude  classes  him 

with  Cain  and  Corah:    and  in  Kev.  ii.  14,  we  are  told  that  it  was 

at  his  suggestion  that  Balak  tlirew  a  temptation  in  the  way  of  the 

children  of  Israel,  which  caused  the  destruction  of  23,000  of  them  in 

one  day. 

301.  A  close  attention  to  Scripture  will  show  that  there  are 
Verbal  par-  at  least  three  kinds  of  verbal  parallels.  First, 
threekinds.  where  the  same  thing  is  said  in  the  same  words, 
as  Ex.  XX.  2-17:  Deut.  v.  6-18:  Psa.  xiv. ;  lii. :  Isa.  ii. 
2-4:  and  Micah.  iv.  1-3.  Here  one  passage  may  be  used 
to  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  other,  or  the  occasion  or  applica- 
tion of  the  passage  may  throw  light  on  the  passage  itself.  Isa. 
vi.  9,  10,  is  referred  to,  for  example,  six  times  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  a  comparison  of  all  the  passages  will  illustrate 
the  text.  Secondly,  where  the  same  facts  are  narrated  in 
similar  and  some  identical  words,  as  in  Exod.,  Lev.,  and 
Deut. ;  Sam.,  Kings,  and  Chron. ;  and  in  the  Gospels.  In  this 
case,  plain  expressions  illustrate  difficult  ones.  One  passage 
exjolains  or  modifies  the  other,  as  in  Matt.  ii.  1,  and  Luke  ii. 
1-4.  Thirdly,  where  the  words  or  idioms  are  used  in  different 
connections;  "sound  doctrine,"  for  example,  is  an  expression 
used  in  1  Tim.  i.  10 ;  vi.  3  :  2  Tim.  i.  13;  iv.  3 ;  Tit.  i.  9 ;  ii.  1, 
2,  8 :  and  from  a  comparison,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  phrase 
means,  the  grand  simple  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  as  opposed 
to  subtlety,  and  as  sanctifying  in  their  influence.  In  refer- 
ence to  such  cases,  the  signification  of  words,  in  a  passage 


INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL    PASSAGES.  203 

where  it  is  fixed  by  the  connection,  should  be  applied  to  in- 
terpret passages  where  there  is  nothing  that  can  fix  it.  In 
Rom.  vii.  18,  the  word  "  flesh"  means  a  natural  unholy  state, 
as  is  ascertained  from  chap.  viii.  8,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  phrases  employed,  though  in  themselves 
alike,  are  used  in  altogether  different  senses,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing passages  :  John  i.  21 :  Matt.  xi.  14 :  John  v.  31 ;  viii.  14  : 
Acts  ix.  7  ;  xxii.  9  :  Luke  i.  33 :  1  Cor.  xv.  24. 

Apparently  diff'erent  expressions  are  thus  harmonized. 
God's  offer,  for  example,  of  seven  years'  famine,  2  Sam.  xxiv, 
13,  includes  the  three  preceding  years  during  which  that 
palamity  had  continued,  2  Sam.  xxi.  1,  In  1  Chron.  xxi.  11, 
12,  there  is  no  reference  to  the  preceding  famine,  and  the 
ofier  is  therefore  of  three  years  only.  So  2  Sam.  xxiv.  24 :  1 
Chron.  xxi.  25. 

302.  In  considering  verbal  parallelisms,  two  general  rules 
are  important.  Ascertain,  first,  the  sense  which  cautions  in 
the  words  to  be  examined  bear  in  other  parts  of  bli"ifiraiiei- 
the  same  author,  and  then  in  other  writings  of  the  '*'"®' 
same  date,  and  then  throughout  the  Bible.  The  meaning  of 
words  often  changes;  and  all  writers  do  not  use  the  same 
word  in  the  same  sense.  And,  secondly,  no  meaning  can  be 
admitted  from  an  apparently  parallel  passage,  if  that  meaning 
is  inconsistent  with  the  context,  or  with  the  reasoning  of  the 
author.  In  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Galatians, 
for  example,  "works,"  when  used  alone,  means  the  opposite 
of  faith,  namely,  the  performance  of  legal  duties  as  the 
ground  of  salvation.  In  James,  the  expression  always  means 
the  obedience  and  holiness  which  flow  from  faith.  In  the 
one  case,  works  are  inconsistent  with  salvation ;  in  the  other, 
they  are  essential  to  it.  But  it  is  impossible  to  explain  the 
one  by  the  other.  So,  in  John  i.  1,  the  term  ''  word"  cannot 
be  explained  by  2  Tim.  iv.  2,  where  the  same  term  is  em- 
ployed, but  in  a  different  sense.  The  "  word"  means  the 
Gospel  in  Timothy,  but  that  meaning  cannot  be  applied  to 


204  INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL   PASSAGES. 

the  passages  in  Jolin,  so  as  to  give  any  consistent  sense  to  the 
context. 

303.  (2).  Sometimes  we  compare  the  facts  or  doctrines  of 
Parallelism  ^cripture  in  order  to  gain  a  complete  view  of 
of  ideas.  Scripture  truth.  This  is  the  parallelism  of  ideas, 
and  not  of  words  only. 

If,  for  example,  we  wish  to  know  whether,  m  the  Lord's  supper,  the 
cup  is  to  be  received  by  all  the  faithful,  or  only  by  the  priest,  we  turn 
to  Matt.  xxvi.  27,  and  we  find  the  command,  "  Drink  ye  all  of  it." 
And  if  it  be  asked  whether  "  all"  means  the  apostles  only,  or  all  in  its 
most  comprehensive  sense,  we  turn  to  1  Cor.  xi.  28,  where  the  same 
topic  is  treated  of.  There  we  find  that  in  each  case  (six  in  all)  the 
eating  of  the  bread  and  the  drinking  of  the  cup  are  mentioned  together, 
and  enjoined  on  all  Christians  indifferently.  The  charge  given  to  all  is, 
"Let  a  man  examine  himself;  and  so  let  him  eat  of  that  bread,  and 
drink  of  that  cup." 

If  we  are  investigating  the  meaning  of  Matt.  xvi.  18,  "  Thou  art 
Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  church,"  and  desire  to  know 
its  meaning,  we  turn  to  1  Cor.  iii.  11,  and  find  that  the  only  foundation 
of  the  church  is  Christ.  In  the  sense,  therefore,  of  being  the  foundation 
on  which  the  salvation  of  the  church  is  to  rest,  the  passage  in  one  sense 
of  it  IS  at  variance  with  other  parts  of  Scripture.  We  turn,  again, 
to  Acts  ii.  41,  and  to  Acts  x.,  xv.  7,  and  we  find  that  Peter's  preaching 
was  the  means  of  the  first  conversions,  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles. 
His  labors,  therefore,  commenced  the  building,  and  in  this  sense  he 
might  be  the  foundation  of  the  church.  Or  the  statement  may  refer  to 
Peter's  confession,  as  Augustine  and  Luther  held,  and  then  the  parallel 
passages  are  Gal.  i.  16 :  John  vi.  51 :  1  John  iii.  23 ;  iv.  2,  3. 

The  most  important  rule  in  reference  to  this  order  of  para!-, 
lelism  is,  that  a  passage  in  which  an  idea  is  ex- 
seuremust  pressed  briefly  or  obscurely  is  explained  by  those 
ed  by^wTiat  in  which  it  is  fully  or  clearly  revealed ;  and  that 
IS  pain.  fliffioult  and  figurative  expressions  are  explained 
by  such  as  are  proper  and  obvious. 

The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  for  example,  is  explained 
briefly  in  Pliil.  iii.  9,  and  fully  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the 
Galatians. 

"  A  new  creature"  is  a  figurative  expression,  used  in  Gal.  vi.  15,  and 
is  explained  in  chap.  v.  6,  and  in  Cor.  vii.  19. 


INTERPRETATION — ANALOGY    OF   FAITH.  205 

The  charity  spoken  of  in  1  Pet.  iv.  8,  is  "  brotherly  love,"  and  it  is 
said  to  cover  "a  multitude  of  sins;"  not  because  it  extinguishes  them 
and  so  justifies  the  sinner,  but  (as  shown  in  Prov.  x.  12)  because  it 
quenches  contention  and  strife. 

304.  When  any  passage  is  explained  by  a  reference,  not  to 
any  one  or  more  texts,  but  by  a  reference  to  tbe  parallelism 
general  tenor  of  Scripture,  it  is  then  said  to  be  analogy  of 
interpreted  according  to  the  analogy,  oa,  rule  of  ^'*'''^- 
FAITH.  We  have  examples  of  this  kind  of  reference  in  Gal. 
V.  14,  and  again  in  1  Cor.  xv.  3-11,  where  the  apostle  states 
the  facts  and  doctrines  connected  with  the  death  and  resur- 
rection of  Chri.st,  and  then  proceeds  to  prove  other  facts  and 
doctrines  from  them. 

This  analogy  of  faith  is  called  in  the  Bible,  "  the  Scriptures," 
1  Cor.  XV.  3,  4;  "all  the  law,"  as  in  Gal.  v.  14;  j.^^^^^^^^^ 
and  "the  mouth  of  all  the  prophets,"  Acts  iii.  18.  this  term. 
"  The  analogy  of  faith"  is  the  expression  used  by  the  apostle 
Paul,  in  Rom.  xii.  6,  where  he  exhorts  those  who  expound  the 
Scriptures  (or  prophesy)  to  do  it  according  to  the  proportion 
or  analogy,  the  measure  or  rule  of  faith. 

The  expression,  therefore,  is  identical  with  "the  whole  tenor 
of  Scripture ;"  and  the  doctrine  which  is  founded  upon  it  is 
taken  from  all  the  texts  relating  to  one  subject,  when  im- 
partially compared ;  the  expressions  of  each  being  restricted 
by  those  of  the  rest,  and  the  whole  explained  in  mutual  con- 
sistency. 

(1).  God  is  set  forth  in  Scripture,  for  example,  as  a  Spirit, 
omniscient,  and  holy,  and  supreme.     All  passages, 
therefore,  which  seem  to  represent  Him  as  material, 
local,  limited  "in  knowledge,  in  power,  or  in  righteousness,  are 
to  be  interpreted  agreeably  to  these  revealed  truths. 

(2).  If,  again,  any  expositor  were  to  explain  the  passages 
of  Scripture  which  speak  of  justification  by  faith  as  if  it  freed 
us  from  obligations  to  holiness,  such  an  interpretation  must 
18 


20G  INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL    PASSAGES. 

be  rejected,  because  it  counteracts  the  main  design  and  spirit 
of  the  Gospel. 

(3).  In  Prov.  xvi.  4,  it  is  said,  "  The  Lord  has  made  all 
things  for  himself:  yea,  even  the  wicked  for  the  day  of  evil." 
The  idea  that  the  wicked  were  created  that  they  might  be 
condemned,  which  some  have  founded  upon  this  passage,  is 
inconsistent  with  innumerable  parts  of  Scripture  (Psa.  cxlv. 
9 :  Ezek.  xviii.  23  :  2  Pet.  iii.  9).  The  meaning  therefore  is, 
as  determined  by  the  analogy  of  faith,  that  all  evil  shall  con- 
tribute to  the  glory  of  God,  and  promote  the  accomplishment 
of  his  adorable  designs. 

305.  It  is  thus  that  philosophy  interprets  natural  appear- 

ances.    When  once  a  general  law  is  established, 

General  .  . 

laws  applied  particular  facts  are  placed  under  it,  and  any  ap- 

hi  this  way  ^  .  •    n 

in  natural     pearanco  that  seems  contradictory  is  specially  ex- 
amined ;  and  of  two  explanations  of  the  apparent 
anomaly,  that  one  is  selected  which  harmonizes  best  with  the 
general  law. 

306.  The  use  of  the  parallel  passages  of  Scripture  in  deter- 
Paraiiei-       minins;  whether  lansiuage  is  fisurative  or  literal  is 

isms  ap-  '='  O       o  & 

plied  to  of  great  moment.  God,  for  example,  often  repre- 
Exampies.  sents  himself  as  giving  men  to  drink  of  a  cup  which 
he  holds  in  his  hand :  they  take  it,  and  fall  prostrate  on  the 
ground  in  fearful  intoxication.  The  figure  is  used  with  much 
brevity,  and  without  explanation,  in  some  of  the  prophets.' 
In  Isa.  li.  17-23,  it  is  fully  explained,  and  the  meaning  of  the 
image  becomes  clear.  The  intoxication  is  desolation  and 
helplessness,  more  than  can  be  borne ;  and  the  cup  is  the  fury 
(or  righteous  indignation)  of  Jehovah. 

In  reading  Acts  ii.  21,  we  find  it  said,  that  "whosoever  shall 
call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  saved;"  and  the 
question  may  be  asked.  What  is  meant  by  calling  upon  the 
name  of  the  Lord?  Matthew  tells  us,  that  "not  every  one 
that  saith    Lord !    Lord !    shall  enter  into    the    kingdom  of 

"Kahum  iii.  U  :  IT.'xb.  ii.  10:  Psa.  Ixxv.  8,  etc. 


INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL    PASSAGES.  207 

heaven :"  so  that  the  passage  is  not  to  be  understood  in  its 
literal  and  restricted  sense.  On  referring  to  Rom.  x.  11-14, 
and  1  Cor.  i.  2,  we  find  that  this  language,  which  is  quoted 
from  the  prophet  Joel,  implied  an  admission  of  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Christ,  and  reliance  on  the  doctrines  which  he  re- 
vealed. 

307.  It  is  obvious  that,  while  the  figurative  meaning  of  a 
word  has  generally  some    reference   to  its  literal 
meaning,  it  must  not  be  supposed  to  include  in  the  ^'fiR'ap-*^"' 
figurative  use  all  that  is  included  in  the  literal;  J'^lJ.f '^ '^'^° 
similitude  in  some  one  respect,  or  more,  being  sufii- 

cient  to  justify  the  metaphor. 

Christ  calls  his  disciples  his  sheep,  and  the  points  of  com- 
parison are,  clearly,  his  affection  for  them,  his  care  over  them, 
and  their  confidence  and  attachment  to  him.  Common  sense 
discovers  and  limits  the  application  of  the  terms.  Christ 
himself  is  called,  with  smaller  limits,  the  Lamb,  with  special 
relation  to  his  character  and  sacrifice.  So  sin  is  called  in 
ScrijDture  a  debt;  atonement,  the  payment  of  a  debt;  pardon, 
the  forgiveness  of  a  debt.  But  we  must  not  hold  these  terms 
so  rigidly  as  to  maintain  that,  because  Christ  died  for  man's 
sin,  therefore  all  will  be  finally  saved  ;  or  that,  because  he 
has  obeyed  the  law,  therefore  sinners  are  free  to  live  in  sin. 
Men  are  dead  in  sin,  but  not  so  dead  as  to  be  free  from  the 
duty  of  repentance ;  nor  are  they  guiltless  if  they  disregard 
the  Divine  call.  These  principles  are  sufficiently  obvious 
when  applied  to  passages  which  contain  figures  founded  upon 
material  objects.  They  are  even  more  imj^ortant,  though  less 
easy,  when  applied  to  passages  which  contain  figures  taken 
from  human  nature  or  common  life.  More  errors,  probably, 
have  arisen  from  pushing  analogical  expressions  to  an  extreme 
than  from  any  other  single  cause ;  and  against  this  tendency 
the  sober,  earnest  student  of  the  Bible  needs  to  be  specially 
upon  his  guard. 

308.  To  ascertain,  therefore,  the  meaning  of  any  passage  of 


208  INTERPRETATION — SUMMARY. 

of  thes"''^  Scripture,  whether  the  words  be  employed  figu- 
ruies.  ratively    or   literally,  we  must    ask    the   following 

questions :  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  terms  ?  If  they 
have  but  one  meaning,  that  is  the  sense.  If  they  have  several, 
we  then  ask,  Which  of  those  meanings  is  required  by  other 
parts  of  the  sentence  ?  If  two  or  more  meanings  remain, 
then.  What  is  the  meaning  required  by  the  context,  so  as  to 
make  a  consistent  sense  of  the  whole  ?  If,  still,  more  than 
one  meaning  remains.  What  then  is  required  by  the  general 
scope?  And,  if  this  question  fail  to  elicit  but  one  reply, 
What  then  is  required  by  other  passages  of  Scripture  ?  If,  in 
answer  to  all  these  questions,  it  is  found  that  more  than  one 
meaning  may  still  be  given  to  the  passage,  then  both  inter- 
pretations are  true ;  and  we  must  fix  on  the  one  which  best 
fulfils  most  of  the  conditions,  or  must  look  elsewhere  for  some 
further  guide. 

809.  It  is  important  to  observe  that,  whether  the  language 
These  rules  ^^  examine  be  figurative  or  literal,  and  whether  it 
required  in    i,q  tised  in  history  or  in  prophecy — in  allegory  or 

interpreting  •'  r      i  j  o      J 

the  words  oi  ^^  plain  discourse — these  rules  are  equally  applica- 

all  parts  ot  ^  _  ~i         ./      rr 

Scripture,  ble.  There  is  not  one  rule,  for  tropes,  and  another 
for  words  m  their  proper  sense  ;  nor  is  there  one  rule  for  in- 
terpreting the  words  of  the  parables  of  Scripture,  and  another 
for  interpreting  the  words  of  its  historical  statements.  It  is 
true  that  in  history  or  narrative  we  expect  to  find  words  used 
in  their  literal  sense  ;  while  in  poetry  and  allegory  the  figura- 
tive may  be  expected  to  predominate.  We  apply,  however, 
the  same  rules,  needing  some,  indeed,  more  in  one  case  than 
in  the  other ;  but  still  taking  the  sense  which  the  words 
express,  as  that  sense  is  defined  and  limited  (if  it  be  so)  by 
the  whole  of  the  sentence,  by  the  context,  by  the  scope  of  the 
writer,  and  by  other  parts  of  the  Bible. 

Nor  is  it  less  important  to  observe  that  these  rules  are 
And  of  com-  required  not  only  in  interpreting  Scripture,  but  in 
men  life,  interpreting  all  language  that  is  used  in  the  inter- 
course of  life. 


APPLICATION    OF   F.ULES.  209 


Sec.  4. — Of  the  Utility  and  Application  of  Rules  in 

Interpretation. 

It  must  have  occurred  to  the  reaclei'  that,  underneath  the 
rules  of  interpretation  which  we  have  given,  there  are  some 
general  principles  common  to  all  language,  which  regulate  the 
application  of  them.  Those  principles  it  is  important  to 
state,  as  they  both  justify  the  rules  we  have  given  and  aid  us 
in  applying  them. 

310.  To  perceive  the  meaning  of  most  parts  of  the  Bible 
which  teach  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  Gospel,    „ 

•^  Scripture 

it  is  only  necessarv  to  know  the  subject  and  the    «fn(>raiiy 

.  .  plain. 

language  employed.  If  the  Bible  be  in  our  own 
tongue,  and  we  undenstand  what  the  topic  is  of  which  it 
treats,  the  meaning  will  generally  be  plain.  No  instance  can 
be  given  in  Scripture  of  an  obscure  passage  concerning  which 
a  man  may  rationally  suppose  that  there  is  any  doctrinal  truth 
contained  in  it,  which  is  not  elsewhere  explained. 

The  great  advantage  of  rules  of  interpretation  is  not  to 
discover  the  meaning  of  plain  passages  of  Scripture, 

,  •        1  •  P         1  ,  •  Use  of  rules. 

but  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  such  as  are  ambigu-  ' 
ous  or  obscure. 

Yet,  as  on  many  points  of  importance  we  need  to  compare 
Scripture,  in  order  to  ascertain  and  prove  its  meaning,  and  as 
such  comparison  is  itself  part  of  our  discipline,  promotes  our 
holiness,  and  is  adapted  to  unfold  the  treasures  of  Divine 
truth,  it  is  of  great  moment  that  the  humblest  Christian 
should  understand  these  rules  and  apply  them.  Revelation 
is  to  be  the  study  of  our  lives,  and  it  is  plainly  the  will  of 
God  that  all  the  resources  of  learning,  industry,  and  prayer, 
should  be  employed  in  the  search. 

So  dependent  is  man  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Divine  will 
upon  the  motive  and  temper  of  his  inquiries,  and    ^  devom 
the  teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  that  a  prayerful     ^P"''*- 
and  humble  Christian,  with  few  advantages,  will  often  gam  a 
18* 


210  APrLICATION   OF   RULES. 

more  accurate  and  extensive  acquaintance  with  Scripture  than 
one  of  higher  mental  attainments,  but  of  feeble  piety.  The 
exercise  of  a  teachable  and  prayerful  spirit,  therefore,  is  among 
the  most  important  principles  of  Biblical  interpretation. 

The  true  meaning  of  any  passage  of  Scripture  is  not  every 
„      „        sense  which  the  words  will  bear,  nor  is  it  every 

Trne  mean-  '  J 

ing  of  sense  which  is  true  in  itself,  but  that  which  is  in- 

words.  .         _  _     ' 

tended  by  the  inspired  writers,  or  in  some  cases  by 
the  Holy  Spirit,  though  imperfectly  understood  by  the  writers 
themselves. 

The  sense  of  Scripture  is  to  be  determined  by  the  words : 

a  true  knowledge  of  the  words  is  the  knowled";e  of 

Is  the  sense.  "  ^ 

the  sense. 

The  meaning  of  words  is  fixed  by  the  usage  of  language. 
Fixed  by  Usage  must  be  ascertained,  whenever  possible,  from 
"^^se.  Scripture  itself. 

The  words  of  Scripture  must  be  taken  in  their  common 
CoTtimon  meaning,  unless  such  meaning  is  shown  to  be  in- 
tobe""^  consistent  with  other  words  in  the  sentence,  with 
preferred.  ^^^  argument  or  context,  or  with  other  parts  of 
Scripture. 

Of  two  meanings,  that  one  is  generally  to  be  preferred 
which  was  most  obvious  to  the  comprehension  of  the  hearers 
or  original  readers  of  the  inspired  passage,  allowing  for  those 
figurative  expressions  which  were  so  familiar  as  to  be  no  ex- 
ception to  this  general  rule. 

The  meaning  attached  to  the  words  of  Scripture  must  al- 
Meaning  ways  agree  with  the  context.  When  the  common 
wi'th'con^^  meaning  is  inconsistent  with  the  context  it  must  be 
*®^'-  abandoned,   and   such  other   meaning   adopted   as 

fulfils  the  requirements  and  conditions  of  the  passage,  and 
can  be  proved  to  be  sanctioned  by  usage,  either  in  common 
writers,  or  in  the  Bible. 

Seope  use-  The  scope  of  a  passage,  or  the  reasoning  of  the 
whe'n  it  Writer,  can  be  employed  to  determine  which  of  two 
nieaiiing.      seuses  is  to  be  adopted  only,  as  the  scope  or  reason- 


STUDY    OF   ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES.  211 

ing  is  clear ;  nor  will  the  scope  fix  the  meaning,  unless  a  par- 
ticular meaning  is  required  by  the  scope. 

The  parallel  passage  that  fixes  the  meaning  of  words  must 
either  contain  the  same  words  used  in  a  somewhat  parallel 
similar  sense,  or  it  must  evidently  speak  of  the  same  ^'•^"'"^s.^^- 
thing,  or  of  something  so  similar  as  to  afford  occasion  for  com- 
parison. 

No  doctrine  founded  upon  a  single  text  belongs  to  the  ana- 
logy of  faith.     The  analogy  of  faith  is  chiefly  of  use  Analogy  of 
in  teaching  us  to  reject  an  interpretation  which  is  quii4s*seve- 
not  Scriptural.     If  both  the  supposed  meanings  of  '''*'  ^^^^^' 
a  passage  are  consistent  with  this  analogy,  the  rule  cannot  be 
applied,  so  as  to  decide  the  meaning.     In  contro-  is  useful  in 
versial  reasoning,  this  rule  is  only  applicable  on  the  fXe  intir* 
supposition,  that  the  doctrine  to  be  applied  for  the  P*'*^***'""- 
purpose  of  interpretation  is  admitted  to  be  Scriptural.     If  it 
is  not  admitted,  we  cannot  apply  it  in  the  interpretation  of  a 
disputed  text. 

311.  Theology  is  the  whole  meaning  of  Scripture,  or  it  is 
the  sense  taught  in  the  whole  of  Scripture,  as  that  ^, 

p  ,      ,  .  .        The  sense 

sense  is  modified,  limited,  and  explained  by  Scrip-  of  scripture 

. '  '  f  .  and  theo- 

ture  itself.     Scriptural  theology  is  not  one  thmg,  losy  one 

.  .  thing. 

and  the  meaning  of  Scripture  another.     It  is  a  con- 
sistently interpreted  representation  of  the  statements  of  the 
Bible,  on  the  various  facts,  doctrines,  and  precepts,  which  the 
book  of  God  reveals. 

*Sec.  5. — Application  of  these  Rules  to  the  Study 
OF  the  Original  Scriptures. 

"As  I  shall  not  exact  the  study  of  the  original  Scriptures  from  those 
whose  want  of  parts  or  leisure  dispenseth  them  from  it ;  so  I  cannot 
but  discommend  those  who,  wanting  neither  abilities  nor  time  to  range 
through  I  know  not  how  many  other  studies,  can  yet  decline  this:  and 
who,  sparing  no  toil  nor  watches  to  put  it  out  of  tne  power  of  the  most 
celebrated  philosophers  to  deceive  them  in  another  doctrine,  leave 
themselves  obnoxious  to  the  ignorance,  fraud  and  partiality  of  an  in- 

"  See  Preface. 


212  STUDY   OF   ORIGINAL   SCRIPTURES. 

terpreter,  in  that  of  salvation ;  and  thereby  seem  more  shy  of  taking 
any  opinions  upon  trust  than  those  in  whose  truth  or  falseness,  no  less 
than  God's  glory,  and  peradventure  their  own  eternal  condition,  is  con- 
cerned. Methinks  those  who  learn  other  languages  should  not  grudge 
those  that  God  hath  honored  with  speaking  to  us,  and  employed  to 
bless  us  with  that  heavenly  doctrine  that  comes  from  him,  and  leads  to 
him." — Boyle. 

"  The  habit  ot  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  throws  a  new 
light  and  sense  over  numberless  passages." — Cecil,  Remains,  p.  199. 

312.  The  rules  of  interpretation  which  have  been  applied 
Previous  ^^  ^-^^^  previous  section  to  the  English  version,  are 
cable  to  ^''"  equally  applicable  to  the  study  of  the  original 
study  of       Scriptures.     The  importance  of  such  study  is  ob- 

onginal  J-  . 

Scriptures,  yious,  from  the  fact  that  all  versions  are  more  or 
less  accurate  as  guides  to  the  meaning  of  the  inspired  writ- 
ings. On  referring  to  Sec.  6,  Chap,  i.,  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the 
meaning  of  particular  words,  the  connection  of  arguments, 
and  the  significance  of  parallel  passages,  are  all  hable  to  be 
obscured  in  even  the  best  translations. 

313.  In  studying  and  explaining  a  living  language,  we  de- 
,  termine  the  usage  by  a  reference  to  our  expressions 

needed,        in  common  life ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  languages  of 

because  on-  .    .  .  "      " 

ginai  Ian-      the    Original   Scriptures,  we    are    dependent  for  a 

ffua'^es  of  .  .  , 

Scripture      knowledge  of  their  meaning  almost  entirely  upon 

not  spoken.      .       ,  n       •  i 

books :    grammars,  lexicons,  and.  versions  are  our 
authority,  and  for  most  purposes  their  authority  is  sufficient. 

314.  But  in  saying  that  our  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of 
We  de  send  ^^^^  languages  rests  upon  authority,  an  expression 
formraning  j^g  employed  whicli  it  is  important  to  explain;  we 

on  authori-  i      J  x  i  ' 

ties.  speak  of  the  authority  of  law,  and  of  the  authority 

of  a  witness,  or  of  a  manuscript,  but  the  word  is  used  in  those 
two  cases  in  very  diflerent  senses.  By  the  authority  of  law 
Authority  is  is  meant  its  rightful  power;  by  the  authority  of  a 
testimony.  yj{i^2€ss  is  meant  his  testimony,  whicli  we  deem  to 
be  more  or  less  credible  in  relation  to  the  question  in  hand. 
Now  it  is  in  the  second  sense  only  that  we  speak  of  the  au- 
thority of  lexicons.  A  good  lexicon  has  great  weight  attached 
to  it,  because   it  professes  to   give  both  carefully  examined 


ORIGINAL   SCRIPTUEES — GRAMMARS.  213 

meanings  of  the  words  it  contains,  and  also  a  summary  of  tlie 
evidence  upon  which  those  meanings  rest.  If  we  doubt  its 
explanations,  we  either  examine  other  lexicons,  from  the  days 
of  Hesychius  (A.  D.  400)  downwards,  if  the  word  be  Greek, 
or  examine  the  passages  where  the  word  is  found,  and  then 
weigh  for  ourselves  the  evidence  they  suj^ply.  Whenever, 
therefore,  we  have  to  interpret  a  Divine  precept  addressed  to 
us  in  a  dead  tongue,  xve  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  precept 
through  the  medium  of  human  authority,  i.e.,  testimony;  we 
obey  the  precept  because  it  has  the  authority  of  God.  This 
difference  of  the  two  meanings  of  the  word  is  important. 

If,  then,  there  be  reason  to  question  the  meaning  given  to  a 
word  or  phrase,  in  any  lexicon  or  grammar,  we  proceed  to 
investigate  that  meaning  for  ourselves,  and  various  plans  may 
be  adopted. 

315.  i.  We  may  consult  other  authorities,  grammars  or 
lexicons.  AVe  may  turn  (if  the  phrase  be  Hebrew)  Hebrew 
to  the  grammar  and  lexicon  of  the  earlier  Hebrew  and"'**^^ 
writers,  Juda  Chajug  (1040),  and  Jona  ben  Gannach  Grammars. 
(1121),  preserved  in  manuscript,  in  the  Bodleian  library ;  to 
the  grammar  of  Moses  Kimchi  (12th  century),  or  to  the  gram- 
mars and  lexicons  of  his  brother,  D.  Kimchi,  or  of  Elias  Levita, 
all  of  which  have  been  published.  We  may  examine  the 
grammar  and  lexicon  of  Gesenius,  the  founder  of  the  modern 
empirical  scKool  of  Hebrew,  or  the  grammar  of  Ewald,  the 
founder  of  the  scientific  school,  or  the  concordance  of  Furst, 
and  the  Hebrew  works  of  his  pupil,  Delitisch,  the  founder  of 
the  historical  school ;  the  first,  making  great  use  of  examples, 
and  a  moderate  use  of  the  Arabic  and  cognate  tongues,  the 
second,  investigating  too  exclusively  the  philosophy  of  the 
language,  and  the  third,  the  founder  of  historical  investiga- 
tion, and  applying  Sanscrit  to  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew, 
For  a  knowledge  of  cognate  dialects,  we  may  turn  to  the 
Pentaglot  of  Schindler  (Ham.  1612),  the  Heptaglot  of  Castel 
(Lon.  16G9),  to  Hettinger's  grammar  of  Heb.,  Chald.,  Syr., 


214  ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — VERSIONS. 

and  Arab.,  (1649),  or  to  tlie  Hebrew  grammars  (Institutiones, 
1737,  Origines  Hebrse^,  1723),  of  Scbultens. 

316.  In  the  case  of  the  Greek  language  we  may  use  either 
Greek  ^  general  Greek  grammar,  that  for  example,  of 
Lexicons  Buttman,  or  of  Matthias,  or  of  Jelf,  and  a  general 
Grammars,  lexicon,  Stephens'  Thesaurus,  for  example,  or  the 
hand-lexicon  of  Liddell  and  Scott,  or  we  may  use  a  Hellen- 
istic or  New  Testament  grammar  and  lexicon.  Winer's  gram- 
mar is  rich  in  the  illustration  of  New  Testament  idiom  ;  and 
Schleusner's  lexicon  is  invaluable  from  the  light  it  throws  on 
the  New  Testament,  from  the  version  of  the  LXX.  The 
lexicons  of  Bretschneider,  and  of  Eobinson,  are  also  well 
known  and  highly  useful. 

317.  ii.  We  may  examine  the  versions  of  the  Bible.  They 
,,     .  give  the  translator's  views  of  the  meaning  of  the 

Versions.        "  .  " 

words  of  Scripture, 
The  first  in  value  for  purposes  of  interpretation,  are  the 
Origenand    fragments   of  Origen  and  Jerome,  both  of  whom 
Jerome.        ^^^-j^  great  pains  to  ascertain  the  exact  meaning  of 
the  original  Scriptures. 

Next  to  these  are  the  Greek  versions.     The  LXX,  however, 
alone   remains   in   a  perfect  state :    it  is  of  great 
value,  but  often  fails  to  be  of  service  in  difficult 
passages,  from  the  freeness  of  the  translation,*  the  careless- 
ness or  ignorance  of  the  translators,''  and  the  want  of  fixed 
rules  of  translation. 

Next  in  value  are  the  Targums,  (See  Part  ii.),  and  inferior 
to   these,  the  comments  of  the    Talmud,  and  the 

Targums. 

Notes  01  the  Masorets. 

»  Isa.  i.  21;  iv.  4;  xlii.  1:  Exod.  vi.  12,  30-  Deut.  xxxii.  8;  xxxiii. 
2:  Numb.  xii.  8:  Exod.  xviii.  7. 

•>  Esth.  vii.  4:  Lev.  xix.  26:  Psa.  Ixxviii.  69:  Exod.  xiv.  2.  Compare 
Numb,  xxxiii.  7:  Isa.  xxiii.  1,  10,  14:  Ezek.  xxvii.  12;  xxxviii.  13: 
compared  with  Isa.  ii.  16  ;  lx.9:  (See  further  illustrations  in  Carpzov's 
Critica  Sacra,  New  Testament,  p.  513.) 


ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — VERSIONS.  215 

AinswortK  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  Gill's  Commentary,  throughout, 
generally  give  the  interpretations  of  the  Targums,  etc.,  whenever  they 

are  important. 

Last  of  all  among  the  ancient  versions  are  the  Peschito 
and   the  Vulgate.     The   former   is,  on   the  whole, 

Peschito 

well  translated,  but  not  unfrequently  disfigured  by  and 
additions  and  omissions.  The  latter  is  lessened  in 
value,  from  the  fact  (which  Jerome  acknowledges)  that  it  was 
translated  hastily,  that  he  retained  many,  of  the  old  render- 
ings, though  deeming  them  inaccurate,  from  a  desire  not  to 
offend  the  popular  ear  (Preface  tq  Pent.,  and  Commentary  on 
Eccl.),  from  the  very  free  use  which  has  been  made  of  the 
LXX,  and  also  from  the  general  inaccuracy  of  the  modern 
Vulgate  text. 

The  portions  of  the  Vulgate  translated  by  Jerome  are  bet- 
ter helps  to  interpretation  than  the  other  books :  but  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Hebrew  text,  the  other  books  (which  belonged 
to  the  Old  Italic  versions,)  are  the  more  important. 

Of  modern  versions  the  merits  are  very  various.     Latin 
versions  made    by   Romanists    are    generally   ex-    Modern 
tremely  literal,  and  often   obscure :  such   are   the    ^on."  ^^''" 
versions     of    Pagninus    (1528),    Arias    Montanus    Ro"^"'"'^'- 
(1584),  Cajetan  (1639),  and  Malvenda  1650).     Some  (as  the 
version  of  Clarius)  are  founded  on  the  Vulgate,  which   they 
merely  correct.     Houbigant  (1753)  gives  an  elegant  version 
of  his  amended  Hebrew  text.     The  New  Testament  has  been 
translated  by  Erasmus  and  Sebastiani. 

Among  Protestants,  Munster  (1534)  gives  an  intelligible 
version  from  the  Hebrew  preferable  to  the  versions 

Protef?tant. 

of  Pagninus  and  Montanus.     He  follows,  however, 

the  same  text,   and  does  not  widely  differ   in  principles  of 

translation  from  those  au.thors. 

Leo  Jucla  (1543-4)  began  another  version  of  the  Hebrew 
and  LXX,  which  was  published  by  Bibliander,  the  New 
Testament  being  added  by  others.  This  version  is  both  free 
and  faithful. 


216  ORIGINAL   SCEIPTURES — VERSIONS. 

Castalio  (1573)  gives  a  version  from  the  original,  in  wliich 
lie  studied  to  give  the  sense  in  elegant  classical  Latin.  It  is 
wanting,  however,  in  simplicity  and  force. 

The  version  of  Junius  and  Tremellius  (1590)  is  deemed  by 
M.  Poole  among  the  best.  They  expressed  the  article  by  the 
demonstrative  pronoun.  The  version  of  the  Osianders,  like 
that  of  Clarius,  is  founded  upon  the  Vulgate.  The  version  of 
Schmidt  (1696)  is  extremely  literal,  and  that  of  Dathe  (1773- 
99)  remarkable  for  fidelity  and  elegance.  The  New  Testa- 
rtient  of  Beza  is  highly  esteemed. 

Among  modern  versions  into  vernacular  tongues,  that  of 
Vernacular  Luther  is  one  of  the  best  (1517-30).  It  is  the 
LuThm's,  basis  of  the  Swedish  (1541),  the  Danish  (1550),  the 
^^-  Icelandic  (1584),  an  early  Dutch  version  (1560)  and 

the  Finnish,  with  its  cognate  dialects  (1642,  etc.).  A  German- 
Swiss  translation  was  also  made  by  Leo  Juda  (1525-29),  and, 
in  1G67,  a  new  or  revised  version  for  the  same  church  was 
published  at  Zurich.  Luther's  version  was  also  revised  and 
published  by  the  Zuinglians  in  1679. 

The  Scriptures  were  translated  into  French  by  E.  P. 
Olivetan  (1535),  with  a  considerable  number  of 
references  from  the  LXX  placed  in  the  margin. 
This  version  was  corrected,  chiefly  as  to  the  language,  by 
Calvin  (1540) ;  again,  by  Bertram,  Beza,  and  others  (Geneva, 
1588) ;  and  has  since,  from  time  to  time,  undergone  other 
alterations  of  the  same  sort ;  the  revision  of  Ostervald  is  best 
known.  A  French  version  by  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant 
(1718)  was  published  at  Amsterdam,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  its  accuracy. 

By  order  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  a  version  was  made  into  the 

Dutch  language,  in  place  of  a  version  made  from 

Luther's,   which   had   been   used   till  then.      This 

version  was  printed  in  1637,  and   is   highly  valued   for  its 

fidelity. 

There  are  two  versions  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Spanish  ; 
Spanish.       the  one  made  by  a  Romanist  (Reyna),  Basil,  1569,^ 


ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — ETYMOLOGY.  217 

and  the  other  by  a  Protestant  (Valera),  Amsterdam, 
1602.  They  are  founded  chiefly  on  the  Latin  version  of 
Pagninus,  and  the  second  partly  on  the  Genevan-French 
Bibles.  There  are  also  three  Spanish  versions  made  from  the 
Vulgate  (1478,  1793-4,  1824). 

The  best  Italian  version  is  that  of  Diodati  (afterwards 
translated  into  French),  1607.     It  follows  both  the 

' '  Italian. 

LXX  and  the  Hebrew,  and  is  free,  accurate,  and 
clear. 

In  opposition  to  the  vernacular  versions  of  Protestants, 
Popish  versions  have  been  made  into  nearly  all  the  preceding 
languages,  generally  from  the  Vulgate. 

318.  All  these  versions,  however,  and  especially  the  earliest 
of  them,  are  inferior  to  a  good  modern  lexicon,  ^j^^j^.  ^^^^^^ 
Most  of  them  were  made  under  peculiar  influences  p^^gt^lfj^ 
and  amidst  many  difficulties.  A  modern  lexico- 
grapher has  larger  helps,  a  more  certain  text,  and  the  very 
apparatus  which  these  versions  themselves  supply.  So  that, 
not  to  excel  with  all  these  advantages  on  his  side  would  prove 
him  to  be  incompetent  or  careless. 

319.  iii.  In  further  investigating  the  meaning,  we  may 
seek  for  help  from  the  words   themselves,  their 

Help  from 

etymology,  the  analogy  of  speech,  and  the  meaning  Uie  words 

.  .  .  tliems6lv6s, 

of  similar  words  in  cognate  dialects. 

320.  (1.)  Etymology  traces  the  progress  of  the  meaning  of 
words,   the  changes  of  form  which  they  undergo, 

and  points  out  the  significance  of  their  several  y^^'^sy- 
parts.  It  often  gives  the  true  meaning,  explains  the  allu- 
sions of  the  context,  and  accounts  for  the  rendering  of  ancient 
versions. 

In  Genesis,  the  "firmament"  should  be  translated  "expanse  "  con- 
trary to  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and  English ;  the  root  meaning  to 
beat  or  spread  out. 

The  Hebrew  phrase  for  "making  a  covenant,"  refers  to  the  stroke 
that  smote  the  victim,  whose  death  confirmed  it. 

i(ixu(,  a  priest,  is  so  called,  from  the  fact  that  he  attends  to  sacred 
19 


218  ORIGINAL   SCRIPTURES — ETYMOLOGY. 

things,  or  because  he  sacrifices  to  God,  lipa  'fi^uv,  in  the  sense  of  S-yar. 
So  facere,  for  sacrificare,  Virgil  Ec,  iii.,  77,  and  niaj-  asa,  for  "offer," 
Lev.  ix.  6,  16:  Numb,  xxviii.  24. 

The  original  word  for  "minister,"  in  Heb.  viii.  2,  means,  in  classic 
Greek,  one  who  performs  a  public  work  at  his  own  cost ;  or,  regarding 
the  whole  phrase  as  a  Latinism  (Antistes  Sacrorum),  it  indicates  that 
our  Lord  presides  over  the  worship  of  the  church,  and  presents  it  ac- 
ceptably through  his  intercession. 

The  Hebrew  word  for  "to  make  atonement"  ("iBq  kipper)  means, 
properly,  to  "cover  over"  sin,  or  expiate;  and,  secondarily,  to  propi- 
tiate, I.  e,  to  remove  the  displeasure  of  another  in  relation  to  it.  The 
corresponding  word  in  the  LXX  and  New  Testament  (iKda-nc/uoj)  means, 
first,  to  propitiate,  and  secondarily,  to  atone  for.  Both  ideas  aie 
involved  in  each  word,  and  are  sometimes  fully  expressed 

The  Greek  word  for  "to  sacrifice"  (dvuv)  means,  in  Homer,  to  burn 
wine  or  food  in  the  fire  as  an  offering,  and  in  later  writers,  to  sacrifice, 
properly  so  called.  From  this  double  meaning  we  have  two  sets  of 
Greek  words,  the  one  referring  to  the  slaying  of  victims,  Q-ua,  dva-isi,  and 
the  other  to  the  sweet  odors,  or  incense,  which  were  offered  to  God 
(dv/uia/uA,  thus),  and  sometimes  both  ideas  are  combined,  Lev.  iv  31: 
Eph.  V.  2.  Hence,  also,  S-yai  is  used  to  translate  two  different  Hebrew 
words,  meaning,  respectively,  to  sacrifice  and  to  burn  sweet  incense,  1 
Bam.  iii.  14:  2  Chron.  xxv.  14;  xxviii.  3  :  Jer.  i.  16;  xliv.  5. 

Nearly  all  the  names  in  Hebrew  are  significant,  and  a  knowledge 
of  their  meaning  throws  light  upon  the  context.  The  prophecies 
of  Jacob  concerning  his  sons  refer  m  a  great  degree  to  their  names, 
chap.  xlix.  compared  with  chaps,  xxix  ,  xxx.  See  also  Ruth  i.  20: 
Gen.  iv   16. 

So  the  meaning  of  Prov  xxv.  21,  22,  and  Rom.  xii.  20,  "heap  coals 
of  fire,"  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  firir  chatha,  means,  etymologi- 
cally,  to  apply  fire,  and  thence  to  soften. 

The  rendering  of  the  LXX  and  Vulgate  in  Psa.  vii.  14,  etc.,  is  owing 
to  their  translating  etymologically ,  and  so  elsewhere,  hter^'./utu  is  an 
etymological  translation  of  the  Hebrew  word  ni-ijt,-!,  heezin,  Lev.  xiv. 

52,  as  TpifxifKH,  'Cina.  shillesh.  Dent.  xix.  3.  "To  stir  up,"  in  2  Tim.  i. 
6,  means,  in  the  Greek,  to  blow  fire  into  a  flame,  i.ya^cuT'^jfUY. 

In  the  use  of  the  English  version,  of  course,  etymology  is 
allowable  as  a  guide  to  the  sense  only  when  the  etymology  of 
the  English  corresponds  with  the  etymology  of  the  original: 
Gospel,  lor    example,  =  t^a^ysAtov;    crucify  =  arctvpoai;    pre- 


OKIGINAL   SCRIPTURES — ANALOGY.  219 

determine  =  w-poopi^w  ;  mediator  fjt.i<rirrii  =  intercessor,  one 
who  acts  for  another  especially  to  produce  harmony  between 
parties.  It  is  an  important  principle,  that  etymology  does 
not  of  itself  fix  the  meaning,  except  where  usage  is  either 
doubtful  or  silent;  and  it  is  always,  from  the  changes  of 
meaning  which  words  undergo,  an  uncertain  guide. 

321.  (2.)  Analogy  fixes  the  meaning  of  one  form  of  a  word 
from  the  known  meaning  of  the  similar  form  of  an-        ,     , 

"  .  Analogy. 

other  Avord,  or  of  one  word  from  the  meaning  of  some 
opposite  or  corresponding  one. 

If,  in  reading  Hebrew,  for  example,  we  meet  with  a  noun  ending  in 
(i),  we  may  conclude,  from  the  general  meaning  of  that  ending,  that  it 
is  probably  an  ordinal  number  or  a  patronymic:  if  we  meet  with  a 
verbal  noun  beginning  with  (^),  it  indicates  probably  an  act,  or  the 
place  where  some  act  is  performed ;  such  being,  for  the  most  part,  the 
meaning  of  this  preform ative. 

Commonly,  the  Hiphil  forms  of  verbs  are  causative  of  the  Kal,  as 
j^^"^.  yatsa,  "to  go  out,"  and  in  Hiphil,  "to  bring  out;"  '1^5^,  abhad, 

'  T  "    ^ 

"to  perish,"  and  in  Hilphil,  "to  destroy."  If,  therefore,  we  meet  with 
a  verb  in  Hiphil,  it  has  probably  a  causative  meaning;  though  there 
are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

The  Hiphil  forms  of  the  Old  Testament  the  LXX  found  it  difficult 
to  translate  without  a  paraphrase,  and  hence  that  version  sometimes 
uses  a  neuter  verb  in  an  active  sense.  Gen.  ii.  9  ;  iv.  11 ;  xix.  24 :  Numb. 
vi.  25;  xxxiv.  17,  and  the  New  Testament,  as  may  be  supposed,  often 
employs  the  same  form  for  the  same  purpose. 

Matt.  V.45,  literally,  "he  rises,"  "he  rains;"  i,e.,  "he  causes  to  rise," 
and  "causes  to  rain."  1  Cor.  iii.  6,  "increased;"  i.e.,  "gave  the  in- 
crease." Luke  xi.  53,  not  "they  began  to  speak  off  hand,"  or  "to  si- 
lence," but  rather,  "they  caused  Christ  to  speak  off  hand;"  i.  e.,  "they 
provoked  him  to  speak."  2  Cor.  ii.  14,  literally,  "  to  triumph,"  or  "to 
lead  captive,"  as  in  Col.  ii.  15;  rather,  as  in  the  English,  "to  cause  to 
triumph." 

That  "folly"  means  sin  in  Gen.  xxxiv.  7:  Deut.  xxi.  21  :  Josh.  vii. 
15:  2  Sam.  xiii.  15,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  "wisdom" 
means,  in  various  parts  of  Scripture,  "uprightness"  or  "piety." 

Matt.  vi.  2,  5,  16,  aTri^oviri  <t6v  /uktBov  has  been  translated,  "they  hin- 
der, or  fail  of  their  reward"  (Gerard),  and  uTri^^o/utt  is  used  in  the  sense 
ot  abstaining  from;  o^o;^'),  however,  the  noun,  means  a  receipt  in  full. 


220  OETGINAL    SCEIPTTJRES — COGNATE   LANGTJAOES. 

and  hence  the  phrase  may  be  taken  to  mean,  "they  have  their  reward;" 
that  is,  "all  they  will  ever  get." 

In  Matt.  vi.  11,  s^wi/V/iv  has  been  variously  rendered;  it  does  not 
occur  in  the  LXX,  and  is  a  very  rare  word.  It  has  been  translated, 
"necessary  for  our  subsistence"  (Vulgate),  "suitable  for  our  subsist- 
ence" (Macknight),  "sufficient  for  the  morrow,  or  for  future  life"  (Gro- 
tius):  the  meaning,  however,  is  fixed  by  an  analogous  expression: 
wipiova-iov  means  more  than  enough,  and  as  itti  often  indicates  equality  or 
adaptedness,  iTrtovtriov  means  "just  enough,"  a  translation  which  agrees 
with  the  context. 

322.  (3.)  We  may  compare  the  words  in  Scripture  with. 
Upa<^ein  ^^®  Same  words  in  cognate  languages.  The  value 
cognate        of  coqno.te  languae-es,  though  sometimes  underrated, 

languages.  c'  d       d      '  o  » 

has  been  exaggerated.  By  modern  lexicographers 
they  are  apphed  within  proper  limits,  and  are  of  use  chiefly 
when  ancient  versions  difier,  and  Avhere  we  have  not,  in 
Hebrew,  materials  sufficient  for  defining  the  meaning  of 
terms, 

[a).  They  give  the  roots  of  words,  the  derivatives  of  which  alone  are 
found  in  Scripture,  and  thus  aid  to  a  consistent  meaning. 

lIT^St.  aithan,  for  example,  is  a  somewhat  rare  word,  translated 
"mighty  stream"  (i.e.,  ever-flowing),  Amos  v.  24:  "mighty  waters" 
(ever-flowing),  Psa.  Ixxiv.  15:  "strength"  (constant  flowing),  Exod. 
xiv.  27:  "strong"  (durable),  Micah  vi.  2:  "mighty"  (prosperous).  Job 
xii.  19:  so  Numb.  xxiv.  21  :  Jer.  xlix.  19.  The  Arabic  root  means  "to 
continue  running;"  then,  "to  continue"  generally,  i.e.,  "to  endure;" 
then,  "to  be  inexhaustibly  rich :"  bence  the  apparently  contradictory 
meanings  of  the  texts  in  which  the  derivative  is  found. 

(6)  They  fix- meanings  which  might  otherwise  have  been  only  con- 
jectural. 

abS'  balag,  for  example,  occurs  four  times  in  Iliphil :  Job.  ix.  27, 
"comfort  myself:"  x.  20,  'take  rest:"  Psa.  xxxix.  13,  "recover 
strength:"  Amos  v.  9,  "that  strengtheneth,"  the  versions  are  alto- 
gether uncertain.  The  Arabic  root  means  "to  shine  like  the  dawn;" 
"to  be,  or  to  render,  clear  and  serene;"  and  that  sense  meets  the  re- 
quirements of  all  the  passages.  In  the  same  way,  many  of  the  plants 
and  minerals  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  identified. 

(c).  They  discover  the  primary  meaning  of  roots  whose  secondary 


ORIGINAL   SCRIPTURES — CLASSICAL   USAGE.  221 

senses  only  are  found  in  Scripture,  though  the  primaiy  throws  light  on 
some  texts. 

^-;3,  gadhal,  for  example,  means  "to  be  great,"  but,  in  Arabic,  "to 

twist,"  and  so,  "to  make  great  or  strong;"  hence  a  noun  formed  from 
it  means  "fringes,"  Deut.  xxii.  12;  "twisted  thread,"  or  "chain  work," 
1  Kings  vii.  17.  Another  noun,  similarly  formed,  means  "brawnine.'s," 
Exod.  XV.  16;  and  the  verb  is  used  in  its  primitive  sense  in  Job  vii.  17, 
"to  struggle,"  or  "wrestle;"  English,  "magnify."     So  jp"ii:,  Tsadak, 

means  "to  be  just;"  m  Arabic,  to  be  "stiff,"  "inexorable,"  "unbend- 
ing:" hence,  in  Isa.  xlix.  24,  "the  lawful  captive"  ought  to  be  "the 
captive  of  the  inexorable  ones ;"  see  ver.  25. 

(d)  They  explain  idiomatic  phrases,  the  true  sense  of  which  cannot 
otherwise  be  determined. 

See  on  all  this  paragraph  Gerard's  "  Institutes."  These  last 
examples  are  taken  chiefly  from  Schultens.  A  large  number 
may  be  found  also  in  the  Lexicon  of  "  Gesenius." 

In  applying  these  principles  to  the  New  Testament,  there 
are  modifications  of  them  which  are  rendered  necessary  by 
the  nature  of  the  Greek  tongue,  the  large  critical  apparatus 
we  already  possess  in  classic  authors,  and  the  connection 
through  the  LXX  between  the  New  Testament  and  the 
language  of  the  Old. 

323.  iv.  In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  we  may  seek 
the   meaning  of  its  words   and   phrases  in   classic 

,  1  *  Classic 

authors.  usage. 

w/Vt/c,  which  commonly  means  "faith,"  is  used  in  the  sense  of  proof, 
Acts  xvii.  31 ;  so  Aristotle,  Polyb. 

iva.yyfKoxjucu  means,  by  itself,  "to  announce,"  and  so  "to  promise:" 
followed  by  certain  nouns,  it  means  to  "profess"  (1  Tim.  ii.  10).  The 
word  is  regularly  used  for  professing  an  art  or  science,  Diog.  Laert., 
Proem.  5,  12:  Xen.  Mem.  i.  2,  7. 

7ra.pa,  in  Composition,  often  means  in  the  Greek  Testament  "by  the 
way,"  Eom.  v.  20;  or  "secretly,"  Gal.  ii.  14.  Jude  iv.;  a  usage  found 
in  classic  authors,  Polyb.,  Herodian,  Plut. 

TO  tm^dxKciv  uipoc,  Luke  xv.  12,  is  a  legal  phrase,  indicating  the  share 
which  fell  to  a  man  as  heir ;  the  use  of  the  word  here  shows  how  com- 
pletely the  prodigal  son  was  estranged  from  all  filial  feelings. 

'eri0dx:.v  'iicxutev,  Mark  xiv.  72,  'when  he  thought  thereon,"  rather, 
19*  ^ 


222  ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — JOSEPHUS. 

"  having  rushed  out ;"  and  so  it  agrees  with  Matthew  and  Luke,  Polyb. 

«;ta)v  if  tS  ds-diviioL,  John  v.  5,  is  classic  Greek  for  "  to  be  ill ;"  so  that, 
when  these  words  are  translated  "  there  was  a  sick  man  thirty-eight 
years  old"  (Paulus),  the  rendering  is  contrary  to  Greek  usage. 

The  apparently  incomplete  sentences  in  Luke  xiii.  9 :  xix.  42 ;  xxii. 
42  (Gr.),  are  all  good  Greek ;  the  custom  being,  frequently,  to  omit  the 
apodosis  (or  conclusion)  of  a  sentence  after  si  or  idir,  when  the  meaning 
is  clear,  Raphel. 

Bos,  Eisner,  Kypke,  Grotius,  Wolf,  Wetstein,  Raphel,  have  largely 
illustrated  the  phraseology  of  the  New  Testament  from  classic  sources ; 
Kypke  and  Raphel  from  particular  authors,  and  the  rest  from  classic 
authorities  generally. 

324.  V.   Or  we  may  turn  to  the  works  of  Josephus  and 

Philo,  which  in  this  respect  are  not  unimportant. 

Usage  in  '  •■■  •'• 

Josephus 

and  Philo.  jufTiapi^i^Bau  means,   etymologically,  to  hang  up  in  the 

air ;  but  it  is  used  both  by  Philo  and  Josephus  for  "  to  be  of  doubtful 

mind,"  as  in  the  New  Testament. 

uTTceTTidi^iiv,  literally,  to  "hit  under  the  eyes"  (Luke  xviii.  5 :  1  Cor. 
ix.  27),  means,  generally,  "to  harass,"  "to  afflict." 

itfxfAifiiu,  Luke  i.  5,  translated  "  course,"  means  the  daily  service  of 
the  temple,  which  was  discharged  by  bands  of  priests  in  rotation  (Jos.), 

Kp'm;  (judgment).  Matt.  v.  31,  was  the  name  given  to  the  court  of 
seven  magistrates,  who  had  the  power  of  punishing  small  offences 
(Jos.). 

iyK-j-ivix.  (the  renewal),  John  x.  22,  is  the  term  used  by  Philo  as 
appropriate  to  express  the  feast  of  the  Dedication  held  on  the  25  Kisleu; 
as  vna-Tiia.  is  the  fast  connected  with  the  day  of  Atonement,  10  Tisri. 
Acts  xxvii.  9. 

All  these  phrases,  and  many  others,  are  peculiar  to  Jewish  writers. 
For  ample  illustration,  see  Ott.  (Excerpta  ex  F.  Josepho),  Krebsii 
(Obs.  ex  F.  Josepho),  and  Loesneri  (Ob.  ex  Philone). 

325.  vi.  Especially    useful    shall    we    find    a   reference    to 

Semitic    languages,   including   the   Hebrew,    from 
brew  in  ex-    which,  indeed,  many  New  Testament  phrases  are 

plaining  , 

New  Testa-   taken. 

ment 
phrases. 

Hebraisms  may  be  seen  in  Heb.  i.  2,  o.Uv^'q'^^^,  olam; 

sipjw  often  r=  Q^UJ,  shalom,  "all  blessing,"  Mark  v.  34:   Luke  vii.  50; 

"peace  to  you"  being  the  Hebrew  form  of  "salutation,"'  as  X"'P^^  is  the 


ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — GLOSSES.  223 

Greek,  Jas.  i.  1 :  sometimes  iipiiv>i  is  used  in  the  Greek  sense  for  peace, 
Luke  xiv.  32,  and  sometimes  in  the  Christian  sense,  Rom.  ii.  10 :  Luke 
xix.  42 :  i^-^jucMyeicrB^t  (n"lfn)>  "  ^0  acknowledge  the  qualities  of  another ;" 
BO  as  "  to  praise,"  Matt.  xi.  25  :  ^ro/jgJss-fli/,  to  indicate  a  "  mode  of  life  :" 
«i,  after  verbs  of  swearing,  =  not,  Mark  viii.  12 :  Heb.  iv.  3,  5 :  *uvajK» 
means  "  straits,  calamity,"  Luke  xxi.  23 :  Cor.  vii.  26  •  tU  rov  alZvA,  tcuc 
alZvx;  zz=  "  for  ever,"  "  to  taste  death,"  Ma-tt.  xvi.  28  :  heaven,  for  God, 
Dan.  iv.  23 :  see  22 :  Matt.  xxi.  25 :  Luke  xv.  21 :  *o<p£i'x«^i  ct<pUvxt  = 
"to  forgive  sins:"  Jiav  and  xt^ai' (^OK  JS^Tli.  shere  esar),  "to  forbid  and 
to  appoint:"  "to  die  in  sin,"  John  viii.  21,  24 — "to  perish  be- 
cause of  sin"  (Lev.  v.  6):  /^o/;^oc,  used  spiritually  after  the  Hebrew 
(j-jif'  zone),  not  literally,  as  in  Greek,  Jas.  iv.  4,  are  all  Hebraisms : 

though  some  (*)  marked  are  found  in  classic  authors,  and  are  therefore 
called  imperfect  Hebraisms.  So  Acts  xix.  6;  xxiv.  4;  ii.  14:  Jas.  ii. 
9:  Matt.  XV.  2:  Mark  vii.  22,  "evil"  is  —  envious. 

For  other  Aramaean  expressions,  see  §  39.  The  Hebraisms  of  the 
New  Testament  are  fully  illustrated  in  the  works  of  Lightfoot,  the  sup- 
plementary volumes  of  Schoetgenius,  and  in  the  Commentary  of  Gill. 
Koppe's  Commeutary  on  the  New  Testament  (from  Acts  to  Rev.)  is 
very  valuable  for  giving  the  results  of  the  inquiries  of  his  predecessors 
in  this  department. 

526.  vii.  Nor  is  it  unimportant,  in  ascertaining  the  mean- 
ing of  w^ords,  to  consult  ancient  scholiasts  and  glosses,  and  the 
writings  of  the  early  fathers.  The  first  two  give  the  meaning 
generally,  without  supplying  evidence  or  proof  passages,  and 
the  second  give  professed  interpretations  of  Scripture  lan- 
guage. 

Hesychius,  for  example,  explains  the  "  tittles"  of  the  law,  by  calling 
them  the  marks  made  in  beginning  to  write  letters  (^upx^  >/'«,"/"*TOf)i  Matt. 
v.  18  ;  and  Suidas  explains  0iLTTcKoyi7v  by  "  wordiness,"  or  "  much  speak- 
ing" {TT'^wKcyta.),  vi.  7. 

[xwyifir^i  is  explained  by  Clem.  Rom.  (1  Cor.)  as  a  revealed  secret. 

aiSevTWi'  uvifgoa-,  1  Tim.  ii.  12,  means,  etymologically,  to  kill  her  husband; 
but  Theophylact  explains  it,  "to  usurp  authority  over:"  so  the  Eng- 
lish version.  ei/Tp-z^rsxi'*  which  means,  properly,  "lively  discourse,"  is 
explained  by  Chrysostom  in  his  oration  on  this  subject,  and  by  Jerome, 
as  something  said  (generally  foolish  and  sinful)  to  provoke  a  laugh  ; 
"foolish  jesting"  gives,  therefore,  the  precise  meaning.     That  uvaW)-|/f, 


224       ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES— GLOSSES   AND   THE   LXX. 

Luke  ix.  51,  refers  to  our  Lord's  ascension  may  be  gathered  from  Acts 
i.  2,  and  it  is  proved  by  a  similar  use  of  this  phrase  in  the  Fathers. 

These  are  verbal  illustrations ;  doctrinal  illustrations  may  be  seen  in 
a  subsequent  Section. 

The  chief  Greek  glossaries  are  the  lexicons  of  Hesychius  (400),  Suidas 
(980),  and  Phavorinus  (L523) ;  the  Etymologicum  Magnum  (10th  cen- 
tury), with  the  woi'ks  of  Zonaras  (1118)  and  Photius  (850).  The 
glosses,  or  explanations  of  the  first  four,  so  far  as  the  New  Testament 
is  concerned,  were  edited  by  C.  G.  Ernesti,  1785-6,  and  those  of  Zonaras, 
in  1618.  Matth^i  (Mosc.  177-1-5,  Lips.  1779)  and  Alberti  (Lug.  Bat. 
1735)  have  also  published  glosses,  selected  from  the  margin  of  ancient 
manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. 

For  a  view  of  the  explanations,  given  in  the  Fathers,  of  New  Testa- 
ment terms,  see  by  far  the  completest  book  on  this  subject,  "  Suiceri 
Thes.  Eccl."  ii.  tom.  1728,  or  indexes  of  good  editions  of  the  Fathers 
themselves.  For  the  teachings  of  the  Fathers  on  books  or  parts  of 
Scripture,  see  the  compendious  collections  published  under  the  name  of 
Catenae;  some  of  their  comments  are  good,  many  trifling. 

327.  viii.  The  chief  help  to  the  study  of  the  New  Testa- 
„     .       „    ment,  however,  remains — the  version  of  the  LXX  : 

\  ei'sion  of  '  ' 

the  LXX.  words  and  phrases  being  often  taken  from  that 
version,  and  used  in  an  altogether  peculiar  sense. 

Siidmn,  for  example,  means  in  classic  Greek,  "  a  disposition  of  pro- 
perty," or  "a  will,"  but  in  the  LXX,  it  is  frequently  used  to  translate 
(n"^15i  Berith),  in  the  sense  of  "covenant"  or  "agreement  between 
parties,"  which  classic  authors  express  by  s-wSx'kk,  Gen.  xvii.  9,  10.  It 
is  applied  to  the  agreement  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech,  xxi. 
27-32 :  between  Laban  and  Jacob,  xxxi.  44  ;  compare  Deut.  vii.  9  ;  xvii. 
2;  xxix.  9:  Psa.  cxxxi.  12:  Christ  is  given  tk  JtxSiiit'v,  Isa.  xlii.  6; 
liii.  3. 

aA)i6a«,  "truth,"  is  used  for,  and  means,  "all  probity  or  holiness," 
Psa.  xxvi.  3;  Ixxxvi.  11,  and  also  "substance,"  as  opposed  to  "type  or 
shadow,"  John  i.  17:  Heb.  viii.  2. 

vci/uo(  =  HT^n.  the  whole  Mosaic  encomy,  Deut.  iv.  8,  44:  Matt.  v.  17; 

vii.  12:  John  i.  17. 

ervyn^iviiv  means  in  classic  Greek,  "to  confound,  or  mix ;"  in  the  LXX 
it  is  "  to  interpret,  or  explain,"  Gen.  xl.  8,  and  hence,  1  Cor.  ii.  13, 
"expounding  spiritual  things  by  spiritual,  or  to  spiritual." 

67ri  TO  wri  =  nn"'.  yachdav,  "  together,"  Matt.  xxii.  34  :  Acts  i.  15  :  2 
Sam.  ii.  13;  xix.  10. 


ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — THE    LXX.  225 

a-atra  o-ap|  oh  ^  "  no  flesh  shall,"  =  siib-b!3>  ^ol  lo,  Exod.  xii,  15,  43: 
sometimes  the  LXX  use  the  classic  phrase,  aCx.  ouSilc,  Exod.  x.  15. 

The  LXX  translate  riij^lsn.  ^^  the  sense  of  "sin  offering,"  to  rii; 
a/unprtA;,  Lev.  xviii.  25:  to  Trcpi  dyMagT/otc,  Lev.  v.  8  :  to  uTrip  a/ucifiTitc,  Lev. 
viii.  2 :  iKaajuo;,  Ezek.  xliv.  27,  and  hence  the  use  of  these  phrases  in 
the  New  Testament.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  noticed,  that 
flKton.  chatath,  means  both  "  an  act  of  sin"  and  "  a  sinful  disposition," 
as  does  d/uafirix.  The  New- Testament  has  no  distinct  phrase  corres- 
ponding to  th«  Latin  "  vitium,"  which  is  the  act,  and  "  vitiositas," 
which  is  the  disposition.     Compare  "  a  sin"  and  "  depravity." 

'O  ipx'f^^^f)  "  the  coming  one,"  is  the  LXX  translation  of  various 
passages,  which  refer  to  our  Lord,  and  hence  it  is  applied  frequently 
in  the  New  Testament  to  him,  Luke  iii.  19:  Heb.  x.  37:  not  "shall 
come,"  but  "is  coming,"  or  "  is  to  come,"  Rev.  i.  8.  , 

The  New  Testament  also  abounds  in  Hellenistic  constructions: 
Nouns  absolute  for  example,  Rev.  i.  4,  5;  ii.  20;  iii.  12:  unusual 
governments,  adj.  with  gen.  cases,  where  good  Greek  requires  no  prep., 
John  vi.  45,  and  the  contrary.  Matt,  xxvii.  24:  aro  in  the  sense  of  "by" 
or  "because,"  i?a,  min.  Matt.  xi.  19;  xviii.  7:  Gal.  i.  1 :  2  Cor.  iii.  18: 
Acts  xxii.  11. 

328.  The  reference  to  Hellenistic  usage,  may,  however,  be 
carried  to  an  extreme  :  Smaioavui),  for  example,  has  been  trans- 
lated "mercy"  in  Kom.  iii.  25,  26:  and  the  rendering  is 
defended  by  an  appeal  to  the  LXX,  where  it  is  used  for 
non,  chesedh.  The  LXX,  hoAvever,  itself  corrects  this  trans- 
lation. Nine  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  so  used  :  but 
seven  of  these  are  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  many  hundred 
times,  i.  e.,  nearly  always,  it  translates  righteousness  (pl2, 
Tsedek). 

329.  Perhaps  we  may  best  illustrate  the  connection  between 
the  Hebrew,  the  LXX,  and  the  New  Testament, 

by  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  various  Greek  pHeci  to  ex- 
words   applied  in    Scripture    to   the   work   of   our  eii'iation, 
Lord;  reconciliation,  propitiation,  expiation,  atone- 
ment, redemption,  satisfaction,  substitution,  and  salvation. 

(a.)  Looking  into  the  English  New  Testament,  we  find  "reconcilia- 
tion," and  "  reconcile"  in  several  passages,  in  all  of  which  (except  one,) 


226  THE    LXX — ATONEMENT,    ETC. 

the  Greek  word  is  some  form  of  a-Kxd<r<rui,  "  to  produce  a  change  between 

parties"  (when,  for  example,  they  have  been  at  variance) :  in  turning  to 
the  LXX,  we  find  this  word  never  used  in  this  sense  at  all,  nor  have 
the  many  passages  in  the  Old  Testament,  which  speak  of  "making 
reconciliation,"  any  verbal  reference  to  these  passages  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  idea  is  involved  in  several  passages,  but  it  is  never  ex- 
pressed by  this  word,  nor  by  any  single  word.  "  To  turn  away  anger," 
"to  restore  to  favor,"  "to  accept,"  are  the  common  expressions; 
generally  forms  of  riS^-  ratsa,  and  e/atTov,  Isa.  Ivi.  7  ;  Ix.  7 :  Jer.  vi.  20  : 

T      T 

Lev.  xix.  7.  Hence  the  important  conclusion,  that  in  the  word  of  the 
New  Testament  translated  "  reconcile,"  there  is  reference  only  to  the 
change  or  effect  produced  by  some  measure  of  mercy,  and  not  to  the 
nature  of  that  measure  itself:  it  describes  merely  the  change  produced 
in  our  relation  to  God,  his  moral  sentiment  of  displeasure  against  sin 
(called  his  "  wrath")  is  appeased,  and  the  sinner's  enmity  and  misgivings 
are  removed.  That  there  is  this  double  change,  may  be  gathered  from 
the  following  passages,  Heb.  x.  26,  27 :  Eom.  v.  9 :  Heb.  ix.  26,  28 :  2 
Cor.  V.  18-20  :  Eph.  ii.  16 :  1  Cor.  vii.  11 :  Col.  i.  20,  21. 

(b.)  In  one  passage,  however,  Heb.  ii.  17,  we  have  in  Greek  another 
word  ]K^<nLOfAnu,  translated  also  "  make  reconciliation."  Its  meaning  may 
be  gathered  from  an  examination  of  the  passages  in  the  Old  Testament, 
in  which  it  occurs.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  constant  rendering  of  a  word 
translated  in  the  English  version,  "  to  make  reconciliation,"  or  "  to 
atone  for,"  Lev.  vi.  30;  viii.  15:  Ezek.  xlv.  20-  Dan.  ix.  24,  etc. 

(c.)  But  it  would  excite  surprise,  if  this  were  the  only  passage  in  the 
New  Testament  where  this  phrase  is  found.  It  occurs  again,  in  fact,  in 
Eom.  iii.  25:  1  John  ii.  2;  iv.  10,  but  in  each  of  these  passages  it  is 
translated  propitiation,  a  word  which  does  not  occur  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Expiation,  again,  does  not  occur  in  the  New,  and  but 
once  in  the  Old,  Numb,  xxxiii.  35;  it  is  the  same  word,  however,  as  is 
translated  elsewhere,  "  to  make  reconciliation,"  or ' "  to  atone  for." 
Atonement,  itself,  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testament,  except  in 
Bom.  V.  2,  and  there  it  has  no  connection  with  the  Old  Testament 
phrase,  but  is  the  same  word  as  is  translated  "reconciliation"  in  the 
first  sense  above  indicated,  a  change,  that  is,  of  state,  between  parties 
previously  at  variance. 

{d.)  Thus  far,  therefore,  the  result  is  clear.  Reconciliation  and 
atonement  are,  in  all  the  New  Testament,  except  Heb.  ii.  17,  transla- 
tions of  the  same  word,  and  mean  the  state  of  friendship  and  accept- 
ance into  which  the  Gospel  introduces  us.  "  Reconciliation,"  in  the  sense 
in  which   it  is  used  in  Heb.  ii.  17,  and  "  atonement,"  in  the  uniform 


THE   LXX — ATONEMENT,    ETC,  227 

sense  of  the  Old  Testament,  "propitiation"  in  the  New  Testament, and 
"expiation"  in  the  Old,  are  all  different  renderings  of  one  and  the  same 
Hebrew  and  Greek  words  "^53,  kippfer,  and  \^iKxax.ofji.ut,  in  some  of  their 

forms.  These  words,  which  may  be  regarded  as  one,  have  two  senses, 
each  involving  the  other.  They  mean  to  appease,  pacify,  or  propi- 
tiate, Gen.  xxxiii.  20:  Prov.  xvi.  14:  Ezek.  xvi.  63  ;  and  also  to  clear 
from  guilt,  1  Sam.  iii.  14;  Psa.  Ixv.  3:  Prov.  xvi.  6;  Isa.  vi.  7,  etc. 
In  propitiation,  we  have  prominence  given  to  the  first  idea,  in  expiation, 
to  the  second ;  in  atonement,  we  have  a  distinct  reference  to  both. 

(e)  The  thing  which  atones,  propitiates,  or  expiates,  is  called  in 
Greek,  IxAo-fxii,  i^iKa<rfji.a(,  and  xut^cv,  all  translations  of  two  derivates  of 
the  Hebrew  word  ^53  (d'^^SS.  kephurim,  and  "733,  kopher),  i.  e., 
price  or  covering. 

(/.)  The  use  of  xuTpov  for  '-|03,  introduces  another  form  of  expression, 
"redemption."  This  word,  as  a  noun,  always  represents  in  the  New 
Testament,  m/t/ju's-k  or  aTroKuTfOKJU.  Both  are  descriptive  of  the  act  of 
procuring  the  liberation  of  another,  by  paying  some  xi/Vpiv  or  aTroiva.,  i.  e., 
"ransom,"  or  "forfeit,"  and  hence  always  in  the  New  Testament,  of 
the  state  of  being  ransomed  in  this  way. 

These  words  mean  (1,)  to  buy  back,  by  paying  the  price,  what  has 
been  sold,  Lev.  xxv.  25,  and  (2,)  to  redeem  what  has  been  devoted,  by 
substituting  something  else  in  its  place,  Lev.  xxvii.  27 ;  Exod.  xiii.  13  : 
Psa.  Ixxii.  14 ;  Psa.  exxx.  8  :  Isa.  Ixiii.  9. 

The  price  paid  is  called  kvtp<tv,  (Matt.  xx.  28  :  Mark  x.  45,)  avrixvriioY, 
(1  Tim.  ii.  6,)  the  Hebrew  terms  being  (-1^543,  Geulla,  and  '^'^tiS, 
Phidyon,  answering  precisely  to  m/t^ov  and  "1&3,  which  again  answers 

to  (K^iTixK.     In  1  Tim.  ii.  6,  this  ransom  is  said  to  be  Christ  himself. 

"  Redemption,"  therefore,  is  generally  a  state  of  deliverance,  by 
means  of  ransom.  Hence  it  is  used  to  indicate  deliverance  from  pun- 
ishment or  guilt,  Eph.  i.  7 :  Col.  i.  14 ;  sanctification,  which  is  deliver- 
ance from  the  dominion  of  sin,  1  Pet.  i.  18  ;  the  resurrection,  which  is  the 
actual  deliverance  of  the  body  from  the  grave,  the  consequence  of  sin, 
Rom.  viii.  23 ;  completed  salvation,  which  is  actual  deliverance  from 
all  evil,  Eph.  i.  14;  iv.  30:  1  Cor.  i.  30:  Tit.  ii.  14. 

Once  it  is  used  without  reference  to  sin,  Heb.  xi.  35,  and  perhaps  in 
Luke  xxi.  28. 

{g.)  Another  word,  translated  "  redemption"  {uyofai^m),  Gal.  iii.  13 ; 
iv.  5 :  Rev.  V.  9 ;  xiv.  3,  4,  means,  as  it  is  everywhere  translated,  to  buy, 
referring  to  a  purchase  made  in  the  market.  What  is  paid  in  this  case, 
is  called  t^^«  (price,)  and  this  price  is  said  to  be  Christ,  Gal.  iii.  13  ;  or 
his  blood,  Rom.  v.  9.     lu  Acts  xx.  28,  the  word  rendered  "purchase" 


228  THE    LXX — ATONEMENT,    ETC. 

{TTifiiTroiuSui),  has  no  reference  to  redemption,  or  to  price,  but  means 
simply  "acquired  for  himself:"  the  following  words,  however,  indicate 
that  the  sense  is  not  materially  different  from  purchasing,  as  that  term 
is  used  elsewhere. 

(A.)  The  word  "satisfaction,"  is  not  found  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  it  occurs  twice  in  the  Old,  Numb.  xxxv.  31,  32.  It  is  there  a  trans- 
lation of  '155  or  h-uTOA,  "that  which  expiates,"  or  "ransoms."     The  use 

of  these  terms  in  reference  to  the  New  Testament  doctrine,  implies  that 
what  was  done  and  paid  in  the  death  of  our  Lord  was  in  every  respect 
sufficient:  it  accomplished  our  pardon,  and  answered  all  the  moral  pur- 
poses which  God  deemed  necessary,  under  a  system  of  holy  law. 

(i.)  The  word  "substitution"  is  not  found  in  either  Testament,  but 
the  idea  is  frequently  expressed  in  both :  "  it  shall  be  accepted  roa 
him,"  Lev.  i.  4;  vii.  18,  is  the  Old  Testament  phrase,  and  the  New  cor- 
responds. There  we  find  in  frequent  use,  vTrip  and  avri,  the  former 
meaning  "  on  behalf  of,"  "for,"  and  "  instead,"  and  the  latter  meaning 
undoubtedly  "instead  of."  Much  stress  ought  not  to  be  laid  upon  the 
first  of  these  terms,  as  it  is  frequently  used  where  it  may  mean  "for 
the  advantage  of,"  Bom.  viii.  26,  31 :  2  Cor.  i.  2 :  yet  in  John  xv.  13, 
and  1  John  iii.  16,  it  seerns  to  mean  "  instead  of:"  and  this  is  certainly 
the  meaning  of  avri,  Matt.  xx.  28  :  Mark  x.  45 :  see  Matt.  ii.  22,  "in  the 
room  of."  Apart,  however,  from  particular  prepositions,  three  sets  of 
phrases  clearly  teach  this  doctrine. 

(1.)  Christ  was  made  a  curse  for  ^ls,  Gal.  iii.  13 ;  so  a  similar  phrase, 
2  Cor.  v.  21. 

(2.)  He  gave  himself  as  a  sacrifice  for  our  sins,  1  Cor.  xv.  3 :  Eph.  v. 
2:  Gal.  i.  4:  1  Tim.  ii.  6,  14:  Heb.  vii.  27;  v.  1,  3 ;  x.  12:  Rom.  v. 
6-8:  1  Cor.  i.  13;  v.  7;  xi.  24:  1  Pet.  iii.  18;  iv.  1. 

(3.)  Christ  gave  his  life  for  our  life,  or  we  live  by  his  death.  Gal.  ii. 
20:  Rom.  xiv.  15:  2  Cor.  v.  15.  Compare  Rom.  xvi.  4:  Isa.  liii.  45. 
The  idea  of  substitution  is  in  all  these  passages,  and  the  phrase,  though 
not  Scriptural,  is  a  convenient  summary  of  them  all. 

(j.)  "Salvation"  is  everywhere  in  the  New  Testament  the  representa- 
tive of  o-aiTufia.  or  (TUTti^icv.  a-ayrnpid  is  always  translated  "salvation," 
except  in  three  passages  (Acts  vii.  25 ;  xxvii.  34,  and  Heb.  xi.  7,  where- 
it  refers  to  temporal  deliverance),  and  the  idea  included  in  the  term  is, 
whatever  blessings  redemption  includes, — but  without  any  reference 
to  xv'rpov,  or  anything  else  as  the  ground  of  them.  It  includes  present 
deliverance,  Luke  xix.  9,  or  future,  Phil.  i.  19:  Rom.  xiii.  11.  "Salva- 
tion," therefore,  is  the  state  into  which  the  Gospel  introduces  all  who 
believe,  and  without  reference  to  the  means  used,  a  price  paid.     Such 


THE    LXX — ATONEMENT,   ETC.  229 

is  the  conclusion  to  which  etymology  'and  New  Testament  usage 
leads. 

On  turning  to  the  LXX,  however,  we  find  that  the  idea  of  propitia- 
tion is  involved  even  here.  a-a>T)ificv  is  very  frequently  the  translation 
of  fti^,  shelem  (nat>  zebhach),  peace-offering,  Q-yo-/*  aceriipiis,  Lev.  iii. 
1-3  ;  iv.  10  ;  vii.  20 ;  xi.  4 :  Judg.  xx.  26  ;  xxi.  4.  Q^iy  (shelem),  is  the 
sacrifice  or  retribution,  restoring  peace ;  and  thus  the  meaning  of 
o-ai'nipiiv  touches  upon  the  meaning  of  propitiation. 

{k.)  From  this  comparison,  therefore,  of  the   New  Testament,  the 

LXX,  and  the  Hebrew,  we  gather  the  following  conclu-  ^      ,    . 

°  °  Conclusions, 

sions. 

Propitiation,  giving  prominence  to  the  secondary  meaning  of  '-|B3, 
Kipper,  and  the  primary  meaning  of  t^iKaa-nc/uau,  is  an  act  prompting  to 
the  exercise  of  mercy,  and  providing  for  its  exercise  in  a  way  consistent 
■with  justice. 

Expiation,  giving  prominence  to  the  primary  rneaning  of  "^QS,  and 
the  secondary  meaning  of  'i^iKoLa-^ojuat,  is  an  act  which  provides  for  the 
removal  of  sin,  and  cancels  the  obligation  to  punishment. 

Atonement,  giving  prominence  to  both,  and  meaning  expiation  and 
propitiation  combined. 

Christ's  atonement  is  said  to  be  by  substitution,  for  he  suffered  in  our 
stead,  and  he  bears  our  sin;  and  it  is  by  satisfaction,  for  the  broken 
law  is  vindicated,  all  the  purposes  of  punishment  are  answered  with 
honor  to  the  Lawgiver,  and  eventual  holiness  to  the  Christian.  •  Its 
result  is  reconciliation  {x.cLTdiKKa.y)i) ;  the  moral  sentiment  of  justice  in 
God  is  reconciled  to  the  sinner,  and  provision  is  made  for  the  removal 
of  our  enmity ;  and  it  is  redemption,  or  actual  deliverance,  for  a  price, 
from  sin  in  its  guilt  and  dominion,  from  all  misery,  and  from  death. 

Salvation  is  also  actual  deliverance,  but  without  a  distinct  reference 
to  a  price  paid.  Atonement,  therefore,  is  something  offered  to  God; 
redemption  or  salvation  is  something  bestowed  upon  man :  atonement 
is  the  ground  of  redemption,  and  redemption  is  the  result  of  atonement 
(Isa.  liii.  4-9,  10,  12).  The  design  of  the  first  is  to  satisfy  God's  jus- 
tice, the  design  of  the  second  to  make  man  blessed ;  the  first  was  finished 
upon  the  cross,  the  second  is  in  daily  operation,  and  will  not  be  com- 
pleted, in  the  case  of  the  whole  church,  till  the  consummation  of  all 
things,  Dan.  ix.  24:  Eph.  iv.  30. 

In  studying  the  Hellenisms  of  the  New  Testament,  and  tracing  their 
connection  with  the  Old,  the  Nov.  Test.  Grtec,  Editio  Hellenistica. 
Lond.,  1S43,  will  be  found  of  value:  it  consists  of  the  New  Testameii, 
20 


230  ORIGINAL    SCRIPTURES — CONCORDANCES. 

text,  and  illustrations  from  "the  LXX  of  the  phraseology  of  every  verse. 
For  further  helps,  see  below  §  331. 

330.  These  illustrations  and  remarks  refer  cliiefly  to  the 
meaning  of  words.  Other  rules  of  interpretation  have  been 
already  illustrated — the  words  in  connection  with  the  sen- 
tence, the  context,  the  scope,  and  parallel  passages — and  are 
the  same,  whether  we  be  interpreting  the  original  or  a  ver- 
sion and  do  not  need  further  illustration.  They  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  study  of  the  original  Scriptures. 

331.  In  reference  to  parallel  passages,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  verbal  parallels  in  a  version  are  available  only 
when  the  version  is  strictly  accurate,  and  that  comparison 
and  investigation  of  the  original  must  be  made  through  the 
medium,  not  of  a  translation,  but  of  the  original  itself.  The 
importance  of  this  remark  may  be  seen  in  §  329,  where  the 
use  of  the  English  version,  even  on  the  important  subject  of 
the  work  of  Christ,  will  certainly  mislead,  the  New  Testa- 
ment itself  not  translating  uniformly,  and  still  less  agreeing 
in  its  translation  with  the  corresponding  expressions  of  the 
Old.  Happily,  this  difficulty,  which  to  an  English  reader 
wo'uld  have  been  a  few  years  since  insuperable,  is  to  a  great 
degree  removed  by  the  helps  mentioned  below. 

For  the  study  of  Hebrew  verbal  parallels,  the  best  Concordance  is 
Furst's :  for  New  Testament  Greek,  Bruder's.  To  ascertain  the  usage 
of  the  version  of  the  LXX,  and  to  compare  it  with  the  New  Testament, 
consult  the  Concordance  of  Trommius,  which  gives  the  Greek  word, 
with  the  passages  in  which  it  is  found,  arranged  under  the  difl'erent  He- 
brew words,  of  which  it  is  the  translation  :  a  second  table  in  the  same 
book  gives  the  Hebrew  word  first,  with  its  different  Greek  renderings. 
The  English  student  will  obtain  very  considerable  help  from  the  "En- 
glishman's Greek  Concordance,"  which  gives  the  Greek  words  of  the 
New  Testament,  with  their  English  renderings;  and  from  the  "English- 
man's Hebrew  Concordance,"  which  gives  the  same  information  for  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  second  tables  in  each  give  the  English  word 
and  its  various  Greek  and  Hebrew  representatives.  Taylor's  Concord- 
ance is  formed  on  the  same  plan.  Wilson  makes  the  Ensjlish  word  the 
basis  of  his  Concordance,  giving  the  Hebrew  represenlalivus.     The  plan 


THE    GREEK   ARTICLE.  231 

of  the  Englishman's  Greek  and  Hebrew  Concordances,  however,  is  the 
more  useful.  A  comparison  of  the  New  Testament  Greek  and  the  LXX 
can  be  made  only  through  Trommius  and  Bruder,  or  by  the  help  of  the 
Lexicon  of  Schleusner,  or  the  Thesaurus  of  Biel. 

332.  The  peculiarities  of  the   Greek  tongue  are   nowhei'e 
more  instructive  or  beautiful  than  in  the  use  of  the       usage  of 
article  :  and   as  the   rules  in  reference  to  it  afford       Greek, 
important  help  in  interpreting  Scripture,  it  may  be  convenient 
to  give  them. 

333.  The  Greek  language  has  but  one  article,  the  definite ; 
the  indefinite  is  expressed  in  the  New  Testament 

•      i7  •         n       1  1  Article. 

by  TK,  "a  certam;     very  occasionally  by  5  and  a 
participle,  S  a-Trsi^un,  "a  sower;"  or  generally  by  the  omission 
of  the  definite  article. 

The  general  idea  involved  in  the  use  of  the  definite  article, 
both  in  Greek  and  in  English,  is,  that  the  obiect  to 

1  •   1     •     •  r       1   •     r       ■■>■  ^  General 

which  it  IS  prefixed  is  familiar;   but  the  grounds  of  idea  of  the 

„        .,.       .        -^  Trr-  ■  definite 

familiarity  are  dirierent,  as  are,  in  some  respects,  article. 
the  usages  of  the  two  tongues.     Familiarity  arises  . 
from  different  causes. 

(a.)  When  things  are  in  themselves  well  known,  or  are  re- 
garded as  present  to  the  senses. 

Origin  of 

1.  The  names  of  persons  well  known  generally  take  the      liarity. 

article ;  but  because  they  are  well  known,  their  names  also       I^'fferent 

•'  '  cases, 

dispense  with  it.   Hence  'Jua-ou;  and  o  'in^our.  see  Matt.  i.  1-16; 

ii.  16,  19.     On  the  first  mention  of  a  name  the  article  is  generally 

omitted.     The  names  of  persons  not  well  known  also  take  the  article 

when  mentioned  a  second  time, 

2.  If  the  proper  name  is  followed  by  a  description  which  has  the 
article,  the  name  is  without  it  unless  the  person  is  very  eminent. 
"John  the  Baptist"  is  the  common  form. 

3.  Objects  present  to  the  parties  concerned  have  the  article  attached 
to  their  names,  Matt.  xxvi.  23,  in  the  dish.  John  xiii.  26,  the  sop. 
Mark  xi.  5,  loosing  the  colt.  1  Thess.  v.  27,  this  epistle.  Matt.  xiii. 
27,  these  tares.  Hence  the  nominative,  with  the  article,  to  express  the 
vocative.     Eph.  v.  22 :  Heb.  i.  8. 

4.  The  possessive  pronoun,  in  Greek,  with  a  noun,  takes  the  article; 
not  my  will — the  will  of  me — but  "the  thy  will"  be  done. 


232  THE    GREEK    ARTICLE. 

The  second  and  third  of  these  rules  are  in  accordance  with  English 
usage,  the  others  are  not.  We  can  say,  indeed,  the  Christ;  but  then. 
Christ  is  not  a  name,  but  a  description,  and  means  "the  anointed." 

'(b.)  Familiarity  may  arise  from  something  in  the  context, 
as  from 

1.  Previous  mention,  Luke  ii.  16,  the  child:  in  verse  12,  a  child. 
John  iv.  43,  after  the  two  days :  verse  40,  two  days.  The  English 
adopts  this  rule  whenever  it  can  be  adopted  without  violating  an- 
other. 

2.  Implication  in  some  preceding  expression,  Mark  ii.  4,  the  roof, 
verse  1.  Luke  xv.  4,  the  ninety  and  nine ;  one  out  of  a  hundred  being 
lost.  Luke  xi.  38,  before  the  dinner  or  meal :  verse  37,  to  dine  with 
him.  Matt.  i.  24,  from  the  sleep,  in  which  he  had  a  dream,  verse  20. 
Matt.  X.  12,  into  the  house,  i.  c,  where  they  receive  you,  verse  11 :  Acts 
XX.  13 :  2  Thess.  ii.  11 :  see  ix.  10. 

3.  Association,  when  the  noun,  without  being  implied  in  anything 
previously  expressed,  is  connected  with  it.  John  xxi.  8,  came  in  the 
small  boat,  i.  e.  of  the  fishing  vessel :  see  verse  3.  So  Acts  xxvii.  16 : 
Luke  xi.  7 :  John  xiii.  5 :  Mark  iv.  38 :  Acts  xx.  9,  the  window,  the 
only  one  of  the  chamber;  Acts  xxi.  26,  27,  until  the  offering,  and  so 
throughout  referring  to  the  law  on  vow3.  The  article  thus  rendered 
necessary  by  the  context  is  often  to  be  expressed  by  the  possessive 
pronoun,  "  putting  his  (Gr.  the)  hands  upon  him,"  Acts  ix.  17. 

The  difference  between  Greek  and  English  rules  will  be  seen  from 
the  examples. 

(c).  Familiarity  arises  from  something  neither  mentioned 
nor  suggested,-  of  which  there  are  several  kinds. 

1.  Abstract  nouns  generally  take  the  article,  and  always  when  they 
are  personified.  1  Cor.  xv.  26,  death  (oS-.)  John  vii.  22,  23,  circumci- 
sion. 1  Cor.  xi.  14,  nature.  Matt.  xi.  19 :  Phil.  iii.  3.  Numbers  in  the 
abstract  {Toh,  unity,  the  state  of  being  one),  and  the  infinitive  used  as 
a  noun,  belong  to  this  class,  to  ma-Tiiiuv  =  believing.  This  usage  is  not 
frequent  in  English. 

2.  Nouns  representing  objects  in  nature  which  exist  singly,  and  en- 
tire natural  substances,  generally  take  the  article.  Matt.  v.  18,  heaven 
and  earth  :  xxiv.  29,  the  sun.-  Mark  xiii.  28,  summer  (=  the  hot  sea- 
son);  light;  salt;  water.  Generally,  we  omit  the  article  in  these  cases, 
whenever,  at  least  the  use  of  it  would  indicate  some  particular  thing, 
rather  than  the  universal  substance. 


THE   GREEK   ARTICLE.  233 

3.  Words  indicating  entire  species,  either  of  animals  or  objects, 
generally  take  the  article.  Matt.  vi.  1,  men,  as  men:  vii.  6,  dogs,  as 
dogs.  Matt.  X.  16,  serpents.  Luke  xxi.  29,  fig-tree.  James  iii.  4, 
(the)  ships.  The  omission  of  the  article  would  indicate  that  the  state- 
ment made  is  true  only  of  some,  and  not  of  the  class  as  a  Avhole.  The 
English  generally  omits  the  article  in  these  cases. 

4.  Whole  classes  of  agents  generally  take  it.  Matt.  x.  10,  the 
laborer.     Matt,  xviii.  17,  the  publican.     Matt.  xxv.  32,  the  shepherd. 

5.  Many  words  in  all  languages  express  ideas  familiar  to  cla.s.ses  of 
readers,  and  properly  take  the  article  ;  and  generally  it  is  best  to  re- 
tain it,  even  in  a  translation,  though  the  translation  be  not  quite  clear. 
Matt.  xvii.  24,  rd  Si^^'^/ua,  the  half-shekel  temple-tax :  xxi.  12,  the 
doves  used,  viz.,  in  the  temple  service.  John  xviii.  3,  i  a-TriipTi,  the 
detachment  on  duty.  John  i.  21,  art  thou  the  prophet.  Luke  xxi.  8, 
0  x-xi^if,  the  time  (so  long  expected).  1  Cor.  iii.  13,  the  day  shall  show 
it,  Heb.  x.  25,  ii;  tcu  utZyst.  =  for  ever,  to  eternity.  Matt.  xxi.  19: 
Mark  xi.  14 :  John  iv.  14.  So  »  oJo?,  that  way,  i.  e.  the  Gospel,  Acts  ix. 
2 :  xix.  9,  23 ;  xxiv.  22 :  so  in  proverbial  expressions.  Matt.  xxii.  24, 
the  camel,  the  gnat :  so  to  ogoc  =  the  mountain  district  of  Gallilee,  or  of  Pa- 
lestine, Matt.  xiv.  23,  Mark  iii.  13.  o  k^-.i/uvo;,  the  precipice  (surrounding 
the  lake).  Matt.  viii.  32.  tottmm,  Matt.  xiii.  2:  Mark  iv.  1,  the  vessel 
generally  used  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles.  » wx/a,  the  house  to 
■which  he  resorted  when  at  Capernaum,  Matt.  xiii.  1,  36 :  Mark  ix.  33. 

For  obvious  reasons  Luke  and  John,  the  former  writing  for  those 
who  knew  nothing  of  Palestine,  and  the  latter  writing  after  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  country  had  been  changed,  never  use  these  latter 
expressions. 


:ion.9 


334.  The  exceptions  to  these  rules  are  numerous,  „ 

J-  '    Except.^. 

but  easily  classified.  cia.s.sified. 

(a).  Generally,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  often  dis-  where  m- 
pensed  with  where  the  intrinsic  meaning  is  so  clear  meaning  is 
that  perspicuity  is  not  affected  by  the  omission. 

Proper  names  are  often  without  it,  1  Cor.  iii.  22.  Abstract  nouns 
are  often  without  it.  Certain  principal  objects  of  nature  are  without 
it,  Matt.  xiii.  6:  1  Cor  xx.  41  :  2  Pet.  iii.  10:  James  i.  6.  Superlatives 
and  ordinal  numbers  take  it  or  are  without  it,  Mark  xv.  33:  Matt, 
xiv.  25  ;  xxii.  38.     So  to  a  certain  extent  in  English. 

(b).  Nouns  not  in  themselves  definite  are  often  without  it, 
20* 


234  THE    GREEK   ARTICLE. 

Where  it  is    especially  if  in  very  common  use.     In  these  cases, 

clear  from  i  J  J  ' 

usage  or       they  are  made    definite   by  the  context,  or  usage, 

context.  ^  _  •'  '  o   ' 

and  are  unambiguous. 

^cuTiMu;  means,  in  classic  Greek,  a  king ;  o  0Ari>,iu;  alone,  the  Persian 
king,  and  in  later  Greeek,  ji^a-ixtv;  itself  has  that  meaning.  So,  in  the 
New  Testament,  fieoc  is  applied,  without  the  article,  to  God,  and  nCgiot  to 
Jehovah,  both  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  the  LXX,  1  Thess.  ii.  5; 
see  verse  10 :  see  Matt.  x.  28,  37. 

(c).  Nouns  used  adverbially,  i.  e.,  with  prepositions,  often 
,  dispense  with  the  article. 

Nouns  used  ^ 

adverbially. 

John  i.  1 :  Rom.  viii.  4. 

335.  An  accurate  application  of  these  rules  will  solve  many 

difficulties,  and  is  essential  to  the  right  understand- 
ing of  portions  of  Scripture. 

In  Matt.  i.  17,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  all  the  generations  from 
Abraham  to  David  are  fourteen.  Probably  the  article  here  refers 
rather  to  the  generations  just  enumerated. 

In  Rom.,  vofA^i,  without  the  article,  refers  to  any  revelation  or  written 
rule  of  moral  duty  ;  'O  vay.o?,  either  to  the  Mosaic  law,  or  to  some  law 
just  named. 

336.  A  very  striking  use  of  the  omission  of  the  article  is 
^   ,   .       -  to  call  attention  to  the  idea  in  the  anarthrous — • 

Omission  of 

article.         unarticled — word. 

Heb.  i.  1,  2,  of  old,  God  spake  by  the  prophets,  now  by  one  who  la 
Son,  h  vlZ:  so  vii.  28.  1  Cor.  xiv.  4,  one  man — a  church.  John  iii.  6, 
that  which  is  born  of  the  flesh  (article)  is  flesh  (no  article).  Rom.  xi.  6, 
grace  (article)  is  no  longer  grace  (no  article),  vii.  13. 

337.  In  the  collocation  of  words,  the  folloAving  rules  are 

Rules  on       i^portaut. 

thecoiioca-       ((^^    When  two  or  more  words  are  connected,  and 

tion  ot  ^    /  _  _  .       ' 

words.  are  descriptive  of  a   single  object,  or  of  objects  re- 

garded as  single,  the  article  is  prefixed  (as  in  English)  to  the 
first  only. 


THE   GREEK    ARTICLE.  235 

Matt.  xii.  22,  the  blind  and  dumb.  Luke  xi.  28,  he  that  heareth  and 
keepeth.     John  vi.  40  :  Rom.  ii.  3  :  1  John  ii.  4 :  Eph.  v.  20. 

(b).  Nor  is  the  article  repeated,  when  a  single  class  of 
things  or  qualities  is  described,  by  an  enumeration  of  its  parts. 

Eph.  iii.  18,  what  is  tJie  breadth  and  length,  etc.,  describing  the 
extent.  Matt.  xx.  19,  to  mock  (article),  and  scourge,  and  crucify — the 
sufferings.     So  Acts  viii.  6  :  1  Cor.  xi.  22. 

(c).  Nor  when*  the  words  used  express  one  idea,  though  a 
complex  one. 

Phil.  ii.  17,  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith.  2  Cor.  xiii. 
11,  the  God  of  love  and  peace  (not  and  of  peace),  2  Pet.  i.  10. 

(d).  Nor  when  two  or  more  persons  make  one  agency,  or  a 
single  act  is  directed  against  two  or  more  objects. 

Matt.  xvii.  1,  Peter  (article),  and  John,  and  James,  Luke  xix.  11 : 
Acts  iii.  11 ;  xvii.  15. 

(e).  On  the  contrary,  the  article  is  repeated  when  distinct- 
ness is  given  to  each  of  the  things  named. 

Matt,  xxiii.  23  :  Tit.  iii.  4,  the  goodness  and  the  philanthropy  of  God 
our  Saviour  appeared. 

(/).  And  when  the  words  employed  are  not  descriptive  of  a 
single  object,  or  of  what  is  regarded  as  such. 

Heb.  xi.  20,  Isaac  blessed  tov  iuiclji  and  tov  Ha-au.  2  Thess.  i.  8,  to 
those  who  know  not  .  .  .  and  to  those  who  do  not  obey. 

(g).  Apply  these  rules  to  explain  the  following. 

Tit.   ii.  13:  2  Thess.  i.  12:  Eph.  v.  5 :  1  Tim.  v.  21:  2 
T,  i.    •    11      T    J     •  ■  Examples. 

Pet.  1.  11 :  Jude  iv. 

338.  The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  article  was  first  formally 
examined   in    modern   times   by  Granville    Sharp ;  Literature 
afterwards,  at  greater  length,  and  with  more  accu-  Q,.ee|aj.tj. 
racy,  by  Dr.  Middleton,  some  of  whose  conclusions,  <='«• 


236  EXTERNAL   HELPS — THEIR   VALUE. 

however,  have  been  overthrown  by  more  recent  investigation. 
The  above  rules  are  in  harmony  with  such  of  Middleton's  as 
have  stood  the  test,  and  are  most  of  them  taken  substantially 
from  Winer's  "  Idioms,"  and  from  Green's  "  Grammar  of  the 
New  Testament  Dialect,"  1842. 

Sec.  6.  Of  the  Use  of  Exteki^al  Helps  in  the  Inter- 
pretation OF  THE  Bible. 

"  The  Bible  resembles  an  extensive  garden,  where  there  is  a  vast 
variety  and  profusion  of  fruits  and  flowers,  some  of  which  are  more 
essential  or  more  splendid  than  others ;  but  there  is  not  a  blade  suf- 
fered to  grow  in  it,  which  has  not  its  use  and  beauty  in  the  system. 
Salvation  for  sinners  is  the  grand  truth  presented  everywhere,  and  in 
all  points  of  light,  but  the  pure  in  heart  sees  a  thousand  traits  of  the 
Divine  character,  of  himself,  and  of  the  world ;  some  striking  and  bold, 
others  cast  as  it  were  into  the  shade,  and  designed  to  be  searched  for 
and  examined." — Cecil,  Remains,  (p.  198.) 

339.  Thoroughly  to  understand  the  Scriptures,  to  harmonize 
apparent  contradictions,  to  gather  up  all  the  truth  it  contains, 
and  sometimes  even  to  enable  us  to  select  out  of  several  mean- 
ings the  one  which  is  most  consistent  with  the  Divine  will,  it 
is  often  necessary  to  seek  some  external  or  collateral  help. 
We  need  to  know  the  opinions  and  ideas  prevalent  among  the 
people  to  whom  the  various  parts  of  Scripture  were  ad- 
dressed ;  facts  of  general  history,  of  chronology,  of  natural 
history,  of  geography,  and  especially  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  Eastern  nations. 

340.  The  estimation  in  which  these  external  helps  have 
Estimation  ^^^^  held,  has  been  singularly  subject  to  deprecia- 
in  wiiich       tious  in  some  cases,  and  to  excess  in  others.     With 

such  helps  ' 

are  held.  many  they  are  the  chief  study,  and  it  is  thought 
that  no  one  is  qualified  to  understand  the  Bible  until  he  is  in 
a  position  to  use  them.  By  others  they  are  despised.  The 
first  class  forget  that  these  helps  are  of  value  chiefly  in  con- 
firming a  sense,  which  is  already  discovered,  or  in  expounding 
less  important  texts;  the  statements  of  Scripture  on  all 
knowledge  essential  to  salvation,  being,  when  compared  with 
one  another,  abundautly  plain.     The  second  forget  that  these 


EXTERNAL    HELPS — OPINIONS   AMONG    THE    JEWS.        237 

helps  are  often  needful  to  determine  the  sense  when  it  re- 
mains doubtful,  and  that  if  we  neglect  them,  much  of  the 
significance  of  Scripture  in  particular  passages,  many  of  them 
impressive,  is  concealed. 

341.  (i.)  Some  knowledge  of  the  ideas  and  opinions  pre- 
valent among  the  people  to  whom  the  inspired  writings  were 
addressed,  or  among  surrounding  nations,  is  often  important. 

At  the  time,  for  example,  when  our  Lord  appeared,  there  was  a 
general  expectation  among  the  Jews  of  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  and  his  reign  was  called,  "the  world  to  come,"  Hlafen"^°^ 
"the  heavenly  Jerusalem,"^  "the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  or 
"of  God."''  To  enter  that  kingdom  was  to  become  his  disciple.  The 
Jews  had  very  erroneous  conceptions  of  its  nature ;  and  it  was  neces- 
sary that  our  Lord  should  correct  them.  This  he  does  in  the  teaching 
of  himself,  and  his  apostles.  The  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  God  must 
be  learned,  therefore,  from  the  New  Testament :  and  the  fact  (which 
we  learn  from  external  sources)  that  the  name  was  given  by  the  Jews 
to  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  completes  our  knowledge  and  confirms  the 
interpretation. 

"He  IS  born  again,"  was  the  Jewish  description  of  a  proselyte  ;  and 
this  use  of  the  expression  confirms  the  common  interpretation  of  the 
language  of  our  Lord,  John  iii. 

"  To  bind  and  loose,"  meant  among  the  Jews,  as  Lightfoot  has 
shown,  to  forbid  as  unlawful,  and  to  allow  as  lawful  •  (as  "  bound  not 
to"  is  still  used  among  us).  Hence  the  true  explanation  of  Matt,  xviii. 
8-  (Wetstein). 

The  precepts  of  the  sermon  on  the  Mount  become  more  impressive 
from  the  following  facts.  The  Pharisees  held  that  the  thoughts  of  the 
heart  are  never  sinful  (See  Matt.  v.  28) ;  the  Scribes,  that  the  gifts 
which  Jewish  worshippers  were  required  to  place  upon  the  altar,  ex- 
piated all  offences  which  were  not  amenable  to  the  Judge,  (ver.  24). 
All  maintained,  says  Maimonides,  that  oaths  by  heaven  or  by  earth, 
might  be  taken  collusively,  and  had  not  the  solemn  obligation  of  oaths 
in  which  the  name  of  God  occurred  (v.  34).  It  was  also  maintained 
(Buxtorf,)  that  the  prayer  which  is  long  shall  not  return  empty  (6,  7). 

342.  The  chief  sources  of  information  on  the  opinions  of  the 

«  Schoetgenii,  Horaa  Heb.  i..  Diss,  v.,  chap.  vi. 
•>  See  Lyall's  Propsedia  Prophetica,  p.  270. 


238  OPINIONS   AMONG   THE   HEATHENS. 

ancient  Jews,  are  the  Targums  and  the  Talmud.  Next  in 
importance  is  the  Sohar  of  R.  Simeon  ben  Joshai,  who 
flourished  early  in  the  second  century.  This  book  is  held  in 
the  highest  veneration,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  Cabbala. 
See  Part  ii.,  "Intro,  to  the  Gospels."  Its  subject  is  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  events  foretold  concerning  his 
reign.  It  illustrates  both  the  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  the 
unbelief  of  the  Jews,  that  the  sense  which  was  put  upon  the 
several  prophecies  quoted  by  the  apostles  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, is  the  same  (with  two  or  three  remarkable  exceptions,) 
as  had  been  put  upon  them  by  the  Jews  generally.  All  the 
Psalms,  for  example,  and  all  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  quoted 
in  the  New  Testament,  are  applied  by  the  authorities  just 
named  to  the  Messiah.  And  yet  in  a  Messiah,  who  so  re- 
markably fulfilled  them,  they  do  not  believe. 

The  student  will  find  the  views  of  Jewish  authors  largely  quoted  in 
the  Hor33  Hebraicae  of  Lightfoot  and  Schoetgeni^is ;  in  the  commen- 
taries of  Dr.  Gill  and  Koppe,  and  in  the  notes  of  Wetstein's  Greek 
Testament. 

343.  It  is  important  to   observe,  however,  that  while   a 

knowledge  of  the  opinions  held  in  early  times  may 

Caution.  „  °  ,        ^  .    .       ,  .  ;     ,  / 

oiten  suggest  the  original  meaning  oi  the  words 
employed  in  Scripture,  that  meaning  is  only  an  auxiliary  help 
in  ascertaining  their  Scripture  use.  "  A  regenerate  man," 
meant  to  a  Jew,  a  proselyte  ;  one  made  a  Jew  by  circumcision 
or  baptism.  But  it  is  plain  that  though  this  use  of  the  term 
accounts  for  the  adoption  of  it  by  our  Lord,  and  to  a  great 
extent  even  explains  its  meaning,  yet  the  true  and  complete 
meaning  can  be  gathered  only  from  Scripture  itself. 

344.  A  knowledge  of  the  religious  opinions  of  the  nations 
by  whom  the  Israelites  were  surrounded,  is  also  often  useful. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  for  example,  a  lamb  or  kid  was  an  object 
of  veneration,  and  the  male,  as  the  representative  of  Ammon,  was 
worshipped. 

The  plagues  of  Egypt  were  all  inflicted  on  objects  of  Egyptian  wor- 


EXTERNAL    HELPS — lIlSTOIiY.  239 

sbip,  and  thus  they  became  a  rebuke  to  idolatry,  as  well  as  an  evidence 
of  Divine  power. 

At  solemn  festivals  the  Phcenicians  ate  of  the  raw  flesh  of  their  offer- 
ings; part  of  it  they  roasted  in  the  sun,  and  part  was  sodden  for  magi- 
cal purposes,  the  intestines  being  used  for  divination,  and  the  fragments 
for  charms  and  enchantments.  All  these  practices  were  forbidden  to 
the  Jews,  and  though  no  doubt  other  solemn  lessons  were  taught  by 
the  burning  of  the  victim  in  the  fire,  it  was  also  intended  to  teach  them 
to  avoid  the  rites  of  the  heathen. 

See  also  Lev.  xix.  28:  Lev.  xi.  11:  Psa.  xvi.  4:  Jer.  xliv.  17,  18. 

Among  the  ancient  Persians  it  was  held  that  there  were  two  deities, 
of  equal  power,  Ormuzd  and  Ahrihman.  Jehovah,  in  his  address  to 
Cyrus,  claims  authority  over  them  both.  "I  form  light  and  darkness 
— peace  and  evil,"  Isa.  xlv.  7. 

Many  who  had  embraced  the  oriental  philosophy  became  Christians, 
and  attempted  to  blend  their  former  tenets  with  the  doctrines  of  Christ. 
Some  of  them  (the  Gnostics,  for  example,)  held  the  opinion  that  there 
were  several  emanations  of  the  Godhead,  called  the  Word,  the  Life, 
the  Light,  etc. :  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  apostle  John  refers  to  their 
opinions  in  John  i.  1-18,  where  he  claims  all  those  titles  for  our 
Lord. 

From  their  principles,  many  of  them  deduced  a  loose  morality,  and 
others  justified  the  imposition  of  unreasonable  austerities.  To  the 
speculative  opinions  of  those  sects  are  opposed  such  passages  as  these, 
1  John  i.  1,  2,  7;  ii.  22,  23;  iv.  2,  3,  9,  14,  15;  v.  1-5,  9-20;  and  to 
their  practice,  1  John  i.  5,  6 ;  ii.  2,  6;  iii.  4-10;  v.  18,  21.  The  deeds 
of  the  Nicolaitanes  were  probably  of  the  same  order.  Rev.  ii.  6. 

In  Europe,  the  Greek  philosophy  was  most  prevalent,  and  the  Greek 
character  showed  its  tendency  in  subtle  disquisition.  Two  only  of  the 
Grecian  sects  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  the  Epicureans  and  the  Stoics. 
The  first  held  that  God  took  no  concern  in  the  aifairs  of  the  universe, 
but  dwelt  in  some  distant  region :  and  the  second  held  that  he  was  the 
soul  of  the  world.  They  agreed,  however,  in  maintaining  that  the 
Greeks  were  superior  to  all  other  nations.  The  apostle  Paul  rebuked 
both.  Acts  xvii.  18-32,  alternately  correcting  their  errors,  and  reveal- 
ing to  them  the  great  doctrines  of  the  resurrection,  and  the  atonement 
of  Christ.  A  knowledge  of  their  views  explains  his  appeal,  rebukes 
"reserve"  in  the  exhibition  of  the  Gospel,  and  illustrates  tlie  simplicity 
and  dignity  of  truth. 

'  The  Divinity  of  our  Lord,  and  the  inutility  of  the  ceremonial  law, 
are  both  taught  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  It  is  a  confirmation  of  this 
view  that  the  Ehionites,  who  observed  the  law,  and  maintained  tho 


240  EXTERNAL   HELPS — HISTORY. 

simple  humanity  of  Christ,  rejected  those  Epistles,  and  received  only  a 
mutilated  copy  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.     Wilson,  p.  283. 

Many  of  the  discourses  of  our  Lord  contain  special  reference  to  the 
"views  of  the  various  Jewish  sects.  The  reader  will  find  those  views 
noticed  at  length  in  the  introduction  to  the  Gospels. 

345.  Here,  again,  a  caution  Ls  needed.     The  errors  referred. 

to  in  the  passages  which  are  thus  made  clear  by 

Caution.  .,  .      ,  /  ^       °  r-  i        i  i 

this  knowledge  were  oiten  local  and  temporary. 
They  generally  sprang,  however,  from  some  deep-seated  ten- 
dency of  human  nature,  and  are  apt  to  show  themselves  under 
different  forms ;  and  the  refutation  of  them,  given  in  Scrip- 
ture, always  embodies  truths  of  permanent  and  univeiisal 
application. 

346.  (ii.)  A  knowledge  of  ancient  profane  history  often 
aids  in  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

In  Gen.  46,  it  is  said,  "every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  to  the 
Egyptians."  This  fact  explains  the  assignment  of  the  land  of  Goshen 
(on  the  extreme  border  of  Egypt,)  to  the  Israelites ;  an  arrangement 
which  preserved  them  from  too  intimate  a  connection  with  the  Egyp- 
tians :  and  it  is  itself  explained  by  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Hales,  and 
Mr.  Faber.  They  tell  us,  from  a  fragment  of  Manetho's,  that  about 
the  year  2159,  B.  C,  Egypt  was  invaded  by  a  band  of  Cushite  shepherds 
from  Arabia,  wbo  after  many  years  of  cruel  domination,  were  expelled 
by  the  general  revolt  of  the  princes  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  then  with- 
drew to  Palestine  {the  land  of  shepherds,)  and  are  known  in  Scripture 
as  the  Philistines.  This  event,  which  occurred  some  time  before  the 
commencement  of  Joseph's  administration,  accounts  for  the  suspicion 
with  which  the  Israelites,  coming  from  the  same  quarter,  were  received, 
and  for  the  abhorrence  in  which  their  occupation  as  nomade  or  wan- 
dering shepherds  was  held. 

It  may  be  added,  that  while  Egyptian  archfeologists,  Champollion, 
Rosellini,  and  Wilkinson,  agree  in  this  view  of  a  shepherd  invasion, 
Hengstenberg  has  thrown  doubts  upon  the  whole  of  this  part  of 
Manetho's  narrative,  though  without  sufficient  reason.  See  Tables  of 
Egyptian  Chronology  (Part  ii.). 

It  is  instructive  to  remark,  that  the  history  of  Assyria  and  the  anti- 
quities of  Egypt,  vvhioli  were  once  the  favorite  resort  of-infidelity,  now 


EXTERNAL    HELPS — HISTORY.  241 

supply  some  of  the  most  decisive  external  evidences  of  the  truth  of 
Scripture. 

So,  again,  the  best  commentary  on  Deut.  xxviii.,  and  on  our  Lord's 
prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  is  found  in  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  wars  by  JosejAus.  He  was  himself  a  Jew  by  birth,  born  at 
Jerusalem,  about  A.  D.  37,  and  was  an  eye  witness  of  the  siege  of  that 
city.  The  truth  of  his  narrative  is  confirmed  both  by  contemporary 
writers,  and  by  the  testimony  of  the  Emperor  Titus. 

Matt.  ii.  2,  3,  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  there  was  a  general  im- 
pression at  that  time  throughout  the  East,  that  a  great  prince  was 
about  to  appear  and  govern  the  world,  Tact.  Hist.  i.  5:  Suet.  Vit. 
Vesp.  c.  4. 

In  Matt.  xxiv.  15,  16,  our  Saviour  warns  his  disciples  to  quit  Jeru- 
salem before  the  siege  began ;  and  profane  history  tells  us  that  they 
profited  by  his  instructions,  for  before  the  city  was  surrounded  by  the 
Roman  armies,  they  retired  to  Pella,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan. 

The  rest  spoken  of  in  Acts  ix.  31,  is  explained  in  contemporary  his- 
tory. It  must  not  be  ascribed  to  the  conversion  of  Saul,  for  the  perse- 
cution continued  three  years  after  ;  but  to  the  circumstance,  that  at  that 
time  (A.  D.  40,)  Caligula  attempted  to  set  up  his  statue  in  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  The  consternation  of  the  Jews  at  this  threatened  profanation 
diverted  their  attention  from  the  Christians,  and  so  "  the  churches  had 
rest." 

In  Acts  xvii.  16,  Athens  is  said  to  be  "full  of  idols"  (margin), 
.^lian  (A.  D.  140,)  calls  it  the  altar  of  Greece,  and  Pausanias,  another 
historian  (A.  D.  170,)  tells  us  that  this  city  had  more  images  than  all 
Greece  besides.  All  antiquity  agrees  in  representing  it  as  the  seat  of 
Grecian  learning,  and  as  the  school  of  the  world.  How  instructive  is 
this  combination  of  secular  enlightenment  and  gross  idolatry ! 

The  nobleness  of  Paul's  conduct  in  his  address  to  Felix  (Acts  xxiv. 
25),  is  evident  even  upon  the  surface  of  the  narrative.  Josephus  tells  us 
that  Felix  was  notorious  for  oppression,  and  that  he  had  been  living 
in  adultery  with  Drusilla,  the  wife  of  the  late  king  of  Edessa.  Paul 
neither  defended  himself,  nor  attacked  the  vices  with  which  Felix  was 
chargeable ;  but  with  admirable  tact  he  reasoned  on  the  virtues  of 
righteousness  and  temperance,  and  on  the  solemn  truth  of  future  judg- 
ment. Felix  had  no  excuse  for  interrupting  him,  and  yet  it  is  evident 
that  he  felt  his  appeals. 

347.  (iii.)  Ecclesiastical  history  is   also  of  value  in  inter- 
preting Scripture:  sometimes  by   supplying   facts  on  whicli 
21 


242  EXTERNAL    HELPS — HISTORY. 

the  sacred  writers  are  silent ;  sometimes  by  giving  the  history 
of  opi7iion  in  the  church  itself. 

We  learn,  for  instance,  that  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
within  thirty  years  of  the  death  of  our  Lord,  the  Gospel 
the  apos-  had  been  preached  in  Macedonia  and  Syria,  by  Jude ;  iu 
I^gypt  and  parts  of  Africa,  by  Mark,  Simon  and  Jude ;  in 
Ethiopia,  by  the  Eunuch  of  Candace,  and  by  Matthias;  in  Pontus,  by 
Peter;  in  the  territories  of  the  seven  churches,  by  John;  in  Parthia,  by 
Matthew  ;  in  Scythia,  by  Philip  and  Andrew  ;  in  Persia,  by  Simon  and 
Jude ;  in  Media,  by  Thomas  ;  in  Italy  and  Greece,  by  Paul.  In  most 
of  these  regions,  churches  were  formed  about  the  same  time.  So 
rapidly  did  the  seed  of  the  kingdom  spring  up  and  fill  the  earth,  Mark 
xvi.  15-20. 

348.  The  history  of  the  sound  opinions  of  good  men,  and 
of  the  origin  of  erroneous  ones,  is  also  of  great  moment. 

In  a  letter  still  extant,  drawn  up  by  the  Christians  of  Smyrna,  and 
giving  an  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  they  say,  in  reply  to 
an  accusation  of  the  Jews,  that  they  were  ready  to  worship  Polycarp 
instead  of  Christ,  "This  is  impossible,  for  Christ  only  is,  or  can  be,  the 
object  of  worship  :  to  him  alone  we  offer  adoration  :  and  the  martyrs 
(they  add,)  are  objects  only  of  gratitude  and  love."  The  Fathers  of  the 
first  three  centuries  all  deliver  the  same  doctrine  in  relation  to  our 
Lord;  and  "hence  (adds  Eusebius,)  the  hymns  a.nd  psalms  written  from 
the  beginning  by  the  faithful,  celebrate  the  praises  of  Christ,  and  attri- 
bute Divinity  to  him,"  Eccl.  Hist,  v  c  27,  28.  Matt,  xxviii.  17. 

The  duty  of  all  classes  to  search  the  Scriptures,  is  clearly  implied  m 
various  passages  of  the  Bible -^  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  the 
early  writers  of  the  church  enforce  this  duty  in  the  strongest  terms; 
Chrysostom  and  Jerome,  and  Origen  and  Agustine,  all  agree  on  this 
question.  They  even  affirm,  that  the  cause  of  the  evils  of  their  times, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  "that  the  Scriptures  are  not  known."  (Seo 
§  144.) 

349.  These  opinions  are  not  authority,  but  they  are  evidence. 
These  They  prove  that  the  interpretation  now  attached 
not'authori-  to  the  passages  of  Scripture,  which  speak  of  these 
«^noe  ^'^^'     truths,  is  such  as  commended  itself  to  the  judgment 

»2  Tim.  iii.  15:  John  v.  39:  Acts  xvii.  "11,  12.  Luke  xvi.  29:  Matt. 
xxii.  29;  John  xxi.  3U,  31.  2  Pet.  i.  19;   1  Thess.  v.  27:   Rev.  i.  3. 


EXTERNAL  HELPS — CHRONOLOGY.  24.3 

of  good  men,  who  had  peculiar  facilities  for  ascertaining  the 
meaning  of  the  inspired  volume. 

350.  ISTor  less  important  is  the  history  of  erroneous  opinions 
on  questions  of  truth. 

We  first  read,  for  example,  of  the  title  of  universal  Bishop  (at  Rome,) 
A.  D.  606  ;  of  the  canonical  authority  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  Vulgate,  and 
traditions  as  articles  of  faith,  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  the  16th  century ; 
of  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue  in  worship,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  ver- 
nacular m  the  7th  century  (666).  Transubstantiation  was  first  taught 
in  the  8th  century.  In  the  11th,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  mutilated  by 
the  establishment  of  communion  of  one  kind.  In  the  12th,  the  doctrine 
of  Seven  Sacraments  was  first  taught.  The  doctrines  of  the  meritorious 
virtue  of  penance,  of  purgatory,  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  date  no 
earlier  than  the  7th  century,  and  were  not  positively  afiirmed  till 
the  year  1140.  The  power  of  granting  indulgences  was  not  claimed 
by  the  Popes  till  the  12th  century.  Auricular  confession  was  first 
enjoined  by  the  4th  Lateran  Council,  in  the  13th  century.  The  celibacy 
of  the  clergy  as  universal  and  compulsory,  was  ordained  at  the  end 
of  the  4th,  and  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  VII.  at  the  end  of  the  11th. 
Col.  ii.  23  :  2  Thess.  ii.  7-12. 

351.  The  comparatively  recent  origin  of  all  these  errors  is 
not  authoritative  against  them,  but  it  is  evidence  of  the 
meaning  of  the  Bible.  It  proves  that  Popery  is  a  novelty, 
and  that  its  Dogmas  were  not  taught  by  those  who  lived 
nearest  to  the  times  of  our  Lord,  and  who  had  most  facility 
for  ascertaining  the  meaning  of  Scripture. 

352.  It   is   an   important   canon  in  reference  to  the  help 
which  we  thus  receive  from  history,  that  the  his-  such  his- 
torical fact  which   is   gathered   only  from  profane  oTifcdV 
or  ecclesiastical  writers,  is  not  part  of  the  Bible.  '^"''®" 

It  may  emhody  a  truth  which  is  taught  in  Scripture,  and  then 
we  believe  that  truth,  because  it  is  found  there  :  or  it  may  ex- 
plain a  Scripture  statement,  but  without  being  itself  any- 
where revealed.  In  that  case,  we  believe  it  according  to  its 
evidence,  but  never  as  a  truth  taught  of  God. 

353.  (iv.)  A  knowledge  of  the  order  of  events,  and  of  the 
intervals  between  them,  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of 


244  EXTERNAL  HELPS — CHRONOLOGY. 

parts  of  Scripture :  and  such  knowledge  is  supplied  by  chro- 
nology, the  science  of  computing  and  adjusting  the  epochs 
and  periods  of  time. 

It  illustrates  the  depravity  of  human  nature,  for  example,  to  know 
that  in  the  second  generation  from  Adam,  all  flesh  had  so  corrupted 
its  way,  that  it  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made  man. 

It  is  an  aggravation  of  the  guilt  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  that  when 
they  became  so  utterly  wicked,  their  progenitor  Noah  had  not  been 
dead  a  hundred  years. 

The  judgment  against  the  house  of  Eli,  in  Shiloh,  was  first  exe- 
cuted in  the  death  of  his  sons,  but  it  was  not  completed  till  eighty 
years  afterwards,  in  the  forfeiture  of  oflice  by  Abiathar,  (1  Kings  ii.  26, 
27).     God  visits  surely  though  slowly. 

The  sin  that  most  dishonored  David's  character  was  committed  when 
he  was  fifty  years  of  age.  An  instructive  illustration  of  the  power  of 
temptation,  and  the  inefficiency  of  even  long  religious  experience  to 
preserve  the  Christian. 

From  2  Kings  xxiii.  13,  we  learn  that  the  places  built  to  Ashtaroth 
remained  till  the  days  of  Josiah,  or  for  350  years :  Solomon  probably 
died  penitent,  and  yet  the  consequences  of  his  sin  were  felt  for  several 
generations. 

The  earliest  of  the  apostolical  Epistles,  is  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  and  it  contains  a  special  direction  that  the  Epistle 
should  be  read  to  the  churches.  This  direction,  given  at  such  a  time, 
shows  that  this  class  of  writings  is  part  of  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

The  date  of  the  Epistle  to  Timothy,  A.  D.  64,  nearly  thirty  yeara 
after  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  adds  great  weight  to  his  declaration, 
that  he  was  the  chief  of  sinners.  He  never  ceased,  it  is  plain,  to  cherish 
a  deep  sense  of  his  sinfulness.  We  may  measure  our  progress  in  holi- 
ness by  the  degree  of  our  humility,  1  Tim.  i.  15. 

Some  commentators  have  supposed  that  2  Cor.  xi.  25,  refers  to  the 
events  recorded  in  Acts  27,  but  in  fact,  the  Epistle  was  written  before 
those  events  took  place. 

The  man  of  sin,  mentioned  in  2  Thess.  ii.  3,  has  been  referred  by 
Grotius,  and  others,  to  Caligula ;  but  the  Epistle  was  not  written  till 
twelve  years  after  his  death. 

The  precept  of  Peter,  1  Pet.  ii.  17,  "Honor  the  king,"  derives  addi- 
tional force  from  the  fact,  that  the  tyrant  Nero  was  then  emperor  of  the 
Pioman  world. 

An  examination  of  the  5th  chapter  of  Genesis,  will  show  that  Noah 
might  have  received  the  a<;count  of  the  Creation  from  Adam,  through 


CHRONOLOGY — ERAS.  245 

Enos  only,  or  from  Lamech  his  own  father.  Lamech  was  56  years 
contemporary  with  Adam,  and  100  years  with  Shem.  Shem  was  con- 
temporary for  several  years  with  Abraham  and  Isaac.  The  communi- 
cation from  Adam  to  Isaac  may  only  have  been  through  Lamech  and 
Shem.  So  easy  is  it  to  account  for  the  transmission  of  Divine  truth 
from  the  earliest  times 

More  than  4000  years  elapsed  between  the  time  of  the  first  promise 
and  its  fulfilment,  more  than  400  between  the  promise  given  to  Abra- 
ham, and  its  accomplishment  under  Joshua :  and  not  less  than  400 
between  the  prophecy  of  Malachi  and  its  fulfilment  in  John  the  Baptist. 
"  A  thousand  years  are  with  the  Lord  as  one  day  :"  though  the  promise 
tarry  long,  we  are  to  wait  for  it. 

This  knowledge  is  especially  important  in  interpreting  pro- 
phecy, both  to  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  event  fore- 

111  ■  1  T  1  Prophecy. 

told,  and  to  perceive  the  accomplishment. 

The  meaning  of  Isa.  xxxvii.  22-34,  is  fixed,  for  example,  by  a  refer- 
ence to  chapter  xxxvi.  The  former  is  a  prediction  of  a  remarkable 
deliverance  from  impending  danger,  and  the  latter  points  to  Hezekiah 
and  Sennacherib,  as  the  persons  in  whom  the  prediction  was  ful- 
filled. 

354.  In  the  chronology  of  all  nations  some  remarkable  date 
is  fixed  upon,  from  which  they  begin  their  compu- 
tations. Christians  reckon  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  cai'^^^ochf ' 
A.  D.  The  Romans  reckoned  from  the  foundation 
of  their  city,  A.  U.  C.  The  Greeks  by  Olympiads,  the  first 
of  which  dates  776  years  before  Christ,  about  55  years  before 
the  captivity  in  the  days  of  Uzziah.  These  points  are  called 
epochs  or  eras,  though  the  former  is  the  more  usual  term. 
The  following  are  the  chief: 

The  Grecian  year  of  the  world  from  -  Sept.  1,  B.  C.  5598. 

The  era  of  Constantinople,  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  civil Apr.  1,  Sept.  1,  B.  C.  5508. 

The  Jewish  era,  ecclesiastical  and  civil, 

A.  M. Apr.  Sept.  B.  C.  3761. 

The  era  of  Abraham,  or  Eusebian  era  Oct.  1,  B.  C.  2015. 

The  era  of  the  destruction  of  Troy     -  June  12,  or  24,  B.  C.  1184. 

The  era  of  Solomon's  temple      -         -  May,  B.  C.  1015. 
21* 


246  CHRONOLOGY — ERAS. 

The  Olympiads,  01.    -        -        -        -  New  Moon  of  Midsummer, 

B.  G.  776. 
The   Roman   era  (the  Consular  year 

from  Jan.  1),  A.  U.  C.  -        -  Apr.  21,  B.  C  753. 

The  era  of  Nabonassar       -        -        -  Feb.  26,  B.  C.  747. 
The  era  of  the  Seleucidas  -         -  Sept.  1,  B.  C.  312. 

The  Pontifical  and  Constantinopolitan 

era Jan.  1,  Sept.  1,  B.  C.  3. 

The  common  Christian  era,  A.  D.         -  Jan.  1,  A.  D.  1. 
The  Hegira,  the  Mohammedan  era      -  July  16,  A.D.  622. 
The  Persian  era  -        .        .        .  June  16,  A.  D.  632. 

355.  As  several  remarkable  events  are  recorded  in  Scrip- 
ture, each  of  general  or  of  national  importance,  there  are 
various  divisions  of  sacred  chronology.  The  Jews  reckon 
from  the  Creation  (A.  M.),  from  the  Flood,  from  the  Exode, 
Numb,  xxxiii.  38 :  1  Kings  vi.  1 ;  or  from  the  building  of  the 
temple,  2  Chron.  viii.  1. 

The  first  epoch  begins  with  the  Creation,  and  ends  at  the 
Flood.  Its  duration  can  be  gathered  only  from  Scripture,  by 
summing  tip  the  ages  of  the  patriarchs  on  the  birth  of  the  son 
whose  name  is  placed  on  the  record  (not  always  the  eldest), 
see  Gren.  v.  This  number  amounts,  according  to  the  common 
Hebrew  text,  to  1656  years ;  according  to  the  Samaritan  text 
to  1307;  and  according  to  the  Septuagint,  to  22G2,  or  to  2256 
years. 

In  the  English  version,  the  dates  ascertained  from  the  He- 
brew text  are  generally  used,  and  the  adjustment  of  them 
which  is  adopted  is  the  one  which  was  completed  by  Arch- 
bishop Usher,  slightly  modified  by  Bishop  Lloyd. 


CHRONOLOGY — PERIODS. 


247 


Whence 
taken. 

Period. 

Usher. 

Septn- 
agint. 

Josephus. 
by  Hales. 

Gen.  V 

Gen.    xi.  10-32: 

xii.  4. 
Gen.  xxi.5;  xxv. 

2U;  xlvii.  9,  28. 
1  Kings  vi.  1.     . 

1.  From  the  creation  to  the  flood  . 

2.  From  tlie  flood  to  the  call  of 

Al:imham 

3.  From  the   call  of  Abfaham  to 

the  Exode     

4.  From  the  E.>:ode  to  the  founda- 

tion of  Solomon's  temple  .     . 

5.  From  the   foundation  of  Solo- 

mon's temple  to  the  restora- 
tion of  Cyrus     

6.  From    the    restoration   of   the 

Jews  to  the  birth  of  our  Lord. 

1,656 
427 
430 
479 

476 
536 

2,262 

1,207 
425 
601 

476 
537 

2  256 

1,062 

445 

621 

493 
534 

4,004 

5,508 

5,411 

The  modern  Jews  reckon  the  age  of  the  world  at  the  coming 
of  Christ  3,760;  244  years  less  than  Usher. 

356.  The  difference  between  the  LXX  and  the  Hebrew  in 
these  chronological  statements,  will  be  seen  in  part  from  the 
following  tables;  the  origin  of  the  differences  being  easily- 
explained.  • 

To  six  of  the  patriarchs  before  the  Flood,  the  LXX  gives 
an  additional  hundred  years,  on  the  birth  of  his  son.  It  also 
adds  six  years  to  Lamech,  though  in  the  corrected  text  of 
Josephus,  those  six  years  are  taken  off.  Immediately  afier 
the  Flood,  the  LXX  adds  100  years  to  the  ages  of  the  six  first 
patriarchs.  It  inserts,  also,  as  does  Luke  iii.  36,  the  name  of 
Cainan,  making  him  130  years  old  on  the  birth  of  Salah;  and 
it  calls  Serug  eighty  years  old  instead  of  thirty.     The  total 

difference,  therefore,  in  the  second  period  is  780  years 

The  Samaritan  text  agrees  with  the  LXX  in  this  period, 
except  that  it  omits  Cainan.  Before  the  Flood  it  reckons 
1307  years. 

The  difference  in  the  date  of  the  third  period  arises  from 
the  fact,  that  the  chronology  founded  on  the  LXX  reckons 
Abraham's  call  as  given  in  Haran,  while  Usher  and  the 
English  version  regard  it  as  given  five  years  before  in  Ur 
(Gen.  xii.  1.     See  also  Acts  vii.  2,  3). 


248 


CHRONOLOGY — DIFFERENT   SYSTEMS. 


I.   From  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 


Proof. 

Hebrew. 

Septuagint. 

Sam. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen.  V.   3 

Adam  lived  .... 

130  and  begat 

230 

130 

6 

Seth  lived     .... 

105        « 

205 

105 

«       9 

Enos  lived    .... 

90        « 

190 

90 

"      12 

Cainan  I.  lived     .    . 

70        « 

170 

70 

«      15 

Mahalaleel  lived  .    . 

65        « 

105 

65 

«      18 

Jared  lived  .... 

162        « 

162 

62 

«      21 

Enoch  lived     .    .    . 

65        « 

165 

65 

«      25 

Methuselah  lived     . 

187        « 

1S7* 

67 

"      28 

Lamech  lived  .    .     . 

182        « 

18St 

53 

Gen.vii.ll 

Noah  at  the  Deluge  . 

600  years. 

600 

600 

1656 

2262 

1307 

Josephus  makes  the  total  2256,  agreeing  in  Lamech  with  the  Hebrew,  and  else- 
where with  the  LXX. 


*  Some  copies,  167. 


t  Jos.  182. 


II.  and  III.     From  the  Deluge  to  the  Exode. 


Proof.    ♦ 

Hebrew. 

Septuagint. 

Sam. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen.  xi.  10  | 

Shem,    after    the 
Flood,  lived  .    . 

1 

2  and  begat 

2 

2 

«        12 

Arphaxed  lived     . 

35         « 

135 

135 

LXX,  and) 
Luke  iH.36/ 

Cainan  IL  lived     . 

• 

130  &  begat 

.    . 

Gen.  xi.  14 

Salah  lived    .    .    . 

30  and  begat 

1.30 

130 

«      16 

HelxT  lived  . 

34 

134 

1.34 

«      18 

Peleg  lived    . 

30         « 

130 

130 

«      20 

Ren  lived.    . 

•:j>>              (( 

l.'W 

1.32 

«      22 

Serug  lived   . 

30         « 

130 

130 

«      24 

Nahor  lived  . 

29         " 

79 

79 

Gen.  xi.  26, ) 
32;  xii.  4. 

Gen.  xii.  4 

Terah  lived  . 

130         « 

130 

130 

Abrah.am  lived 

f   75  and  had  the  ) 

promise.        / 

75 

75 

«  xxi.    5 

"     after  that  lived 

25  and  begat 

23 

20 

«  XXV.  26 

Isaac  lived    .    .    . 

. 

60 

60 

60 

«  xlvii.  9 

Jacob  aged    .    .    . 

. 

/ 130  and  went  to  \ 
I         Egypt.         ; 

1.30 

130 

Exod.  xiii.  "1 

40, 41 :  Sep- 

tuagint       1 
Gal.  iii.  17 :  ( 

Israelites  in  Egypt. 

'• 

215  years. 

215 

215  (?) 

See  Numb. 
xxvi.  59. 

857 

1637 

1502 

The  Exode  therefore  occurred  A. 

M. 

2.513 

3899 

2749 

or  B.  C. 

1491 

CHROtTOLOGY — TIMES   OF   TEE   JUDGES.         ,  249 

The  differences  in  the  fourth  period  are  not  owing  so  much 
to  various  readings,  as  to  the  authenticity  of  one  passage, 
and  the  meaning  of  others.  Nor  is  the  subject  free  from  grave 
difficulties. 

Usher  makes  the  fourth  period  480  years  (479  years  16  days),  taking 
as  his  guide  1  Kings  vi.  1.  If  the  reading  of  that  passage  is  correct, 
the  question  is  decided.  But  there  are  strong  doubts  concerning  it. 
Tlie  LXX  indicates  by  various  readings  the  uncertainty  of  the  text. 
In  2  Chron.  iii.  2  (the  parallel  passage),  there  is  no  date.  Josephus, 
Theophilus,  and  others  who  have  left  systems  of  chronology,  seem  to 
have  been  ignorant  of  this  computation,  Avhich  is  first  mentioned  ia 
the  4th  century  by  Eusebius,  and  he  does  not  adopt  it.  St.  Paul, 
again,  seems  to  assign  450  years  as  the  time  from  the  division  of  Ca- 
naan "till  Samuel"  (Acts  xiii.  20),  and  if  so,  the  whole  period  must 
have  been  579  years  at  least.*  Usher,  however,  supposes  the  450 
j'ears  to  refer  to  the  time  between  the  birth  of  Isaac  and  the  entry 
upon  Canaan  :  a  somewhat  forced  construction.  Josephus  mentions 
for  the  whole  period  592  years  (Ant.  viii.  3,  1) ;  632  (x.  8,  5) ;  and  612 
(xx.  10,  1) ;  and  Dr.  Hales  supposes  his  true  reckoning  to  be,  after  ob- 
vious corrections,  621  years.  Petavius  reckons  519  years.;  Greswell, 
549  years;  Jackson,  579  years;  Clinton  and  Cunningham,  612  years. 

In  turning  to  the  history  in  Judges,  and  reckoning  up  the  periods 
named,  the  questions  raised  by  these  different  views  are  not  solved. 
Six  servitudes  are  mentioned,  extending  over  111  years  ;  and  fourteen 
Judges  (not  including  Joshua,  Eli,  or  Samuel),  extending  over  279 
years,  or  390  in  all :  adding  to  this  number  46  and  83  as  in  the  note  ", 
we  have  an  entire  period  of  519  years.  But  here  are  various  elements 
of  uncertainty.  Are  these  servitudes  and  judgeships  to  any  extent 
contemporaneous.  Usher  thinks  they  are.  Hales,  supposing  that 
Judges  ii.  18  applies  to  all,  concludes  that  they  are  not.  Again,  no- 
thing is  told  us  of  the  length  of  Joshua's  government,  or  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Elders,  who  survived  him,  except  in  the  case  of  Othniel, 
his  son-in-law.  Nor,  further,  is  it  clear  whether  Eli  was  a  political 
ruler,  or  simply  a  civil  judge,  as  Usher  describe's  him.     If  the  latter, 

»  viz.    In  the  wilderness,  and  till  the  land  was  divided     46  years. 
Judges  to  Samuel     ------  4,50     " 

Saul  40 :  David  40 :  3rd  Sol.  3         -        -        -     83      " 

579 


250  •  CHRONOLOGY — THE   LXX. 

he  is  not  to  be  reckoned  chronologicaHy  among  the  Judges.  And 
lastly,  we  cannot  gather  from  Scripture  what  time  elapsed  between  the 
death  of  Samson  and  Saul.  Eli  judged  Israel  forty  years,  but  Usher 
makes  him  a  contemporary  of  Samson,  and  not  his  successor.  He 
reckons  between  Eli's  death  and  Saul's  election  twenty-one  years: 
though  Samuel  could  hardly  have  been,  in  that  case,  "old  and  gray- 
headed"  (1  Sara.  xii.  2).  Eusebius  reckons  Eli  at  forty,  and  includes 
Samuel  in  Saul's  reign,  while  Josephus  reckons  fifty-two  years  for  Eli 
and  Samuel ;  Hales  allowing  for  them  seventy-two.  Clinton  supposes 
St.  Paul's  reckoning  to  end  with  the  beginning  of  Samuel's  judgeship, 
and  adds  for  that  thirty-two  years.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may 
be  said,  that  if  we  set  aside  the  reading  in  1  Kings  vi.  1,  and  are  un- 
certain of  the  precise  meaning  of  Acts  xiii.  20,  we  have  not  materials 
for  solving  the  diiBculties  which  this  fourth  period  involves. 

The  dates  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  periods  nearly  agree,  and 
are  gathered,  the  first  from  Scripture,  and  the  second  almost 
wholly  from  profane  authors. 

357.  The  comparative  claims  of  these  systems  are  not  easily 
settled.  The  longer  chronology,  is  by  many,  considered  to  be 
best  entitled  to  confidence ;  and  among  other  reasons  for  the 
following : — 

1.  The  Hebrew  is  deemed  the  more  likely  to  have  been  altered,  as, 
for  some  time  after  the  Christian  era,  its  use  was  very  much  confined 
to  the  Jews  (and  chiefly  to  the  more  learned  amongst  them),  who  had  a 
motive  for  shortening  the  period  between  the  creation  and  the  birth  of 
Jesus,  in  order  to  make  it  appear  that  the  time  which  their  expositors  had 
fixed  for  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah  was  not  yet  passed ;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  motive  so  strong  can  be  supposed  to  have  existed  on 
the  part  of  the  Jewish  translators  of  the  Septuagint:  nor  could  there 
have  been  an  opportunity  to  alter  the  Greek  version  aftei'-itwas  made; 
for  it  was  in  extensive  circulation,  and  in  constant  public  use,  both 
among  Jews  and  Christians. 

2.  The  length  of  time  assigned  by  the  Septuagint,  the  Samaritan  text, 
and  Josephus,  to  the  period  between  the  deluge  and  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham (about  1100  years),  is  deemed  more  consistent  with  historical  facts 
than  the  shorter  time  assigned  by  the  Hebrew  (about  350  years),  which 
appears  insufficient  for  the  great  multiplication  and  extended  dispersion 
of  Noah's  descendants  over  immense  tracts  of  country,  extending  from 
India  and  Assyria  to  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Greece ;  and  for  the  estab- 


CHRONOLOGY — LXX  AND  HEBREW.  251 

lishment  of  the  organized  and  powerful  monarchies  of  Bahylon, 
Nineveh,  and  E^ypt;  besides  the  lesser  chieftaincies  of  Canaan,  which 
seem  to  have  been  founded  by  descendants  of  Ham,  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  earlier  settlers. 

3.  The  longer  chronology  appears  to  bring  the  age  of  each  patri- 
arch, on  the  birth  of  his  eldest  son,  into  better  proportion  to  tlie 
gradually  diminished  length  of  human  life. 

Those  who  adliere  to  tlie  shorter  coni2)utation  urge,  principally, 
the  following  considerations  : — 

1.  The  general  accuracy  of  the  original  Hebrew  text,  which  was 
preserved  by  the  Jews  with  most  jealous  care. 

2.  The  facilities  afforded  by  the  shorter  chronology  for  the  safe 
and  rapid  transmisson  of  revealed  truth  in  the  earliest  ages; 
Laraech  being  contemporary  both  with  Adam  and  with  Bhem,  whilst 
Shem  was  contemporary  with  Abraham. 

3.  The  coincidence  (at  least,  within  a  few  years)  of  the  date  fixed 
for  the  creation  with  a  remarkable  astronomical  epoch,  when  the 
major  axis  of  the  earth's  orbit  coincided  with  the  line  oj'  the 
equinoxes. 

4.  The  objection  drawn  from  the  shortness  of  the  interval  between 
the  deluge  and  the  birth  of  Abraham,  compared  with  the  apparent 
populousness  of  the  earth,  is  more  than  met  by  the  increase  of  man- 
kind in  newly-peopled  districts  in  modern  times,  and  by  the  fact, 
that  the  Hebrew  text  gives  at  least  as  many  generations  as  the 
LXX ;  while,  on  the  supposition  that  men  generally  married  as 
early  as  the  ages  assigned  in  the  Hebrew  text,  it  implies  a  larger 
population. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  longer  chronology  is  not  established; 
and,  without  accepting  all  the  reckonings  of  Usher,  we  may  safely 
deem  it  to  be  as  probable  as  any  opposite  system. 

358.  In  addition  to  all  tiie  difficulties  created  by  facility 
of  mistake  in  copying  figures,  and  consequent  different  read- 
ings, there  are  difficulties  in  chronology  which  arise  from 
different  modes  of  reckoning. 

The  principal    eras    begin,  as  we   have  seen,  in    different 
months.     Many  nations  have  two  or  more  modes    „  .  .     ,. 
of  reckoning  the  beginning  of  the  year  itself,  civil,    *'^'^''''^  '''!*" 

"         _    _    o  D  •'  '  '      ercpaneies. 

eccle.siastical ;    civil,  consular ;   and  above   all,  the 

year  of  chronology  does  not  agree  with  the  year  of  actual 


252  CHRONOLOGY — DISCREPANCIES. 

time.  Tlie  Julian  year,  for  instance,  consisted  of  365  days,  6 
liours,  which  was  11  minutes,  9  seconds  too  much.  From 
A.  D.  1,  to  A.  D.  1836,  therefore,  the  Julian  year  would  be  14^ 
days  in  advance.  The  Council  of  Nice,  however,  struck  out 
2i  days,  and  in  1582,  Gregory  XIII.  corrected  the  Calendar, 
by  ordering  the  5th  of  October  to  be  called  the  15th,  thus 
disposing  of  10  days  more.  In  England,  the  3d  of  Septem- 
ber, 1751,  was  reckoned  as  the  14th,  and  in  1800,  the  usual 
29th  of  February  was  omitted.  We  therefore  have  corrected 
accurately  the  overreckoning  of  the  Julian  era,  so  that  from 
A.  D.  30,  to  A.  D.  1836,  is,  within  a  few  hours,  exactly  1806 
years. 

Other  eras  are  more  erroneous  than  the  Julian,  and  it  is 
Different  obvious  that  the  absence  of  the  necessary  correc- 
^^^^'  tions  in  each,  must  give  rise  to  many  errors. 

Other  peculiarities  of  reckoning  add  further  to  our  diffi- 
culties. 

(a).  Jewish  historians,  for  example,  speak  of  the  reign  of  a  king 

which  is  continued  throucrh  one  whole  vear  and  parts  of 
Different  ,  ^,  ,,  °  ,        .  j.  -,       . 

modes  of       two  others  as  a  three  years    reign,     it  may  be  two  years 

reckoning.     ^^^  ^g^  months,  or  it  may  be  one  year  and  two  months. 

(6).  They  sometimes  set  down  the  principal  number,  the  odd,  or 
smaller  number,  being  omitted ;  as  in  Judges  xx.  35 :  see  ver.  46. 

(c).  As  sons  frequently  reigned  with  their  fatliers  in  ancient  monar- 
chies, the  time  of  the  reign  of  each  is  sometimes  made  to  include  the 
time  of  the  otherp  and  sometimes  to  exclude  it. 

Thus  Jotham  is  said  to  have  reigned  sixteen  years,  2  Kings  xv.  33 ; 
and  yet,  in  ver  30,  mention  is  made  of  bis  twentieth  year.  For  four 
years  he  seems  to  have  reigned  with  Uzziali,  who  was  a  leper.  So  2 
Kings  xiii.  1,  10 :  2  Kings  xxiv.  8,  compared  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9. 

A  similar  principle  explains  Dan.  i.  1 :  Jer.  xxv.  1 :  Nebuchadnezzar 
being  king  with  his  father  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged. 

This  peculiarity  of  reckoning  has  been  applied,  with  great  advan- 
tage, to  explain  the  chronological  tables  of  Egypt  and  other  eastern 
countries. 

{d).  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  different  modes  of  reckoning 
are  adopted  in  reference  to  the  same  transaction. 

See  Gen.  xv.  13,  and  Gal.  hi.  17 ;  Moses,  speaking  of  400  years  from 


now    TO   FRAME   A    SYSTEM.  253 

the  birth  oi  Isaac  to  the  Exode ;  Paul,  of  430  years  from  the  call  of 
Abram  to  the  giving  of  the  law,  which  occurred  three  months  after  the 
Exode.     See  Exod.  xii.  40. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  other  numbers. 

In  Gen.  xlvi.  26,  27,  it  is  said  that  all  the  souls  that  went  with  Jacob 
into  Egypt  (not  including  his  sons'  wives)  were  sixty-six,  or  (adding 
Jacob,  Jo.=!eph,  and  his  two  sons)  seventy.  In  Acts  vii.  14,  it  is  said  that 
Joseph  sent  and  called  Jacob  and  all  his  kindred,  seventy-five  persons. 
This  last  includes  the  nine  wives  of  Jacob's  sons  (for  Judah's  and  Si- 
meon's wives  were  dead,  and  Joseph's  was  already  in  Egypt).  These 
nine,  added  to  the  sixty-six,  make  the  seventy-five  mentioned  in  the 
Acts.     These  passages  were  long  supposed  to  involve  a  contradiction. 

Comparing  Ezra  ii.  and  Neh.  vii.,  we  find  that  42,360  persons  returned 
from  Babylon,  of  whom  the  numbers  of  the  tribes  of  Benjamin  and 
Judah,  and  of  the  priests,  are  given.  The  numbers  in  Nehemiah 
amount  to  31,089;  in  Ezra,  to  29,818.  Add  to  Nehemiah's  number 
494  names,  mentioned  only  in  Ezra;  and  to  Ezra's,  1,765  names,  men- 
tioned only  in  Nehemiah,  the  results  agree — 31,583.  The  difference, 
10,777,  represents  the  number  of  persons  belonging  to  other  tribes. 
This  apparent  discrepancy  was  long  regarded  as  an  objection  to  the 
narrative. 

In  reference,  generally,  to  these  apparent  contradictions,  it  becomes 
ns  rather  to  suspect  our  own  ignorance  than  the  writer's  accuracy.  No 
passage  can  appear  more  contradictory  than  Ezek.  xii.  13,  and  yet  it 
was  literally  fulfilled ;  Zedekiah  did  not  see  Babylon,  though  he  died 
there. 

In  framing  a  clironological  system,  two  rules  are  of  great 
value. 

1.  Ascertain  important  epochs,  and  reckon  onwards  or  up- 
wards from  tliem.     The  epoch  of  the  birth  of  our  Rules  for 
Lord  is  of  course  the  centre  point  of  all  modern  Naming  a 

^  system  ot 

chronology,  and  of  much  of  ancient.  The  year  of  chronology, 
the  Council  at  Jerusalem,  or  of  the  death  of  Herod,  is  the 
key  to  the  chronology  of  the  Acts :  as  the  date  of  Paul's  con- 
version is  the  key  to  his  Epistles.  The  retux'u  from  tlie  cap- 
tivity, the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
the  baihling  of  the  first  temple  are  all  (reckoning  upwards 
from  A.  D.  1)  epochs  of  Old  Testament  History.  Clinton,  in 
ditferent  parts  of  his  Fasti,  has  well  illustrated  this  rule. 


254  EXTERNAL   HELPS — NATURAL   HISTORY. 

2.  Wherever  practicable,  test  chronological  conclusions  hj 
astronomical  facts. 

The  Jewish  Passover,  for  example,  was  commenced  on  the 
day  preceding  that  on  which  the  moon  was  full,  between  the 
18th  of  March  and  the  16th  of  April.  As  the  moon  can  be 
eclipsed  only  at  the  full,  the  day  of  the  Passover  for  any  year 
will  be  the  day  preceding  any  eclipse  that  occurs  between 
those  dates.  The  Passover  day  was  the  14th  of  Nisan,  and 
reckoning  backwards  we  ascertain  the  first  day  of  each  year. 
Fifty  clear  days  after  the  14th  of  Nisan  came  Pentecost :  and 
177  clear  days  from  the  full  of  the  moon  of  Nisan — six  luna- 
tions that  is — came  the  feast  of  Tabernacles.  The  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  was  five  days  earlier,  the  10th  of  Tisri, 

Mr.  Greswell  applies  this  rule  to  confirm  his  chronology. 
Supposing  the  date  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  to  be  April  6th, 
30,  A.  D.,  he  reckons  that  an  eclipse  mentioned  by  Dion  must 
have  occurred  August  1st,  45,  A.  D.,  and  another  by  Pliny, 
April  30th,  59,  A.  D.*  Pingre's  tables,  based  on  astronomical 
calculations,  show  that  eclipses  did,  in  fact,  take  place  on  these 
days. 

Recorded  eclipses  may  be  found  in  Pingre's  tables,  and  in 
Play  fair's  Chronology.     See  also  Hales's  Chronology,  i.,  p.  74. 

Tables  have  also  been,  framed  for  correcting  errors  conse- 
quent upon  the  difference  between  the  chronological  and 
astronomical  year. 

359.  V.  Many  of  the  allusions  and  expressions  of  Scripture 
can  be  explained  only  by  the  aid  of  knowledge  of  natural 
history. 

In  Psa.  xcii.  12,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  "the  righteous  shall  flour- 
ish like  the  palm,"  and  the  habits  of  this  tree  beautifully  illustrate  the 
character  of  the  righteous.  The  palm  grows  not  in  the  depths  of  the 
forest,  or  in  a  fertile  loam,  but  in  the  desert.  Its  verdure  often  springs 
apparently  from  the  scorching  dust.     "  It  is  in  this  respect,"  says  La- 

»  Mr.  Greswell's  reasonings  on  these  facts,  however,  are  not  very 
complete.  He  fails  to  supply  the  links  which  connect  the  dates  of  the 
eclipses  with  the  date  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  255 

borde,  "  as  a  friendly  lighthouse,  guiding  the  traveler  to  the  spot  where 
water  is  to  be  found."  The  tree  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty,  its  erect 
aspiring  growth,  its  leafy  canopy,  its  waving  plumes,  the  emblem  of 
praise  in  all  ages.  Its  very  foliage  is  the  symbol  of  joy  and  exultation. 
It  never  fades,  and  the  dust  never  settles  upon  it.  It  was  therefore 
twisted  into  the  booths  of  the 'feast  of  tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii.  40),  was 
borne  aloft  by  the  multitude  that  accompanied  the  Messiah  to  Jerusa- 
lem (John  xii.  13),  and  it  is  represented  as  in  the  hands  of  the  redeemed 
in  heaven  (Rev.  vii.  9)  For  usefulness,  the  tree  is  unrivalled.  Gibbon 
Bays  that  the  natives  of  Syria  speak  of  360  uses  to  which  the  palm  is 
applied.  Its  shade  refreshes  the  traveler.  Its  fruit  restores  his  strength. 
When  his  soul  fails  for  thirst,  it  announces  water.  Its  stones  are  ground 
for  his  camels.  Its  leaves  are  made  into  couches,  its  boughs  into  fences 
and  walls,  and  its  fibres  into  ropes  or  rigging.  Its  best  fruit,  moreover, 
is  borne  in  old  age,  the  finest  dates  being  often  gathered  when  the  tree 
has  reached  a  hundred  years.  It  sends,  too,  from  the  same  root  a  large 
number  of  suckers,  which,  in  time,  form  a  forest  by  their  growth 
(Judges  iv.  5).  What  an  emblem  of  the  righteous  in  the  desert  of  a 
guilty  world !  It  is  not  uninstructive  to  add  that  this  tree,  once  the 
symbol  of  Palestine,  is  now  rarely  seen  in  that  country. 

Another  beautiful  tree  found  in  Palestine,  and  also  an  emblem  of 
the  Christian,  is  the  cedar.  "  The  righteous  shall  grow. like  the  cedar." 
This  tree  strikes  its  roots  into  the  cloven  rock.  Like  the  palm,  it  loves 
the  water  ;  and  if  the  wells  near  which  it  grows  are  dried,  it  withers, 
or  ceases  to  grow.  As  its  roots  stretch  away  into  the  mountains,  its 
boughs  are  spread  abroad.  Like  the  palm,  it  is  an  evergreen;  though 
used  to  wintry  weather,  it  is  always  covered  with  leaves.  Its  bark  and 
leaves  are  highly  aromatic,  and  the  "smell  of  Lebanon"  has  become  a 
proverb  for  fragrance.  The  cedar  is  sound  to  the  very  core.  It  adorns 
the  mountain's  brow,  and  then  does  service  in  the  temple.  After  living 
a  thousand  years,  it  preserves  all  it  touches,  and  gives  beauty  to  the 
lintels  and  ceiling  of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  Such  is  the  character  and 
influence  of  a  resolute  and  consistent  Christian  ! 

In  Dent,  xxxii.  il,  God  is  said  to  have  taught  Israel  as  the  earile 
trains  her  young.  When  the  eaglets  are  old  enough  to  flj^,  she  stirs  up 
hei'  nest,  separates  its  parts,  and  compels  the  young  birds  to  fly  to  some 
neighboring  crag ;  she  then  flutters  over  them;  teaching  them  to  move 
their  wings  and  to  sustain  and  guide  themselves  by  their  movements. 
Finding  them  weary  or  unwilling,  she  spreads  her  wings,  takes  her 
brood  upon  her  back,  and  soars  with  them  aloft.  In  order  to  exercise 
tlieir  strength,  she  then  shakes  them  off;  and  when  she  perceives  that 
their  pinions  flag,  or  that  an  enemy  is  near,  she  darts  beneath  them 


256  EXTERNAL    HELPS— NATURAL    HISTORY. 

■with  surprising  skill,  and  at  once  restores  their  strength,  or  places  her 
own  body  between  her  young  and  the  danger  that  threatens  them. 
The  eagle  is  the  only  bird  endowed  with  this  instinct,  and  the  whole 
of  her  procedure  is  suggestive  of  instructivu  lessons  in  relation  to  the 
dealings  of  God.  In'  the  history  of  ancient  Israel,  and  in  the  history 
of  the  church,  it  is  found  that  He  weans  his  people  from  their  resting- 
place — in  Egypt,  in  the  world,  and  in  their  own  righteousness — by 
means  of  affliction :  He  stirs  up  the  nest.  By  the  example  of  good 
men,  by  the  exhibition  of  his  perfections,  by  the  life  and  character  of 
his  Son,  he  flutters  over  them ;  while  his  promise  and  Spirit  sustain 
their  hearts,  and  make  their  happiness  and  safety  as  sure  and  unchang- 
ing as  his  own. 

In  mountainous  countries  like  Palestine,  the  ass,  or  mule,  was  often 
preferred  for  domestic  uses  even  to  the  horse.  Asses  are  consequently 
enumerated  among  the  riches  of  Abraham  and  Job,  Gen.  xii.  16 :  Job 
xlii.  12.  Mephibosheth,  the  grandson  of  Saul,  rode  upon  an  ass;  as  did 
Ahithophel,  the  prime  minister  of  David ;  and  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Jehoram,  the  son  of  Ahab,  the  services  of  this  animal  were  required 
by  the  wealthy.  The  Shunammite,  for  example,  a  person  6i  high  rank, 
saddled  her  ass  and  rode  to  Carmel,  the  residence  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  iv. 
8,  24.  In  later  times,  however,  and  even  from  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
the  paces  of  the  horse  began  to  be  regarded  as  more  stately  and  noble. 
Solomon  himself  introduced  a  numerous  stud  of  the  finest  horses — • 
horses  of  Arabia ;  and  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon, 
their  great  men  rode  for  the  most  part  on  horses  or  mules.  It  soon  be- 
came, therefore,  a  mark  of  poverty  or  of  humility  to  appear  in  public 
on  an  ass,  and  this  was  the  impression  generally  prevalent  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord.     (Compare  Zech.  ix.  9  with  Matt.  xxi.  45). 

The  Hebrews  employed  both  the  ox  and  the  ass  in  ploughing  the 
ground,  Isa.  xxx  24;  xxxii.  20;  but  they  were  forbidden  to  yoke  them 
to  the  same  plough,  partly  because  of  their  unequal  step,  and  partly 
because  the  animals  never  associated  happily  together.  This  prohibi- 
tion was  perhaps  intended  to  suggest  the  impropriety  of  an  intercourse 
between  Christians  and  idolaters  in  social  and  religious  life ;  but  it  was 
also  intended  in  the  first  instance,  and  chiefly,  to  protect  the  animals 
from  cruel  treatment. 

Issachar  is  compared  to  an  ass ;  and  vigor  and  bodily  strength  are 
suggested  by  the  comparison.  It  is  said  also  that  he  should  bow  his 
shoulder  to  bear,  and  prefer  the  yoke  of  bondage  to  the  difficult  issues 
of  war,  and  inglorious  ease  to  just  freedom,  Gen.  xlix.  14:  a  prophecy 
fulfilled  in  the  history  of  that  tribe,  who  submitted  successively  to  the 
Fhoenicians  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Cauaauites  on  the  other. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  257 

The  tail  of  the  Syrian  sheep  is  much  larger  than  in  other  hree^ls.  In 
a  sheep  weighing  seventy  pounds,  the  tail  will  often  weigh  fifteen ;  and 
it  is  deemed  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  animal.  Hence,  in  thp  reli- 
gious ritual  of  the  Hebrews,  the  priest  is  commanded  to  take  the  ram 
and  the  tail  (or  the  rump,  as  it  is  called  in  our  version,  Lev.  iii.  9),  and 
present  them  in  sacrifice  to  Jehovah.  Both  were  to  be  placed  on  the 
altar,  to  indicate  the  completeness  and  the  value  of  the  offering.  .  .  In 
its  domesticated  state,  the  sheep  is  a  weak  and  defenceless  animal.  It 
is  therefore  dependent  upon  the  shepherd  both  for  protection  and  sup- 
port. To  the  disposition  of  these  animals  to  wander  from  the  fold,  and 
thus  to  abandon  themselves  (in  a  country  like  Judaea)  to  destruction, 
there  are  many  touching  allusions  in  Scripture,  Psa.  cxix.  176 :  Isa.  liii. 
6.  .  .  .  The  Eastern  shepherd  calls  his  sheep,  and  they  recognize  his 
voice  and  follow  him.  His  care  of  them,  and  their  security  under  his 
protection,  are  beautifully  set  forth  in  John  x.  11.  It  is  plain  that  a 
knowledge  of  their  habits  is  essential  to  a  right  appreciation  of  the 
imagery  of  Scripture. 

The  lion  is  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength.  If  he  retreats 
from  an  enemy,  he  retreats  with  his  face  towards  him.  After  he  has 
killed  his  victim,  he  tears  it  in  pieces,  and  devours  it  with  the  utmost 
greediness,  Psa.  xvii.  12.  Hos.  xiii.  8.  The  young  lion  subsists,  accord- 
ing to  ancient  naturalists,  by  hunting,  and  seldom  quits  the  deserts; 
but  when  he  has  grown  old  he  visits  more  frequented  places,  and  be- 
comes more  dangerous  to  man.  This  fact  explains  the  language  of  God 
by  Hosea.  "  I  will  be  unto  Ephraim  (or  the  ten  tribes)  as  a  great  (or 
old)  lion,"  most  therefore  to  be  dreaded ;  "  and  to  the  house  of  Judah 
as  a  young  lion,"  chap,  v,  14.  In  accordance  with  this  prophecy, 
Ephraim  was  driven  into  a  distant  land,  where  this  tribe  suffered  a 
protracted  exile,  while  Judah  retained  its  position  for  133  years  longer, 
and  was  then  carried  into  captivity  for  the  shorter  term  of  seventy 
years.  .  .  .  One  of  the  coverts  of  this  animal  was  in  the  low  ground 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Jordan,  which,  like  the  Nile,  overflows 
its  banks  every  spring.  At  that  season,  therefore,  the  coverts  were  laid 
under  water,  and  the  wild  beasts  were  all  driven  to  the  hills,  where  they 
often  committed  great  ravages,  Jer.  xlix.  19.  "  Like  a  lion  from  the 
swellings  of  Jordan,"  thus  became  a  proverb  in  JudiBa,  which  compara- 
tively recent  discovery  has  enabled  us  to  understand.  The  energy  of 
the  Gospel  in  striking  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  impenitent,  and  ia 
imparting  comfort  to  the  church,  is  compared  to  the  roaring  of  the  lion, 
Joel  iii.  16.  The  savage  disposition  of  the  lion  is  sometimes  referred 
to,  and  then  always  in  a  bad  sense.  In  1  Pet.  v.  8,  Satan  is  compared 
22* 


258  BOTANY    OF   SCRIPTURE. 

to  a  lion,  and  the  enemies  of  the  church  generally  are  represented  under 
the  same  name,  Isa.  v.  29. 

Many  other  expressions  and  figures  are  borrowed  from  natural  his- 
tory. The  "oil"  of  the  olive  berry  soothes  pain,  and,  by  closing  the 
pores  of  the  body  agaiij^t  noxious  exhalations,  promotes  health.  It  was 
thought  peculiarly  successful  in  counteracting  the  effect  of  poison,  and 
hence  it  is  often  used  to  describe  the  power  of  the  Gospel.  Its  medi- 
cinal properties  (see  James  v.)  made  it  of  great  commercial  value:  hence 
it  is  said  that  "  he  that  loveth  oil  shall  not  be  rich." 

The  "  myrrh"  and  "  balm"  (or  balsam)  of  the  East  are  strongly  aro- 
matic gums,  which  flow  spontaneously  or  by  means  of  incision  from  the 
trees,  and  were  in  great  request  as  articles  of  commerce.  The  balm  of 
Gilead,  Jer.  viii.  22,  was  deemed  a  very  valuable  medicine,  and  the 
expression  is  often  used  figuratively  to  indicate  any  great  remedy  or 
restorative. 

The  habits  of  the  ant,  of  the  locust,  of  the  camel,  of  the  dove,  are 
all  interesting,  but  they  are  generally  sufiiciently  known,  or  are  referred 
to  with  sufficient  minuteness  in  the  Scriptures  themselves. 

360.  Since  the  English  Bible  was  completed,  our  knowledge 
of  Eastern  botany  especially  has  largely  increased ;  and  as  the 
force  of  the  imagery  of  Scripture  frequently  depends  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  plants  which  are  named,  we  append  a  table 
of  all  the  plants  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  with  such  a  descrip- 
tion as  will  enable  the  reader  to  identify  them.  In  some 
instances  the  results  are  rather  conjectural  than  certainly  ac- 
curate, but  these  are  few,  and  even  in  these  there  is  no  doubt 
as  to  the  general  accuracy  of  the  renderings  proposed.  The 
table  is  drawn  up  from  various  documents,  and  chiefly  from 
the  very  elaborate  articles  on  this  subject,  prepared  by  Dr. 
Koyle,  for  Kitto's  Biblical  Cyclopaedia. 

Almond  is  the  name  of  two  trees  mentioned  in  Scripture;  the  one,  Luz, 
translated  "  hazel,"  Gen.  xxx.  37,  is  the  wild  almond  (Boch.  Jer. 
Eosenm.),  and  the  other  Shaked,  the  cultivated  almond.  The 
flowers  are  like  the  bloom  of  the  apple-tree,  at  first  rose-colored, 
and  then  white.  It  is  hence  a  symbol  of  old  age,  Eccl.  xii.  5,  and 
from  its  early  blossoming,  of  any  sudden  interposition,  Jer  i.  11  : 
Numb.  xvii.  8 :  Gen.  xliii.  11. 

Almuci,  or  Algum,  is  not  known.  Sandal  wood,  which  is  yellow  or 
white,  and  fragrant,  answers  the  description  given  1  Kings  x.  11, 


BOTANY    OF   SCRIPTURE.  259 

12.     Tlie  name  given  in  2  Chron.  ii.  8  is  probably  an  error  of  the 
transcribers,  see  1  Kings  x.  11,  and  2  Chron.  ix.  10,  11. 
Aloes,  properly  lign-aloes,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
aloe,  which  enuts  no  agreeable  odor,  see  Psa.  xlv.  8 :  Numb.  xxiv. 
6.     This  tree  is  still  known  in  India  by  the  name  of  Aghil,  and  in 
Europe  as  the  Eagle-tree  (Aquilaria).      The  wood  is  highly  odo- 
riferous, and  the  tree  is  said  in  Eastern  tradition  to  have  been  one 
of  the  trees  of  Paradise.    The  wood  was  very  costly,  and  was  used 
to    impart   fragrance    to    the    Imen    in    which   dead   bodies  were 
wrapped,  John  xix.  40.     Heb.  Ahalim. 
Anise,  or  Dill,  occurs  only  in  Matt,  xxiii.  (awiflcv).     It  is  an  herb  of  small 
value.     Its  seeds  are  aromatic  and  carminative,  yielding  an  oil 
much  used  in  flatulency. 
Apple  of  Scripture  is  probably  the  quince,  which  is  in  the  East  more 
highly  scented  and  much  sweeter  than  in  Europe  (Cels.  Ray),  or  it 
may  be  the  citron,  a  rich  golden-colored  fruit,  Prov.  xxv.  11 ;  Joel 
i.  12 :  Cant.  ii.  3,  5 ;  vii.  8.     Heb.  Tappuach. 
Bay-tree  occurs  only  in  Psa.  xxxvii.  35,  and  is  the  laurus  nobilis,  an 

evergreen  with  an  agreeable  spicy  odor.     Heb.  Ezrach. 
Bean  occurs  in  2  Sam  xvii.  28 :  Ezek.  iv.  9,  and  is  rightly  translated. 
There  are  various  species,  but  not  widely  different  from  each  other. 
Heb.  Pol. 
Box-tree  of  the  East  is  the  same  as  that  of  Europe,  though  in  the  East 
it  grows  wild  and  large,  Isa.  xli.  19  ;  Ix.  13.    It  is  specially  adapted 
to  mountainous  districts  and  a  calcareous  limestone  soil,  like  Leba- 
non.    Heb.  Teashur. 
Briers. — The  thorny  plants  of  Palestine  are  very  numerous,  and  Rab- 
binical writers  say  that  as  many  as  twenty-two  words  are  used  in 
Scripture  to  express  this  species.     The  particular  plants  indicated 
by  these  words  are  generally  not  known,  but  they  are  nearly  all 
thorny  and  useless. 

Brier,  D^ijp^a,  Barkanim,  Judg.  viii.  7,  16,  some  thorny,  prickly 
plant.    Rosen,  translates  "flails."     pin,  Chedek,    Prov.  xv. 
19,  "thorns,"  and  Mic.  vii.  4,  "a  brier,"  a  species  of  night- 
shade, Solanum  spinosum  (Royle). 
'T'^^D.  Ez.  xxviii.  24:  n&'ip,  Isa.  Iv.  13:  -|h?pirj,  Isa.  xxxii.  13; 
and  everywhere  else  in  Isa.  except  Iv.  13  ;  thorny  plants  no 
now  known.     Heb.  Sillon  :  Sirpad :  Shamir. 
Bramble,  Judg.  ix.  14,  15,  etc.,  Tcai,  properly  thorns,  which  see: 

T    T 

nin,  thorn  or  thistle,  which  see. 


260  BOTANY    OF   SCRIPTURE. 

Nettle,  Prov.  xxiv.  31:   Job.  xxx.  7:   Zeph.  ii.  9,  ^^"iri,  Charul. 

T 

Koyle  thinks  wild  mustard.  It  is  destructive  to  other  vegeta- 
tion ;  common  to  the  East,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Char- 
dui,  or  in  English,  Curlock.  The  nettle  is  probably  the  plant 
mentioned  in  Isa.  xxxiv.  13:  Hos.  ix.  6:  Prov.  xxiv.  31 
(U5'^72p.  Kimmosh),  where  it  is  so  translated. 

Bush  (n20.  yS^Toc),  Exod.  iii.  2:  Deut.  xxxiii.  16.  The  Greek 
word  means  bramble :  and  the  Hubris  sanctus  is  common  in, 
Palestine.  Pocooke  thinks  the  hawthorne  the  more  probable. 
Heb.  Sene. 

Thistles  (tt-ii),  Gen.  iii.  18,  T^ijioMi  in  LXX  and  New  Testa- 
ment, Matt  vii.  16:  Heb.  vi.  8 :  a  common  prickly  plant 
spreading  over  the  ground.  Tribulus  (nin).  probably  a  thorn- 
bush,  .Job.  xli.  2:  Prov.  xxvi.  9:  Isa.  xxxiv.  13. 

Thurns,  a  general  name,  p-jn,  rr^n.  f  p.  f  ^2I3>D-  n^m.  QiSBJ 
(pricks),  Qi-|io,  12132     Gr.  tU^i/flx  in  the  LXX,  and  in  Matt. 

vii.  16  •  xiii.  7,  22 ;  xxvii.  27 :  John  xix.  2,  5.  All  these  words 
are  translated  thorns,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  terms  to 
lead  to  a  more  minute  knowledge  of  the  species  to  which  they 
refer:  another  name  is  -^tSSi  -^.tad,  Judg.  ix.  14,  15:  Psa.  Iviii. 

T      T 

9,  translated  "bramble,"  probably  a  kind  of  buckthorn.     It 
puts  forth  long,  slender,  thorned  switches,  and  is  by  many  sup- 
posed to  be  the  thorn  with  which  Christ  was  crowned,  Zizy- 
phus  Spina  Christi. 
Thorns,  thistles,  and  brambles  are  to  this  day  very  numerous 
in  Palestine.     The  common  bramble  and  the  holy  bramble 
(Iiub7'is  sanctus)  abound :  and  thistles  cover  large  tracts  of 
ground,  and  grow  to  a  pro<ligious  size;  among  others,  travel- 
ers mention  the  white  Syrian  thistle,  with  the  Egyptian  or 
purple  variety,  and  the  musk-scented  thistle  (Oarduus  mollis). 
Calamus,  or  Sweet  Cane,  Exod.  xxx.  23 :  Cant.  iv.  14 :  Eze.  xxvii.  19 : 
Isa.  xliii.  24  .  Jer.  vi.  20.     This  plant  is  found  in  Asia  and  Egypt, 
though  the  most  fragrant  are  said  in  Jer.  to  come  from  a  far  coun- 
try.    Dr.  Royle  thinks  that  a  species  found  in  the  Plimalayas  (and 
which  he  calls  Andrvpogon  Calamus  aromaticus)  best  answers  the 
description  of  Scripture.     It  was  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
anointing  oil  of  the  Sanctuary.     Heb.  Kana. 
Camphine,  old  English  for  Camphor,  is  probably  the  Alhenna  (Gr.  Ku- 
pros)  of  the  East:  a  very  fragrant  shrub,  with  flowers  growing 
like  those  of  the  lilac.     The  leaves  form  a  powder  used  for  dyeing 


BOTANY   OF   SCRIPTUEE.  2G1 

the  nails  and  eyebrows,  both  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  Cant.  i.  14;  iv. 
13.     Heb.  Kopher. 

Cassia,  Exod.  xxx.  24:  Eze.  xxvii.  19,  an  inferior  kind  of  cinnamon. 
The  bark  yields  an  essential  oil,  less  aromatic  than  cinnamon,  but 
in  larger  quantities  and  of  a  more  pungent  taste.     Heb.  Kida. 

Cedar,  the  name  probably  of  the  pine-tribe  of  trees,  and  especially  of 
the  noblest  of  the -tribe,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  The  Hebrew  word 
was  probably  used  with  the  same  extent  as  the  English,  hence  we 
have  the  red,  or  pencil  cedar,  which  is  a  juniper,  and  indeed  the 
cedar  of  the  Pentateuch  (Lev.  xiv.  4,  6)  was  probably  a  juniper, 
which  tree  is  common  in  the  desert  of  Sinai.     Heb.  Erez. 

Chestnut-tree,  Gen.  xxx.  37 :  Eze.  xxxi.  8,  probably  the  plane,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  of  trees.  Those  of  Assyria  were  especially 
fine,  see  Eze.  31. 

Cinnamon,  Ex.  xxx.  23:  Prov.  vii.  17:  Cant.  iv.  14:  Rev.  xviii.  13,  the 
bark  of  the  laurus  kinnamomum.  The  plant  is  found  in  India  and 
China;  but  the  best  kind  is  from  Malabar  and  Ceylon. 

Cockle,  Job.  xxxi.  40,  perhaps  the  English  plant  so  called :  but  more 
probably  a  species  of  night  shade  {Solarium  nigrum),  or  Aconite. 
The  plural  of  this  word  is  translated  "wild  grapes,"  Isa.  v.  2:  the 
nightshade  referred  to  grows  largely  in  the  East,  and  the  Arabic 
name  resembles  the  Hebrew.  The  fruit  is  narcotic  and  poisonous. 
Heb.  Beushim. 

Coriander,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  yielding  a  fruit  (called  seed)  the  size 
of  a  pepper-corn,  globular  and  grayish.  It  is  common  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  Essex.  The  fruit  is  used  by 
distillers,  etc.,  as  a  good  stomachic,  Exod.  xvi.  31;  Numb.  xi.  7. 
Heb.  Gad. 

Cucumber,  Numb.  xi.  5 :  Isa.  i.  8 ;  rightly  translated.  The  plant  is 
called  kissa  by  the  Arabs,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
East.     Heb.  Kishuim. 

Desire,  Eccl.  xii.  5.  Tiie  word  so  translated  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  caper  plant  (see  2  Sam.  xix.  34,  35),  which  yields  a  pungent 
pickle,  stimulating  to  the  appetite.  The  flower-buds,  and  in  some 
species  the  unripe  pod,  in  others  the  berry,  are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose.    Heb.  Ebiyona. 

Doves-Bung,  2  Kings  vi.  25,  is  probably  the  chick-pea,  a  vetch  common 
in  the  East.  The  same  name  is  still  applied  in  Arabic  to  the  dung 
of  pigeons,  and  to  these  peas  (Bochart,  Taylor).  Some  suppose 
that  the  root  of  a  wild-tlower,  the  star  of  Bethlehem,  is  the  article 
here  mentioned.     Pleb.  Dibliyonim. 

Ebony,  Eze.  xxvii.  15,  wood  greatly  prized  for  its  color  and  hardness 


262  BOTANY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

It  is  the  heart-wood  of  a  date-tree  which  grows  in  great  abund- 
ance in  the  East,  and  especially  in  Ceylon.     Heb.  Hobhnim. 

Fig-tree,  Arab,  teen:  properly  translated:  a  native  of  the  East;  with 
broad  shady  leaves  (1  Kings  iv.  25).  The  fig  sprouts  at  the  vernal 
equinox,  and  yields  three  crops  of  fruit.  The  first  ripening  about 
the  end  of  June,  having  a  fine  flavor,  and  generally  eaten  green 
(Jer.  xxiv.  2).  The  others  are  often  preserved  in  masses  or  cakes, 
1  Sam.  XXV.  IS,  25,  etc.     Heb.  Teena. 

Fir-tree_  (ffiii^,  Berosh)  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture,  2  Sam. 

vi.  5:  Cant.  i.  17,  etc.,  and  probably  includes  various  trees  of  the 
pine  tribe.  Some  regard  the  cypress  and  juniper  as  the  true  re- 
presentatives of  Berosh  ;  others  the  cedar,  and  others  the  common 
pine.  All  are  found  m  Palestine  :  and  as  cedar  and  fir  constantly 
occur  together  in  Scripture,  they  probably  include  the  whole 
genus. 

Flax  (niTif  Q.  Bishta,  once  translated  tow,  Isa.  xliii.  17,  more  properly 
a  wick) :  the  conunon  plant,  so  called,  used  to  make  linen,  cord,- 
and  torches;  extensively  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  Gr.  A.mv, 
Matt.  xii.  20. 

23S3.  Shesh,  translated  fine  linen  and  silk,  was  probably  the 
hemp  plant,  in  Arabic  husheesh,  yielding  an  intoxicating  drink 
(whence  assassin),  now  known  as  the  hang  of  the  East.  The  plant 
is  cultivated  in  Persia,  Europe,  and  India. 

Two  other  words  are  translated  linen  in  the  English  version,  -\'2, 
Bad ;  -ir^qi^,  Butz,  the  former  is  used  in  the  Pentateuch,  etc.,  and  is 
probably  the  linen  made  from  flax ;  the  latter  is  used  only  in 
Chron.  and  the  Prophets,  and  is  probably  cotton  cloth,  a  product 
not  mentioned  till  after  the  captivity  :  it  is  generally  translated 
fine  linen,  and  was  probably  of  finer  fibre  than  the  flax.  The 
fiu^<TOi  of  the  New  Testament  was  probably  linen.  In  the  LXX, 
^uo-a-oi  translates  both  words.  The  word  cotton  does  not  occur  in 
Scripture,  but  the  Hebrew  name  (Karpas)  is  found  in  Esth.  i.  6, 
where  it  is  translated  green.  The  cotton  plant  seems  not  to  have 
been  known  in  Palestine  before  the  captivity.  The  cotton  is  the 
lining  of  the  seed  pods,  and  is  gathered  by  hand  as  the  pods  ripen 
and  burst. 

Flag  (translated  meadow  in  Gen.  xli.  2,  18),  Job.  viii.  11,  probably  any- 
green  herbaceous  plants  of  luxuriant  growth.     Heb.  Achu. 

Fitches,  i.  e.,  vetches,  occurs  only  in  Isa.  xxviii.  25,  27,  and  is  probably 
a  species  of  Nigella.     The  seeds  are  black,  and  are  used  in   the 


BOTANY    OF   SCRIPTUEE.  263 

East,  like  carraway  seeds,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  to  food  an 
aromatic,  acrid  taste.     Heb.  Ketzach. 

Oalbanum,  Ex.  xxx.  34  only,  a  very  powerful  and  not  very  fragrant 
gum,  exuded  by  a  shrub  belonging  to  the  family  of  Umbelliferae 
{Bubon  Galhanum).     It  was  used  in  preparing  incense. 

Qarlick,  Numb.  xi.  5  only.  This  plant  is  now  known  by  the  name  of 
eschalot,  or  shalot,  and  is  common  in  Europe  [Allittm  Escalo- 
nium,  i.  e.,  of  Ascalon).  Herodotus  states  that  it  was  supplied  in 
large  quantities  to  the  laborers  engaged  in  the  erection  of  the  py- 
ramids.    Heb.  Shum. 

Gopher  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  vi.  14.  Probably  a  tree  of  the  pine 
tribe,  perhaps  cypress  (Bochart,  Celsius),  which  is  very  abundant 
in  Assyria.     Heb.  Gopher. 

Gourd,  Jonah  iv.  6-10,  is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  the  Palma 
Christi,  or  castor-oil  plant.  It  is  of  very  rapid  growth,  with 
broad  palmate  leaves,  and  giving,  especially  when  young,  an 
ample  shade.     The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  tree. 

Gourd,  Wild,  2  Kings  iv.  39.  The  wild  cucumber,  whose  leaves  are 
like  those  of  the  vine,  but  of  a  poisonous  quality  and  bitter  taste. 
Heb.  Kikayon  and  Pakuoth. 

Hemlock,  Hos.  x.  4:  Amos.  vi.  12,  translated  "  gall"  in  Deut.  xxix.  18: 
Lam.  iii.  19.  Tremellius  and  Celsius  regard  hemlock  as  the  true 
meaning:  others  think  it  a  general  name  for  any  bitter  herb 
(Royle).     Heb.  Rosh. 

Hyssop,  Exod.  xii.  22,  etc.,  either  marjoram,  a  small  shrub,  its  leaves 
covered  with  soft  wooly  down,  adapted  to  retain  fluid ;  or  the 
thorny  caper  (Royle),  which  grows  wild  in  Syria,  and  is  possessed 
of  detergent  properties.     Arab.  Asaf.     Heb.  Ezov. 

Husks  (KipaTtct),  Luke  xv.,  the  pods  (probably)  of  the  Carob-tree,  a  tree 
which  is  called  St.  John's  Tree,  is  of  middle  size,  the  fruit  consist- 
ing of  flat  pods,  six  inches  long  and  an  inch  broad.  The  seeds  are 
hard,  bitter,  and  useless,  but  the  pods  are  used  for  feeding  swine. 
The  tree  is  common  in  Spain,  and  its  pods  were  the  chief  food  of 
the  horses  of  the  British  cavalry  there  in  1811,  1812. 

Juniper,  1  Kings  xix.  4,  5:  Job  xxx.  4:  Psa.  cxx.  4,  is  probably  the 
Spanish  broom.  The  wood  of  this  tree  burns  with  a  remarkably 
light  flame,  giving  out  great  heat :  hence  coals  of  juniper  in  Psa. 
cxx.     This  fact  is  noticed  by  various  Eastern  travelers. 

Leeks  ("jisrii  Tfiao-ov),  Numb.  xi.  5.  The  word  so  translated  is  rendered 
grass,  1  Kings  xviii.  5 :  herb.  Job.  viii.  12 :  and  hay,  Prov.  xxvii. 
25.    It  properly  means  anything  green.    But  it  is  translated  leeks 


204  BOTANY   OF   SCRIPTURE. 

in  these  passages  by  most  of  the  versions ;  and  the  plant  has  been 
known  (and  indeed  worshipped)  in  Egypt  from  very  early  times. 

Lentiles,  a  kind  of  pulse  from  a  small  annual,  and  used  for  making 
soups  and  pottage.  It  is  of  the  color  of  chocolate  (reddish  brown), 
and  is  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  color  of  the  reddish  sand  around 
the  pyramids.  Wilkinson  (Anct.  Egypt)  has  given  a  picture  of 
lentile-pottage  making,  taken  from  an  ancient  slab,  Gen.  xxv.  34: 
2  Sam.  xvii.  28.     Heb.  Adashim. 

JAly,  this  word  is  probably  applicable  to  several  plants  common  in  Pa- 
lestine. In  most  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  word  is  used 
there  is  reference  to  the  lotus,  or  water-lily  of  the  Nile.  This  spe- 
cies was  eaten  as  food :  the  roots,  stalks,  and  seeds  are  all  very 
grateful,  both  fresh  and  dried.  Hence  the  allusion  to  feeding 
among  lilies.  The  "  lily  of  the  valley,"  i.  e.  of  the  water-courses, 
belongs  also  to  this  species,  Cant.  ii.  2,  16 ;  iv.  5,  etc.  The  flower 
was  worn  on  festive  occasions,  and  formed  one  of  the  ornaments 
of  the  temple,  1  Kings  vii.  19.     Heb.  Shushan. 

The  lily  of  the  New  Testament  (xp/Wv)  is  the  scarlet  martagon 
lily  {Lil.  Chalcedonium),  a  stately  turban-like  flower.  It  flowers  in 
April  and  May;  when  the  sermon  on  the  Mount  was  probably  de- 
livered, and  is  indigenous  throughout  Galilee.  It  is  called  in  the 
New  Testament  the  "lily  of  the  field,"  Matt.  vi.  28. 

Mallows,  only  in  Job  xxx.  4,  is  probably  what  we  understand  by  the 
name.  It  is  still  used  by  the  poor  as  a  common  dish.  Others  sup- 
pose that  a  kind  of  salt-wort  (orache)  is  meant ;  so  Bochart  and 
Dr.  M.  Good.     Heb.  Malluach. 

Mandrakes,  Gen.  xxx.  14,  16:  Cant.  vii.  13,  Atropa  Mandragora,  a 
plant  like  lettuce  in  size  and  shape,  but  of  dark  green  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  and  ripens  in  wheat-harvest 
(May).     It  is  noted  for  its  exhilarating  and  genial  virtues. 

Melon,  Numb.  xi.  5.  The  gourd  tribe,  to  which  cucumbers  and  melons 
belong,  are  great  favorites  in  the  East,  and  abound  in  Egypt  and 
India.  There  are  different  kinds, — the  Egyptian  {Cucumis  Chate), 
the  common  water-melon,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  probably  included 
in  the  Scripture  name.     Heb.  Abattichim. 

Millet,  Eze.  iv.  9,  the  panicum  nniliaceum  of  botanists,  a  small  grain, 
sometimes  cultivated  in  England  for  feeding  poultry,  and  grown 
throughout  the  East.  It  is  used  for  food  in  Persia  and  in  India. 
Heb.  Dochan. 

Mulberry,  in  the  New  Testament  Sycamine-tree,  Luke  xvii.  6,  (very 
different  from  the  Sycamore,  which  is  a  kind  of  fig),  is  the  mul- 
berry of  Europe,  very  common  in  Palestine.     The  word  translated 


BOTANY    OF    SCRIPTURE.  265 

nmlLerry  in  2  Sam  v.  23,  24 :  1  Chr.  xiv.  14,  15,  probably  means 
pnvlar.  The  rustling  of  its  leaves  answers  the  description  given 
in  these  passages.  The  same  word  occurs  in  Psa.  Ixxxiv.  6,  and 
is  there  regarded  as  a  proper  name  (Baca),  but  most  of  the  ver- 
sions translate  it  "  weeping  :"  Valley  of  Baca  equalling  "  vale  of 
tears." 
Mustard  (liVacr/)  is  either  a  species  of  the  plant  known  in  England 
under  this  name,  which  has  one  of  the  smallest  seeds,  and  is  itself 
among  the  tallest  of  herbaceous  plants,  or  the  Salvadora  Persica, 
a  shrub  or  tree,  whose  seeds  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  mus- 
tard (Royle,  Irby). 
Myrrh  is  the  representative  of  two  words  in  Hebrew,  of  which  the  first 
("|73  TfJiCpa.)  is  properly  translated,  Exod.  xxx.  23:  Psa.  Iv.  8,  etc.: 
Mark  xv.  23,  36.  It  is  a  gum  exuded  by  the  Bahamodendron 
Myrrha,  and  other  plants.  It  is  highly  aromatic  and  medicinal, 
and  moderately  stimulating.  The  Greeks  used  it  to  drug  their 
wine.     The  shrub  is  found  in  Arabia  and  Africa. 

(ibna.  Bedolach,  Gen.  ii.  12:  Numb.  xi.  7,  is  probably  a  gum, 
still  known  as  bdellium.  The  gum  exudes  from  more  than  one 
tree,  and  is  found  in  both  India  and  Africa. 

t2i^,  Lot,  is  properly  labdanum.  It  is  a  gum  exuded  by  the 
cistus,  and  is  now  used  chiefly  in  fumigation,  Gen.  xxxvii.  25 ; 
xliii.  11.     Other  similar  gums  mentioned  in  Scripture  are : 

Balm  ("Tis).  Gren.  xxxvii.  25 :  Jer.  viii.  22.  It  is  probably  the 
balm  or  balsam  of  Gilead  (the  Hebrew  of  which  word,  however, 
tSCS.  is  generally  translated  spice,  or  sweet  odors).  This  tree  is 
common  in  Arabia  and  Africa.  The  gum  is  obtained  in  small 
quantities,  and  is  highly  aromatic  and  medicinal. 

Frankincense  (na'pb)  '^^  ^  g^^i  taken  from  a  species  of  Storax, 
and  is  highly  fragrant.  It  was  employed  chiefly  for  fumigation, 
and  was  largely  used  in  the  service  of  the  temple.  It  was  regarded 
as  an  emblem  of  prayer.  Lev.  ii.  1 :  Psa.  cxlv.  1,  2 :  Rev.  viii.  3,  4. 
Heb.  Lebona. 

Spicery  (np5)>  Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11,  is  a  kind  of  gum,  per- 
haps taken  from  the  tragacanth  tree.     Heb.  Necoth. 

Stacte  (C]t33)  occurs  only  in  Exod  xxx.  34,  and  is  another  gum, 

not  now  certainly  known.     Celsius  thinks  it  an  inferior  kind  of 
myrrh.     Heb.  Neteph. 
Myrtle  grows  wild  in  Palestine,  and  reaches  the  height  of  twenty  feet. 
Its  loaves  are  dark  and  glossy,  and  its  wild  flowers  hi{_'hlv  aro- 
23 


266  BOTANY   OF   SCRIPTURE. 

matic.     Its  branches  were  used  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Neh. 
viii.  15:  Isa.  xli.  17-19.     Heb.  Iladas. 

Nard,  Mark  xiv.  3  (t^j,  nerd,  translated  spikenard  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment), the  plant  Nardostachys  Jatamansi,  from  which  a  delicious 
and  costly  perfume  is  made.  The  root  and  the  leaves  that  grow 
out  of  it  have  the  appearance  of  spikes,  hence  the  name  (stachys  = 
spike).  Cant.  i.  12;  iv.  13,  14:  John  xii.  3. 

Nut  is  the  translation  of  two  Hebrew  words. 

^n^tsa-  Botnim,  Gen.  xliii.  11,  the  pistachio -nut  tree,  well  known 
in  Syria  and  India,  but  not  in  Egypt,  and  tiass*.  Ego^-  ^^^^  walnut- 
tree,  which  is  called  in  Pers.  and  Arab.  "  gouz,"  Cant.  ii. 

Oak  ("liVij^),  Gen.  xxxv.  8:  Isa.  ii.  13;  vi.  13;  xliv.  14:  Eze.  xxvii.  6: 
Hos.  iv.  13  :  Amos  ii.  9  :  Zech.  xi.  2.  In  other  passages  where  the 
word  "oak"  is  found,  the  word  ought  to  be  turpentine-tree  (see 
teil).  The  oak  is  not  common  in  Palestine,  nor  is  the  English  oak 
(Q.  rohur)  found  there.  Oaks  of  Bashan  are  still  of  large  size ;  but 
they  are  chiefly  either  the  evergreen  oak  (Q.  ilex),  the  prickly- 
cupped  oak  (Q.  Valonia)  or  the  Kermes  oak  (see  Scarlet  Oak). 
Heb.  Allon. 

Olive,  an  evergreen,  common  from  Italy  to  Cabul.  The  unripe  fruit 
is  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salt,  and  is  used  at  desserts ;  when 
ripe,  it  is  bruised  in  mills,  and  yields  an  oil  of  peculiar  purity  and 
value.  Both  the  oil  and  the  tree  were  used  in  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. In  Judaea  it  was  an  emblem  of  prosperity,  Psa.  lii.  8,  and 
in  all  ages  it  has  been  an  emblem  of  peace. 

The  wild  olive  (Rom.  ii.  17,  24)  was  probably  a  wild  species  of 
the  Olea  Europcea.  It  was  a  common  mode  of  grafting,  in  Italy, 
to  insert  a  branch  of  the  wild  olive  on  the  stock  of  the  cultivated 
plant  [Columella).     Heb.  Zaith. 

Onion,  a  plant  well  known  in  this  country  and  in  the  East.  In  hot 
climates  it  loses  its  acrid  taste,  and  is  highly  agreeable  and  nutri- 
tious. Numb.  ii.  5.     Heb.  Betzal. 

Palm,  or  date-tree,  Arab,  tamr.,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  Eastern 
trees,  Exod.  xv.  27.  It  flourished  especially  in  the  valley  of  Jor- 
dan (hence  Jericho,  the  City  of  Palm  Trees)  and  in  the  deserts  of 
Syria  (Tamar  =  Palmyra).  It  was  considered  characteristic  of 
Judasa,  being  first  met  with  there  by  nations  traveling  soutliward 
from  Europe.     Heb.  Taman. 

Pomegranate  ("grained  apple"),  a  tree  of  great  value  in  liot  climates. 
Its  fruit  is  globular,  and  as  large  as  a  good  sized  apple.  The  inte- 
rior contains  a  quantity  of  purple  or  rosy  seeds,  with  a  sweet 


BOTANY   OF   SCRIPTURE.  267 

juice,  of  a  slightly  acid  taste,  1  Sam.  xiv.  2.  The  tree  is  not  unlike 
the  common  hawthorn,  but  larger.  It  is  cultivated  in  North 
Africa,  and  throughout  Asia,  Hag.  ii.  19:  Deut.  viii.  8:  Cant.  viii. 
2:  Joel  i.  12.     Heb.  Rimmon. 

Carved  pomegranates  were  placed  on  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
of  the  temple. 

Poplar,  Gen.  xxx.  36:  Hos.  iv.  13,  is  either  the  white  poplar  or  the 
storax-tree.  The  latter  yields  the  fragrant  resin  of  frankincense. 
Either  tree  answers  the  description  given  in  Genesis  and  Hosea. 
In  the  former,  the  LXX  translate  storax,  and  in  the  latter,  poplar. 
The  version  of  Genesis  is  the  more  ancient  and  authoritative. 
Heb.  Libna. 

Reed,  of  the  East,  is  a  tall,  grassy  plant,  consisting  of  a  long,  hollow- 
jointed  stem,  with  sharp-cutting  leaves.  The  plant  grows  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  in  moist  places,  1  Kings  xiv.  15 :  Job.  xl.  21 : 
Isa.  xix.  6,  7;  xxxvi.  6:  Ez.  xl.  5:  Matt.  xi.  7,  and  was  used  for 
measuring,  fishing,  walking,  etc. 

A  small  kind  was  used  for  writing,  3  John  xiii.  This  reed  ia 
very  abundant  in  the  marshes  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
phrates.    Heb.  Kane. 

Rose,  Cant.  ii.  1 :  Isa  xxxv.  1.  Though  the  rose  was  known  in  Syria, 
and  one  species  (the  Damask  rose)  takes  its  name  from  Damascus, 
it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture ;  the  word  so  translated  being  (as 
its  name  implies)  a  bulbous-rooted  plant.  It  is  probably  the  nar- 
cissus, which  is  found  throughout  Syria,  and  is  both  very  fragrant 
and  beautiful.     Heb.  Chavatzeleth. 

Rue,  only  in  Luke  xi.  42,  is  the  common  garden-plant  so  called.  Its 
leaves  emit  a  strong  and  bitter  odor,  and  were  formerly  used  medi- 
cinally. 

Rush,  Isa.  ix.  14,  translated  also  "hook,"  Job  xli.  2:  and  bulrush,  Isa. 
Iviii.  5,  ought  to  be  translated  reed,  or  rush,  in  all  these  passages. 
S^a  (Gome),  translated,  also,  bulrush,  Exod.  ii.  3:  Isa.  xxxv.  7; 
xviii.  2,  is  the  Egyptian  papyrus,  which  belongs  to  the  tribe,  not 
of  rushes,  but  of  sedges.  It  grows  eight  or  ten  feet  high.  The 
stem  is  triangular  and  witliout  leaves,  but  is  adorned  with  a  large, 
flocculent,  bushy  top.  The  plant  was  used  for  making  boats,  sails, 
mats  and  ropes ;  the  stem  itself  yielding  the  celebrated  paper  of 
Egypt.  The  plant  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Nile,  near  Babylon, 
and  in  India.     Heb.  Agmon. 

Saffron,  xgoxoc,  part  of  the  yellow  crocus.  Cant.  iv.  14.  The  stigmas 
and  "style  of  the  flower  formed  this  fragrant  perfume,  which  was 
used  to  flavor  both  meat  and  wine,  and  as  a  powerful  stimulative 


268  BOTANY    OF    SCRIPTURE. 

medicine.     It  is  very  common  tliroughout  Asia,  and  derives  its 
English  name  (safi'ron)  from  the  Arabic  "  zafran." 
Scarlet  oak,  of  Palestine,  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  the  insect 
living  upon  it  is  mentioned  (ny^pi,  Tolaath),  Exod.  xxv.  24:  Lev. 

xiv.  4,  6,  etc.  The  tree  is  the  kermes  (hence  crimson),  or  quercus 
cocci/era  (holm-oak),  and  the  insects,  a  worm  (vermes,  hence  Ver- 
million), seem  to  grow  on  the  branches,  and  were  long  thought  to 
be  vegetable  excrescences  of  the  tree  itself.  These  insects  are  a 
lively  red,  and  formed  in  early  times  the  common  scarlet  dye. 
This  was  superseded  in  part  by  the  Tyrian  purple,  and  in  later 
times  by  cochineal,  the  product  of  another  insect  [Coccus  cactus), 
indigenous  to  South  America. 

Shittah-tree,  the  acacia,  or  Egyptian  thorn,  Exod.  xxv.  5,  etc.  The 
stem  is  straight  and  thorny,  the  bark  is  a  grayish-black,  the  wood 
very  light  and  durable,  and  therefore  well  adapted  for  a  moveable 
structure  like  the  tabernacle.  All  this  species  bear  Uowers,  and 
are  remarkable  for  their  fragrance  and  beauty. 

Soap,  of  Scripture,  Jer.  ii.  22 :  Mai.  iii.  2,  was  a  carbonate  of  soda,  ob- 
tained from  a  kind  of  salt-wort.  The  ashes  of  this  species  of 
plants  is  called  in  commerce  barilla,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass.  Probably  the  carbonate  of  potash  (pearlash),  which  is 
obtained  Ly  burning  poplar  and  other  plants,  is  included  under 
this  name.     Heb.  Bor,  or  Borith. 

Sycamore,  1  Kings  x.  27 :  Psa.  Ixxviii.  47,  etc.,  erroneously  translated 
by  the  LXX  a-ux/xfAm;  (see  Mulberry).  In  its  leaves  it  resembles 
the  mulberry,  but  is  really  a  fig-tree,  bearing  a  coarse,  inferior 
fruit  (;Ficus  sycamorus).  It  is  lofty  and  shady  (Luke  xix.  4),  with 
wood  of  no  great  value  (1  Kings  x.  27 :  2  Chron.  i.  15).  The 
mummy-cases  of  Egypt  were  generally  made  of  it.  This  tree 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  English  sycamore,  which  is  a  kind 
of  maple. 

Tares  {^t^mu),  Matt.  xiii.  25,  the  Lolium  temulentum,  a  kind  of  darnell, 
or  grass,  resembling  wheat.  It  impoverishes  the  soil,  and  bears  a 
seed  of  deleterious  properties. 

Teil-tree,  Isa.  vi.  13,  is  the  linden-tree  of  botanists  {Tilia  Eiirop.)-.  called 
also  the  turpentine-tree  (Pistachia  Terebinthus).  The  word  so 
rendered  is  translated  elsewhere  elm,  Hos.  iv.  13,  and  oak,  Gen. 
XXXV.  4.  It  grows  to  a  great  size,  and  yields  a  kind  of  turpentine, 
of  agreeable  odor  and  taste.     Heb.  Ela. 

Thine-wood  (Rev.  xviii.  12)  was  in  great  demand  among  the  Romans, 
who  called  it  thya,  or  citron-wood.     It  grows  only  in  the  neigh- 


EXTERNAL  HELPS — MINERALOGY.  269 

borhood  of  Mount  Atlas,  in  Africa,  and  yields  the  sanderach  rosin 
of  commerce.     It  is  highly  balsamic  and  odoriferous. 
Vine  (nsi,  Gephen,  ajuiTriko^)  Gen.  ix.  20,  etc.,  a  well-known  tree,  and 

highly  esteemed  throughout  the  East.  The  vines  of  Eshcol,  and 
of  Sorek,  were  especially  celebrated.  The  vine  was  grown  on  ter- 
races on  the  hills  of  Palestine,  Isa.  v.  1 :  Micah  i.  6,  or  elsewhere 
on  the  ground,  Ezek.  xvii.  6,  7.  Sometimes  it  formed  an  arbor,  1 
Kings  iv.  25:  Hos.  ii.  12,  propped  up  and  trained.  A  noble  viae 
=  men  of  generous  disposition,  Jer.  ii.  21;  Isa.  v.  2.  A  strange, 
or  wild  vine  =  men  ignoble  and  degenerate,  Deut.  xxxii.  32:  Gen. 
xl.  9,  10,  etc. 
Willow,  Psa.  cxxxvii :  Isa.  xliv.  4,  was  well  known  in  Judaea,  and  one 
species,  the  weeping  willow,  is  the  Salix  Bahylonica.     (nSSDU), 

TT      ■     - 

Tsaphtsapha,  Ez.  xvii.  5,  is  probably  the  Egyptian  willow  {Salix 
JEgypt). 
Wormwood,  (,-133)^,  Laana,  c^/vS/cv,  "root  of  bitterness,"  Deut.  xxix.  17: 

Kev.  viii.  10,  11,  an  emblem  of  trouble.  Tbere  are  various  species 
of  this  tribe  (Artemisia),  of  which  the  English  plant  {A.  absinthium) 
is  a  specimen.  There  are  several  kinds  found  in  Judrea,  all  of 
which  are  exceedingly  bitter.  The  wormwood  of  commerce  con- 
sists of  the  tops  of  the  plants,  flowers,  and  young  seeds,  intermixed. 

361.  For  the  same  reason  (§  360),  we  append  tables  of  the 
minerals  mentioned  in  Scripture.  They  will  be  found  to  throw 
light  on  several  passages. 

1.  Earths  and  other  Mineral  Substances. 

Bitumen,  or  asphalt,  translated  slime,  is  an  earth-resin,  abounding  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  elsewhere.  It  was  used  as 
cement.  Gen.  xi.  3,  as  it  still  is  in  Zante  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
East.  Pliny  states  that  the  Egyptians  used  it  for  making  the 
papyrus  boats  of  the  Nile  water-tight:  (see  Exod.  ii.  3).  Heb. 
Chamar. 

Brimstone,  or  sulphur,  a  mineral  found  in  a  natural  state,  and  obtained 
by  art  from  pyrites  and  various  rock  formations.  It  is  found  in 
Palestine  in  both  states.  Gen.  xix.  24,  25 :  Psa.  xi.  6 :  Ezek.  xxxviii. 
22:  Isa.  xxx.  33;  xxxiv.  9:   Rev.  xiv.  10.     Heb.  Gophrith. 

Naphtha  is  also  found  in  Palestine,  and  is,  with  the  foregoing, 
highly  combustible.     The  word  occurs  only,  or  rather,  this  earth- 
oil  is  mentioned  only  in  Theodosius's  version  of  part  of  Daniel. 
23* 


270  MINERALOGY — STONES   AND    ROCKS. 

Clay,  an  unctuous  earth,  used  in  making  earthenware,  Isa.  xxix.  16; 
xlv.  9 :  Jer.  xviii.  4,  6,  and,  when  mixed  with  sand, — then  called 
mud — for  building,  Job  iv.  19.  tJ'it:.  Tit  (properly  dirt),  has  also 
the  meaning  of  clay  in  Isa.  xli.  25. 

Earth  has  three  representatives  in  Hebrew :  iy"lXi  Eretz,  =  the  earth, 
habitable  and  uninhabited;  n>a"S-  -A-dama,  properly,  red  earth, 
cultivable  land,  and  sometimes  the  whole  earth  ;  -jQ^,  aphar,  dry 

T   T 

earth,  or  dust.  There  are  also  words  for  very  fine  dust  (Deut. 
xxviii.  24:  Naham  i.  3),  and  a  dust  particle,  or  atom  (Isa.  xl.  15). 
Clods  of  earth  have  three  names.  Job  vii.  5;  xxxi.  33:  Joel  i.  17. 

Nitre  (soda),  natrum,  'ifi3.  Nether,  a  mineral  alkali,  (as  fii^a,  Borith, 

translated  soap,  is  a  vegetable  alkali),  found  in  a  natural  state  in 
Egypt,  etc.  It  occurs  only.  Jer.  ii.  22.  and  in  Prov.  xxv.  22. 
Vinegar  (any  acid)  makes  it  emit  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  destroys 
its  qualities  ;  hence  the  last  passage. 
Salt  abounds  in  Palestine.  The  Dead  Sea  is  strongly  impregnated  with 
it.  The  salt-valley  of  2  Sam.  viii.  13 :  1  Chron.  xviii.  12  :  Psa.  Ix., 
is  a  large  plain,  still  existing,  south-west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
salt-pits  of  Zeph.  ii.  9,  were  probably  such  as  are  still  dug  in  the 
borders  of  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which  the  water  runs,  and  where  a 
thick  crust  of  salt  is  soon  deposited.  Figuratively,  salt  expresses 
'permanence,  friendship,  payment  or  support,  sterility ;  pure,  salu- 
tary, healthy  influence ;  preserving  from  decay.  Hence  a  covenant 
of  salt,  2  Chron.  xiii.  5 :  Pi,osenm.  on  Lev.  ii.  13  :  Ez.  iv.  14,  marg.: 
Psa.  cvii.  34  (because  nothing  can  grow  in  a  soil  covered  with 
salt,  Jer.  xvii.  6 :  Judg.  xix.  45) :  Col.  iv.  6  (where  it  refers  to  ap- 
posite pure  discourse) :  Matt.  v.  13  :  Mark  ix.  50.     Heb.  Melach. 

Sand  abounds  in  Palestine,  and  is  often  used  as  a  comparison,  to  ex- 
press abundance,  extensiveness,  weight,  etc.     Heb.  Choi. 

2.  Stones  and  Rocks. 

Alabaster,  (from  the  Coptic,  the  whitish  stone)  of  the  moderns  is  a  kind 
of  gypsum :  among  the  ancients  the  word  was  applied  to  a  box, 
made  of  a  kind  of  onyx  (Pliny,  lib.  xxxvi.  chap,  i ),  Matt.  xxvi.  7: 
Mark  xiv.  3 :  Luke  vii.  37.  Pliny  states  that  it  was  much  used 
for  perfumery  boxes,  as  it  still  is  in  Egypt. 

Chalk-stones,  Isa.  xxvii.  9,  lime-stone,  the  chief  material  of  the  hills  of 
Syria  and  Palestine.  It  is  hard  and  whitish ;  sometimes  yellow  or 
gray.    Heb.  Gir. 


MINERALOGY — PRECIOUS    STOKES.  271 

Crystal  (Ezek.  i.  22:  Job  xxviii.  IS)  means  literally  in  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  ice,  a  transparent,  glass-like  stone,  of  the  flint  family.  Rev. 
iv.  6;  xxii.  1.     Heb.  Kerach,  Gabhish. 

Flint,  Deut  viii.  15-  xxxii.  13:  Psa.  cxiv.  8:  Isa.  1.  7  *-'Job  xxviii.  9, 
translated  also  rock.  The  rocks  of  Sinai,  to  which  in  Deut.  viii., 
the  word  is  applied,  are  granite,  porphyry  and  green-stone,  and 
such  rocks  are  no  doubt  intended.     Heb.  Chalamish. 

lAme  (-jiia,  Seed,  Isa.  xxxiii.  12;  Amos  ii.  1,  translated  plaster,  Deut. 
xxvii.  24),  is  more  properly  gypsum,  which  was  more  suitable  for 
the  purpo.se  named  in  Deut.  xxvii.  Lime,  or  gypsum,  was  early 
used  for  plastering,  Dan.  v.  5. 

Marble  (c^,  Shesh)  is  limestone  of  a  close  texture.  The  name  in  He- 
brew means  whiteness  and  this  was  probably  the  common  color, 
1  Chron.  xxix  2 :  Esther  i.  6  Cant.  v.  15.  It  is  very  common  in 
Arabia  and  Persia.  Josephus  states  that  the  second  temple  was 
rebuilt  by  Herod  with  white  marble,  either  from  Arabia,  or,  pos- 
sibly, from  the  hills  of  Syria. 

Bock  ("i^2>  Tsur)  is  the  generic  name.  High;  precipitous  rocks,  fit 
for  refuge,  are  called  jj^o,  Sela,  Judges  xv.  8,  11 :  1  Sam.  xiv.  4: 

Psa.  xviii.  3. 
Stone  {"p^,  Even),  is  generic.     The  Hebrew  has  distinct  names  for  peb- 
bles and  gravel,  yirn-  rii3>?3'  "1^2- 

3.  Precious  Stones. 

Agate,  a  common  compound  mineral,  of  flint  and  various  gems,  so 
called  from  the  river  Achates,  in  Sicily  (Pliny),  Exod.  xxviii.  19 ; 
xxxix.  22.  The  word  in  Isa.  liv.  12:  Ez.  xxvii.  16,  is  different 
(is'ns)-  -^  similar  Arabic  word  means  vivid  redness,  and  the  stone 
referred  to  is  j^robably  the  oriental  ruby. 

Amethyst,  a  kind  of  blue  transparent  quartz,  sometimes  purple  or 
grayish ;  supposed  by  the  Greeks  to  have  the  power  of  driving 
away  drunkenness,  hence  its  Greek  name ;  by  the  Hebrews,  of 
procuring  dreams  (fi^rii  Chelem,  a  dream).  Rev.  xxi.  20. 

Beryl,  Tarshish  stone,  or  chrysolith,  properly,  a  gem  of  yellow  gold 
lustre,  sometimes  verging  to  yellow  green,  Exod.  xxviii.  20;  xxxix. 
13:  Cant.  V.  14:  Ezek.  i.  16,  etc.:  Rev.  xxi.  20:  see  Onyx. 

Carbuncle  (flashing  as  lightning) ;  the  word  so  translated  is  rather  the 
oriental  emerald  (a-jua^x-yfoc),  a  beautiful  green,  of  different  shades, 
Exod.  xxviii.  17:  Ezek.  xxviii.  13:  so  LXX :  Jos. 


272  MINERALOGY — PRECIOUS    STONES. 

Other  words  are  used  in  Isa.liv.  12,  meaning  "sparkling stones." 
Carbuncle  is  derived,  etymologically,  from  carbo,  a  glowing  coal. 
See  Emerald. 
Diamond,  i:^))'^^^,  Yahalom,  and  Ti>aii5,  Shemir.  The  first  is  the  Onyx, 
a  kind  of  chalcedony,  of  various  tints.  When  red,  called  sar- 
donyx (see  Sardius) ;  reddish  gray,  chalcedonyx ;  tawny,  memphi- 
tonyx.  This  gem,  the  onyx,  was  semi-transparent  (like  the  human 
nail,  hence  its  name),  and  was  much  used  for  cameos  and  seals, 
Exod.  xxviii.  18-   Ezek.  xxviii.  13. 

The  second  is  found  Jer.  xvii.  1  (also  Ezek.  iii.  9:  Zee.  vii.  12, 
translated  adamant),  and  probably  means  evierij,  an  aluminous 
mineral, .very  hard,  used  for  polishing  glass. 

Emerald,  rather,  carbuncle,  under  which  name  several  brilliant  red 
stones  were  included,  especially  the  ruby,  garnet,  etc.  Exod. 
xxviii.  18  :  Ezek.  xxviii.  13. 

Jasper,  an  opaque  gem,  of  various  tints,  green,  red  and  yellow,  Exod. 
xxviii.  20:  Ezek.  xxviii.  13:  Rev.  iv.  3;  xxi.  11,  18,  19. 

Li'jure,  hyacinth,  or  jacinth,  a  transparent  gem,  orange-yellow-red, 
found  in  Ceylon  and  India,  Exod.  xxviii.  19.  Rev.  xxi.  20;  ix.  17. 

Onyx,  probably  the  beryl  or  chrysoprase,  Gen.  ii.  12 :  Rev.  xxi.  20  (i.  e., 
a  leck-green  stone),  generally  transparent,  and  a  pale  green  color, 
Exoil.  XXV   7.  Ezek.  xxviii.  13 

Sapphire,  a  transparent  gem,  generally  sky-blue,  and  very  hard;  hence 
the  floor  of  the  throne  of  God  in  heaven  is  compared  to  it,  Exod. 
xxiv.  10:  Ezek  i  26:  Rev  xxi.  19.  The  sapphire  of  the  Greeks 
was  our  lapis  lazuli,  the  same  color  as  the  Scripture  sapphire,  but 
much  softer. 

Sardius,  (tjiit,  Odem,  red  stone),  properly,  cornelian  (a  came),  a  flesh- 
colored  gem,  of  the  chalcedony  family.  It  abounds  in  Arabia,  and 
was  found  largely  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia,  Exod.  xxviii.  17:  Ezek. 
xxviii.  13:   Rev.  iv.  3;  xxi.  28. 

Topaz,  a  yellow  gem,  with  red,  gray  or  green  tinge,  found  in  South 
Arabia.  Hence  the  topaz  of  Gush  ;  an  island  of  the  Arabic  Gulf 
being  called  Topaz  island  (Diod.  Sic.  Pliny),  Job  xxviii.  19;  Exod. 
xxviii.  17:  Ezek.  xxviii.  13:  Rev.  xxi.  29. 

The  descriptions  in  Revelation,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  closely 
connected  with  those  in  Exodus,  and  in  Ezekiei. 

4.  Mktals. 
Amber,  Ezek.  i.  4,  27;  viii.  2,  properly,  a  metal  composed  of  copper 


MINERALOGY — METALS.  273 

and  gold.  Electron,  which  is  used  by  the  LXX  to  translate  it, 
meant  amber,  and  also  a  similar  composition  (Pliny).  The  cor- 
responding Greek  word  is  found  in  Kev.  i.  15,  "  fine,  shining 
brass." 

Antimony,  or  stibium,  occurs  in  the  Hebrew,  but  is  translated  paint 
(viz.,  the  eyes),  literally,  with  antimony,  2  Kings  ix.  30:  Jer.  iv. 
30 :  Ezek.  xxiii.  40.     The  verb  is  ^ni>  Kachal,  to  color  with  al-ko- 

-T 

hol,  Bifine  black  powder  made  from  the  metal.     The  name  (i.  e.,  'pj, 

al-kohol),  was  ultimately  applied  (in  Europe)  to  the  purely  spiritu- 
ous part  of  liquors.  The  stones  of  Jerusalem  are  said  to  be  set  in 
stibium,  "fair  colors,"  Isa.  liv.  11. 

Copper,  or  brass:  the  former  word  is  derived  from  Cyprus,  where  it 
was  largely  found.  Brass  is  copper  mixed  with  zinc  or  tin.  In 
early  times  this  metal  was  gen«rally  used  instead  of  iron.  Wher- 
ever the  word  steel  occurs  in  our  version,  the  original  is  brass. 
There  is  ample  evidence  from  classic  and  Egvptian  authorities  that 
brass  was  extensively  used,  and  it  is  said  that  the  Egyptians  had 
the  art  of  tempering  it.  It  was  employed  in  making  bows,  and 
arms  of  all  kinds.  The  columns  of  the  temple,  1  Kings  vii.  13-21, 
the  bath,  or  sea,  in  the  priests'  vestibule,  the  forks  used  in  sacrifice, 
the  mirrors,  were  all  of  this  material,  Exod.  xxxviii.  8 :  2  Kings 
XXV.  13.  The  "  copper  shining  like  gold,"  Ezra  viii.  27,  was  proba- 
bly a  mixture  of  the  two  metals.     See  Amber. 

Gold,  ("li^p,  Segor,  tijn3>  Kethem,  properly,  what  is  barely  concealed; 
y-in.  Charuts,  what  is  strongly  lustrous  ;  ^q,  Paz,  pure  gold  ;  and 
an^,  Zahab,  gold  itself,  its  mineral  name)  is  found  pure,  and  in 
combination  with  silver  or  iron.  The  Jews  obtained  their  gold 
chiefly  from  Sheba  and  Ophir,  both  in  Arabia,  1  Kings  ix  28  Psa. 
xlv.  9.  At  present  no  gold  is  found  there,  but  ancient  writers  (Ar- 
temid.  Diod.  Sic.)  affirm  that  it  was  formerly  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  places  named  in  Dan.  x.  5,  and  2  Chron.  iii  6 
are  not  known.  Beaten,  or  perhaps  alloyed  (Ges.)  gold,  is  men- 
tioned in  1  Kings  x.  16,  17.  Gold  and  silver  were  sometimes 
purified  by  fire,  Prov.  xvii.  3;  lead,  antimony,  salt,  tin,  and  bran, 
being  used  lor  this  purpose.  Gold  ornaments  were  early  used. 
The  first  mention  of  gold  money  is  in  David's  age,  1  Chron.  xxi.  25. 

Iron  was  largely  found  in  Syria,  even  in  the  earliest  times,  Deut.  viii. 
9.  Instruments  and  tools  were  made  of  it.  Numb.  xxxv.  16:  Deut. 
xxvii.  5.  Steel  is  called  in  Jer.  xv.  12,  "northern  iron."  The 
tribe  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  making  it  were  called  Chaly- 


274  EXTERNAL    HELPS — MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS. 

bes,  and  resided  near  the  Black  Sea.  Hence  Jer.  description  :  and 
its  Greek  name.  Another  name  for  steel  (mbQ-  Palda.  from  the  Ara- 
bio),  is  translated  torches,  Nahum  ii.  4:  steel  scythes.     See  Copper. 

Lead  is  first  mentioned,  Exod.  xv.  10.  Before  quicksilver  was  known, 
it  was  used  to  purify  silver.  Hence  several  expressions,  Jer.  vi. 
29 :  Ezek.  xxii.  18.  In  Amos  vii.  7,  a  weight  of  lead,  or  plummet, 
is  mentioned.     The  word  is  the  Arabic  for  lead  ('T:3^^,  Anak). 

Ore  of  gold  or  of  silver  has  in  Hebrew  a  separate  name.  It  means, 
properly  (Arabic  similar),  something  broken  off.  It  is  variously 
translated  in  our  version.     Heb.  '-|2I2li  Betzar. 

Silver  (hD3i  Keseph,  literally,  as  in  Greek,  white  metal)  is  found  native 
and  combined  with  sulphur  and  acids.  It  often  lies  in  veins,  Job 
xxviii.  1,  and  was  purified  by  lead  and  heat  (see  Lead).  Lead  and 
silver  combined  is  called  silver  dross ;  the  separated  silver,  purified 
silver,  Psa.  xii.  6.  It  was  brought  (among  other  places)  from 
Spain,  Ezek.  xxvu.  1  - ;  Jer.  x.  9.  In  very  early  times  we  find  it 
in  use,  Gen.  xxiii.  15,  16.  Many  utensils  were  made  of  it.  Gen. 
xliv,  2:  Exod.  xii.  35:  Numb.  vii.  13;  x.  2.  The  earliest  mention 
of  it  as  money  is  in  Gen.  xx.  16.  The  shekels  were  not  coins,  how- 
ever, but  pieces  weighed  out ;  see  Gen.  xxiii.  16 :  so  even  in  the 
days  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  xxxii.  9.  The  first  coinage  in  Palestine 
was  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees  :  see  p.  286.  The  word  rendered 
pieces  of  silver  in  Josh.  xxiv.  32,  is,  properly,  a  kesitah,  i.  e.,  a 
piece  equal  to  four  shekels,  as  Gesenius  gathers  from  Gen.  xxxiii. 
19,  and  xxiii.  16. 

Till  is  first  mentioned.  Numb.  xxxi.  22.  Later,  the  Tyrians  imported 
it  from  Tarshish,  Ezek.  xxvii.  12:  a  leveling  instrument  of  tin  is 
mentioned,  Zech.  iv.  10.  This  word  is  also  used  for  a  refuse  of 
lead  and  silver  (see  Lead),  in  Isa.  i.  25. 

For  further  information  on  the  foregoing,  consult  Rosen- 
muller  on  the  mineralogy  of  Scripture,  and  Gesenius's  Lex. 

362.  vi.  A  knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
JeWvS  is  of  great  service  in  interpreting  Scripture. 

303.  Habitations,  (a.)  The  founders  of  the  Israelitish 
nation  were  a  tent-dwelling  people.  Tents  were  invented 
before  the  deluge,  and  seem  naturally  associated  with  pastoral 
life,  Gen.  iv.  20.     The  first  tents  were  covered  with  skins, 


MANNEKS — HABITATIONS.  215 


Ex.  xxvi.  14,  but  tlie  coverings  of  most  of  those  mentioned  in 
Scripture  were  of  goat's  hair,  spun  and  woven  by  the  women, 
(Ex.  XXXV.  24)  :  hence  their  black  color  (Sol.  Song  i.  5):  tents 
of  linen  were  used  only  occasionally  for  holiday  or  travelling 
purposes.  The  early  tent  was  probably  such  as  is  still  seen  in 
Arabia,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  high  in  the 
middle.  Sometimes  a  person  of  consequence  had  three  or  four 
tents ;  one  for  himself,  another  for  his  wives,  a  third  and 
fourth  for  his  servants  and  strangers.  Gen.  xxiv.  67 ;  more 
commonly,  however,  a  very  large  tent  was  divided  by  curtains 
into  two  or  three  compartments.  The  Holy  Tabernacle  was 
formed  on  this  model,  Ex.  xxvi.  31-37. 

(b.)  Of  huts,  the  intermediate  erection  between  the  tent  and 
the  house,  we  read  but  little  in  Scripture.  Jacob  seems  to 
have  used  them  to  shelter  his  cattle  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17),  and  we 
find  them  in  later  times  erected  in  vineyards  to  protect  those 
who  watched  the  ripening  produce  (Job  xxvii.  18 :  Isa.  i.  8). 

(c.)  The  Israelites  probably  saw  good  houses  in  Egypt ;  on 
entering  Pale.stine,  however,  they  occupied  the  houses  which 
their  predecessors  had  built,  and  afterwards  constructed  their 
own  on  the  same  model.  Domestic  architecture  must  have 
made  progress  during  the  monarchy.  Solomon's  palace,  built 
by  the  aid  of  Phcenicians,  no  doubt  suggested  improvements. 
Jeremiah  (xxii.  14)  indicates  some  grandeur  in  building,  and 
in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  the  upper  classes,  at  all  events,  had 
gathered  instruction  from  the  rules  even  of  Grecian  art. 

364.  (a.)  The  houses  of  the  poor  in  the  East,  were  generally 
built  of  mud,  and  thus  became  appropriate  images 

,  .  ,  °  House.s. 

of  the  frailty  of  human  life.     The  walls  were  easily 

broken  through,  and  the  houses  as  easily  destroyed  (Job  xxiv. 

,16:  Ezek.  xii.  5:  Matt.  vi.  19.) 

(5.)  The  houses  of  the  rich  were  of  a  different  order.  They 
had  generally  four  sides,  of  which  one  fronted  the  street, 
having  only  a  door,  and  one  or  two  small  windows  above. 
The  door  opened  into  a  porch,  and  the  porch  led  by  a  side 
door  into  a  waiting-room,  and  the  waiting-room  into  a  four- 


27G  MANNERS — HABITATIONS. 

sided  court,  open  at  the  top,  and  surrounded  by  the  inner 
walls  of  the  house.  Covered  walks  often  running  along  by  the 
walls  on  the  ground-floor,  while  above  them  M^as  a  gallery  of 
the  same  dimensions.  Opposite  the  pa.ssage  leading  from  the 
waiting-room  intx)  the  court,  was  the  guest-chamber  (Luke 
xxii.  11),  where  the  master  received  visitors,  and  occasionally 
transacted  business.  The  roof  was  flat,  surrounded  on  the 
outside  by  a  breast-work  or  battlement ;  and  on  the  side  next 
the  court,  by  a  balustrade  of  lattice-work.  The  stairs  to  the 
roof,  and  to  each  story  of  the  building,  were  generally  in  a 
corner  of  the  quadrangle  nearest  the  entrance,  so  that  each 
visitor  ascended  to  the  roof,  and  to  each  of  the  rooms,  without 
passing  through  the  rooms  below.  In  summer,  the  people 
slept  on  the  roof,  and  at  all  times  it  was  used  as  a  place  of 
devotion,  of  mourning,  and  of  rest.  At  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles tents  were  erected  here,  and  during  festivals  or  public 
rejoicings,  the  guests  often  assembled  in  the  square  below, 
which  was  sometimes  covered. 

These  facts  explain  the  following  passages  and  many  others : 
Deut.  xxii.  8:  1  Sam.  ix.  25:  2  Sam.  xi.  2:  Isa.  xxii.  1:  Acts 
X.  9  :  Mark  xiii.  15  :   Mark  ii.  4. 

((?.)  The  doors  of  eastern  houses  were  double,  and  moved  on 
pivots  :  they  were  secured  by  bars  (Deut.  iii.  5  :  Judges  xvi. 
3),  of  wood,  or  of  metal,  Isa.  xlv.  2.  Ancient  locks  were 
merely  wooden  slides,  secured  by  teeth  or  catches,  Sol.  Song 
V.  4.  The  street-doors,  as  well  as  the  gates  of  towns,  were 
adorned  with  inscriptions  taken  from  the  Law  (Deut.  vi.  9). 
The  windows  had  no  glass,  but  were  latticed :  in  winter  they 
were  covered  with  thin  veils,  or  with  shutters  having  holes 
sufiicient  to  admit  light,  1  Kings  vii.  17 :  Sol.  Song  ii.  9. 

(d.)  No  ancient  houses  had  chimneys,  though  holes  were 
sometimes  made,  through  which  the  smoke  escaped,  Hos. 
xiii.  3.  In  the  better  class  of  houses,  the  rooms  were  warmed 
by  charcoal,  as  is  still  the  practice  in  the  East  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
22) :  John  xviii.  18. 

(e.)  The  articles  of  household  furniture  in  use  in  the  East, 


MANNERS — DRESS.  277 

have  always  been  few  and  small.  In  sitting  rooms,  little 
chairs  or  seats,  and  sometimes  tables  appear,  Mark  xiv.  54. 
The  seat  was  either  a  rug  or  mat,  on  which  the  people  sat 
cross-legged,  or  with  their  knees  bent  under  them,  or  a  legged 
seat,  such  as  chairs  and  stools  (1  Kings  ii.  19 :  1  Sam.  i.  9. 
Prov.  ix.  14  :  Matt.  xxi.  12).  The  beds  consisted  generally 
of  mattresses  and  quilted  coverlets  ;  sheets,  blankets  and  bed- 
steads were  not  known,  though  on  the  house-tops  a  settee  of 
wood,  or  a  legged  frame  of  palm  branches  was  used,  on 
which  to  place  the  bed  (Psa.  cxxxii.  3  :  Amos  vi.  4.) 

(/.)  The  common  domestic  utensils  were  of  earthenware, 
or  of  copper,  and  a  few  were  of  leather:  they  consisted  of  pots, 
kettles,  leather  bottles,  plates,  cujjs,  etc. ;  lamps  fed  with  olive 
oil  were  used  for  giving  light  at  night  and  were  of  earth  or  of 
metal :  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  they  were  placed  upon 
stands,  called  candlesticks,  and  those  had  occasionally  branches 
for  several  lamps  (Gen.  xv.  17  :  Ex.  xxv.  31-40).  A  lamp 
was  always  kept  burning  at  night  (Job  xviii.  6 :  Prov.  xx.  20.) 

(g.)  The  towns  of  Palestine  were  small  in  size,  but  very 
numerous.  Jerusalem,  Samaria,  and  afterwards  Csesarea,  seem 
to  have  been  the  only  exceptions :  from  the  want  of  temples 
and  public  buildings  (except  at  Jerusalem),  they  must  have 
had  but  a  mean  appearance,  the  streets  being  exceedingly 
narrow,  dull,  and  uupaved.  Even  in  the  time  of  Moses,  those 
towns  had  many  of  them  high  walls  (Numb.  xiii.  25-33),  and 
gates  implying  walls  are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xix.  1).  At  the  gates  most  of  the  pubHc  busi- 
ness was  transacted  (Gen.  xxiii.  10,  18:  Deut.  xxi.  19:  Ruth 
iv.  1)  :  there  also  the  markets  were  held  so  long  as  the  business 
of  the  Israelites  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  sale  of  their  pro- 
duce, or  flocks  (2  Chron.  xviii.  9:  Neh.  viii.  1,  3);  but  after- 
wards, they  had  in  the  large  towns,  bazaars,  or  covered  streets 
of  shops,  such  as  are  now  usual  in  the  East. 

365.   The  DRESS  of  the  Jews  consisted  commonly  of  two  gar- 
ments: the  one  a  close-bodied  frock  or  shirt,  gen- 
erally with  long  sleeves,  and   reaching  to  a  little  ^^^^^' 
24 


278  MANNERS — DRESS. 

below  the  knees,  though  later  to  the  ankle  :  and  the  other,  a 
loose  robe  of  some  yards  in  length,  fastened  over  the  shoulders 
and  thrown  around  the  body.  Within  doors,  the  first  dress 
only  was  often  worn.  It  was  regarded,  however,  as  a  kind  of 
undress,  in  which  it  was  not  usual  to  pay  visits,  or  to  walk 
out.  Hence  persons  clothed  in  it  alone,  are  said  in  Scripture 
to  be  naked  (Isa.  xx.  2,  4  :  John  xxi.  7  :  John  xiii.  4)  or  to  have 
laid  aside  their  garments. 

The  sleeves  were  generally  sufBciently  long  to  cover  the 
hands,  and  were  used  during  visits  of  ceremony  to  conceal 
them.  On  occasions  when  great  or  continued  effort  was 
required  or  implied,  the  arm  was  "  made  bare,"  and  the  sleeve 
tucked  up  or  removed,  Isa.  lii.  10:  Ezek.  iv.  7. 

The  outer  garment  (a  kind  of  mantle  or  plaid),  sometimes 
served  as  a  covering  by  night,  or  as  a  bed  (Deut.  xxiv.  13 : 
Exod.  xxii.  27).  The  Israelites  on  leaving  Egypt,  folded  their 
kneading  troughs  in  it.  Prophets  and  others  wrapped  it 
round  their  heads  as  an  expression  of  reverence  or  of  grief 
(1  Kings  xix.  13 :  2  Sam.  xv.  30 :  Esth.  vi.  12),  or  sometimes 
as  a  protection  from  the  rain  or  wind.  When  gathered 
around  the  middle  of  the  body,  the  garment  is  called  the 
lap  (2  Kings  iv.  39) ;  when  gathered  around  the  shoulders, 
the  bosom  (Psa.  Ixxix.  12 :  Luke  vi.  38).  A  considerable 
part  of  tlie  wealth  of  Eastern  nations  consisted  in  these  gar- 
ments, which  were  easily  exchanged,  and  were  often  given 
and  worn  as  expressions  of  affection  and  respect,  Gen.  xlv. 
22  :  2  Kings  v.  22. 

For  a  single  shirt,  the  wealthy  classes  sometimes  substituted 
a  shirt  of  fine  linen,  and  an  outer  one  of  coarser  material,  the 
mantle  being  worn  as  an  additional  garment.  The  beauty  of 
these  garments  consisted  not  in  their  shape,  which  never 
varied,  but  in  their  whiteness,  Eccles.  ix.  8,  and  they  were 
torn  or  rent  in  token  of  sorrow  or  repentance,  Gen.  xxxvii. 
34 :  Job  i.  20. 

The  inn.er  garment  was  made  of  either  linen  or  cotton,  the 
outer  garment  generally  of  wool,  or  of  wool  and  hair.    The  art 


MANNERS — DRESS.  279 

of  embroidery  was  evidently  somewhat  known,  Exod.  xxxv. 
35:  Judges  v.  30;  and  one  family  seems  to  have  been  pecu- 
liarly famous  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  linen,  1  Chron.  iv.  21. 
White,  blue,  and  various  shades  of  red  and  purple,  were  the 
favorite  colors  for  clothes,  and  no  others  indeed  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture. 

Around  the  shirt,  or  inner  garment,  a  girdle  was  sometimes 
worn,  made  of  leather,  fastened  with  clasps,  2  Kings  i.  8,  or 
of  muslin,  wound  in  many  folds  around  the  waist,  Jer.  xiii.  1: 
Matt.  iii.  4  ;  and  still  more  commonly  around  the  mantle.  To 
have  the  loins  girt  in  this  way  was  especially  necessary  in  tra- 
veling, or  when  engaged  in  strenuous  effort  of  any  kind.  In 
the  girdle  a  knife  or  sword  was  sometimes  carried,  or  in  the 
case  of  literary  men,  an  inkhorn  and  pens,  2  Sam.  xx.  8 : 
Ezek.  ix.  2 :  other  valuables  were  often  put  into  it  too,  1  Sam. 
XXV.  13:  2  Sam.  xviii.  11:  Matt  x.  9  (Greek\ 

Drawers  were  a  part  of  the  dress  of  the  High  Priest,  and 
were,  perhaps,  used  in  later  times  by  the  people  generally 
(Exod.  xxviii.  42).     They  were  worn  next  the  person. 

The  feet  were  covered  with  sandals,  consisting  of  soles  of 
leather,  or  of  wood,  bound  to  the  foot  by  thongs  or  latchets 
(Matt.  iii.  11).  In  transferring  property,  or  in  passing  to  the 
next  of  kin  any  personal  obligation,  it  was  customary  to  deliver 
a  sandal  (Kuth  iv.  7)  as  in  the  middle  ages,  a  glove.  To  throw 
a  shoe  or  a  sandal  over  a  country  was  a  symbol  of  possession 
(Psa.  Ix.  8).  To  remove  the  sandals  was  an  expression  of 
reverence  (Exod.  iii.  5 :  Deut.  xxv.  9).  The  operation  being 
often  performed  by  servants ;  to  loose  or  to  carry  them  was  a 
familiar  symbol  of  a  servile  or  degraded  condition,  Mark  i.  7 : 
Acts  xiii.  25  :  Matt.  iii.  11  •  Isa.  xx.  4.  Stockings  were  never 
in  use,  and  the  mass  of  the  people  went  altogether  barefoot, 
except  in  winter,  or  during  a  journey. 

The  neck  was  generally  left  bare,  and  very  frequently  the 
head ;  when  covered,  it  was  protected  among  the  higher 
classes  by  a  kind  of  turban,  and  among  the  common  people 
by  a  piece  of  cloth  confined  by  a  fillet  around  the  brows :  in 


280  CUSTOMS — FOOD    AND    MEALS. 

the  case  of  women,  this  turban  was  connected  with  a  veil  cov- 
ering the  upper  part  of  the  person. 

The  Israelites  allowed  the  hair  of  the  head  and  beard  to 
grow  ;  the  former  was  occasionally  cut,  and  the  partial  use  of 
the  razor  in  trimming  the  beard  was  not  unlawful.  Baldness 
was  rare,  and  was  desj^ised,  2  Kings  ii.  23  :  Isa.  iii.  24  :  Jer. 
xlvii.  5.  The  beard  as  the  sign  of  manhood  was  much  re- 
spected ;  to  shave  it,  to  spit  upon  it,  to  jiull  it,  even  to  touch 
it,  except  as  a  salutation,  was  a  gross  insult  (2  Sam.  x.  4-6 : 
1  Chron.  xix.  3-6 :  Isa.  vii.  20),  and  for  a  man  to  neglect  or 
maltreat  his  own  beard,  was  a  sign  of  madness  or  of  extreme 
grief  (1  Sam.  xxi.  13 :  2  Sam.  xix.  24 :  Isa.  xv.  2). 

366.  All  the  Easterns  generally,  and  the  Israelites,  were 
,  ,  simple  and  plain  in  their  food,  which  consisted 
meals.  largely  of  bread,  fruits,  honey,  milk,  butter,  and 

cheese.  Meat  was  but  little  used,  animal  food  being  in  some 
degree  restricted  by  the  law,  which  allowed  the  flesh  of  no 
beasts  to  be  eaten,  but  such  as  chewed  the  cud  and  parted  the 
hoof,  nor  any  fish  but  such  as  had  both  fins  and  scales  (Lev. 
ii.  1-28).  It  was  in  this  general  way  that  the  hog  was  forbid- 
ben,  but  as  it  was  commonly  eaten  in  the  East,  this  application 
of  the  prohibition  of  the  law  attracted  more  attention  than 
the  rest.  Blood  and  fat,  the  large  lobe  of  the  liver,  and  the 
kidneys  were  also  forbidden.  Poultry  was  used  but  sparingly, 
pigeons  and  the  common  fowl  being  the  only  domestic  birds 
kept  in  Palestine,  except  the  "fatted  fowl"  provided  for  the 
tables  of  Solomon  and  Nehemiah  (1  Kings  iv.  23:  Neh.  v. 
18).  Eggs  are  only  twice  mentioned  as  articles  of  food. 
Though  fish  with  fins  and  scales  were  allowed,  it  does  not 
seem  that  much  use  was  made  of  this  indulgence  :  the  opera- 
tions of  fishing  were  clearly  well  known,  however  (Job  xix. 
6 :  Isa.  Ii.  20 :  Job  xli.  1 :  Isa.  xix.  8) :  fish-ponds  are  men- 
tioned in  Sol.  Song  (vii.  4)  :  fi.sh  were  even  brought  by  the 
Phcenicians  across  the  country,  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xiii.  16),  and  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city, 


CUSTOMS — FOOD   AND   MEALS.  281 

called  the  Fisli-gate,  seems  to  have  been  appropriated  as  the 
place  of  sale  (2  Chroii.  xxxiii.  14 :  Neh.  iii.  3). 

Among  insects,  it  may  he  noticed,  that  locusts  were  per- 
mitted to  be  eaten.  Lev.  xi.  22,  and  were  a  common  article  of 
food  in  the  East,  Matt.  iii.  4. 

Bread  was  not  baked,  as  with  us,  in  loaves,  but  in  cakes, 
rolls,  and  large  thin  biscuits,  each  family  baking  its  own,  and 
that  daily.  The  modes  of  baking  were  various  ;  the  thicker 
roll  or  cake  was  baked  upon  the  heated  hearth;  the  thin 
bread  upon  metal  plates,  or  around  the  sides  of  earthenware 
vessels,  or  of  a  pit  in  the  floor.  Gen.  xviii.  6 :  Lev.  ii.  2,  4,  5. 
This  work,  like  that  of  grinding  corn,  was  at  first  performed 
by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  families,  Gren.  xviii.  6 :  2  Sam. 
xiii.  6,  8 :  Jer.  vii.  18 ;  but  was  in  time  abandoned  in  some 
cases  to  servants,  1  Sam.  viii.  13.  The  bread  in  common  use 
needed  not  to  be  cut,  but  was  broken,  Isa.  Iviii.  7 :  Lam.  iv. 
4 :  Matt.  xiv.  19. 

The  Jews  had  generally  two  meals  a  day ;  one  in  the  morn- 
ing, between  the  third  and  sixth  hours,  and  the  other,  their 
principal  meal,  about  the  eleventh  hour,  or  fi^<e  o'clock,  in  the 
cool  of  the  day.  At  this  meal  the  guests  all  reclined  on  their 
left  sides,  on  couches  placed  ai'ound  a  circular  table.  In  this 
posture,  the  head  of  one  guest  approached  the  breast  of  his 
neighbor,  upon  whose  bosom,  therefore,  he  was  said  to  lean. 
Hence  Christ  told  John  who  was  to  betray  him,  without  the 
uther  disciples  hearing  his  description,  John  xiii.  23 :  Prov. 
xxvi.  15.  The  feet  were  stretched  out  from  the  table,  and 
were  of  course  first  reached  by  any  one  entering  the  room 
(Luke  vii.  38).  Hence  it  is  said  that  the  woman  who  washed 
our  Lord's  feet  stood  behind  him.  This  practice  was  borrowed 
from  the  Persians:  in  earlier  times,  the  Jews  probably  used 
seats,  or  sat,  as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  East,  around  a 
table  raised  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 

The  food  was  taken  by  the  hand,  without  aid  of  knife  or 
fork,  and  hence  the  practice  of  washing  before  and  after  meals, 
Mark  vii.  5.  In  very  early  times,  each  guest  had  his  own 
24* 


282  CUSTOMS — TAXATION. 

portion,  Gen.  xllii.  34 ;  see  1  Sum.  i.  5  :  but  later,  all  ate  from 
the  same  dish. 

The  ordinary  beverage  taken,  not  during  the  meal,  but 
afterwards,  was  water,  or  wine  diluted  with  water.  A  common, 
acid  wine  diluted  in  this  way,  is  called  in  our  English  version, 
vinegar,  and  was  the  usual  drink  of  laborers  and  soldiers, 
Ruth  ii.  14  :  Matt,  xxvii.  48.  This  was  what  the  soldiers  gave 
our  Lord  when  he  cried  "I  thirst."  The  beverage  previously 
offered  him,  vinegar  and  gall,  or  wine  and  myrrh,  Matt,  xxvii. 
34:  Mark  xv.  23,  was  given  to  persons  about  to  be  executed, 
in  order  to  stupify  them.  Our  blessed  Lord  refused  to  drink 
it.  In  full  consciousness  he  endured  the  cross,  despising  the 
shame. 

The  beverage  with  which  each  guest  was  supplied,  was  in 
ancient  times  handed  to  him  in  a  separate  cup,  ready  mixed 
by  the  host :  and  hence  the  word  cup  is  frequently  used  to 
signify  a  man's  lot  or  portion,  Psa.  xi.  6 :  Isa.  li.  22 :  Matt. 
xxvi.  39.  "  Mixed  wine,"  in  the  English  version,  was  not 
wine  and  water,  but  wine  made  stronger  by  spices,  Prov.  xxiii. 
30.  "  Strong  d$ink  "  including  a  very  inebriating  liquor,  made 
from  dates  and  various  seeds,  Lev.  x.  9 :  1  Sam.  i.  15. 

Not  unfrequently,  precious  oils  were  used  at  banquets  for 
anointing  the  guests,  Psa.  xxiii.  5 ;  xlv.  7  :  Amos  vi.  6.  Christ 
was  thus  honored  by  the  woman.  Matt.  xxvi.  7.  She  broke 
the  box  or  jar,  in  proof  of  the  purity  of  the  oil ;  the  neck  being 
sealed,  to  show  that  it  was  an  imported  perfume,  Mark  xiv.  3, 

The  principal  meal  being  in  the  evening  of  the  day,  was 
generally  called  supper.  The  light  and  joy  within  the  house 
on  such  occasions,  were  often  employed  to  represent  the  hap- 
piness of  heaven,  while  the  darkness  without,  the  outer  "  dark- 
ness, was  employed  to  shadow  forth  the  misery  of  the  lost, 
Matt.  viii.  12. 

367.  The  system  of  taxation  employed  in  Palestine  before 
the  days  of  the  Ptomans  is  not  clearly  defined.     The 

Revenue  "^  .         ,    . 

and  taxa-      royal  revenue,  however,  consisted  in  part  in  pre- 
sents, 1  Sam.  X.  27 ;  xvi.  20 :  2  Chron.  xvii.  5 ;  in 


CUSTOMS — TAXATION.  283 

the  produce  of  tte  royal  flocks,  1  Sam.  xxi.  7 :  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
10 ;  xxxii.  28,  29 ;  in  lands  and  vineyards,  either  confiscated 
or  reclaimed  from  a  state  of  nature  by  the  sovereign,  1  Kings 
xxi.  9-16 :  1  Chron.  xxvii.  28 ;  in  tribute,  probably  a  tenth 
of  the  income  of  the  people,  1  Sam.  viii.  15 ;  xvii.  25  (see  Ge- 
senius) ;  in  the  plunder  of  conquered  nations,  2  Chron.  xxvii. 
5  ;  and  in  payments  imposed  upon  merchants  passing  through 
the  territory,  1  Kings  x.  15.  Later  still  we  find,  probably  in 
the  place  of  some  of  the  above,  a  toll  and  a  tax  on  articles  of 
consumption,  corresponding  to  our  excise,  Ezra  iv.  14,  19,  20. 
Both  these  were  of  Persian  or  Assyrian  origin.  Of  the  system 
of  taxation  prevalent  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  we  have  more 
accurate  information. 

Soon  after  Judasa  was  reduced  to  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire,  an  enrolment  was  made  of  the  names  and  fortunes  of 
the  citizens,  and  on  this  enrolment  was  founded  a  capitation 
^' tax  or  tribute."  This  tax  was  laid  by  the  magistrates  of 
each  city.  It  occasioned  much  division  of  opinion  in  Juda?a, 
and  gave  rise  to  more  than  one  insurrection,  Acts  v.  37.  Our 
Lord  was  urged  to  identify  himself  with  its  advocates  or  op- 
ponents. Matt,  xxii  17.  The  tax  was  paid  to  collectors,  either 
in  Roman  money  (the  denarius,  or  penny),  or  in  Grecian  (the 
drachma).  If  paid  in  the  latter,  however,  the  coin  had  to  be 
changed  by  the  traders,  or  "  money-changers,"  as  Roman 
money  only  was  received  at  the  Roman  treasury. 


Thk  DKN-\Rirs  r.pnny)of  Tibcriu-s.  witli  the  "  mwie"  of  the  Emperor,  and  the  "  ^uner. 
scriptu.n.  1  i1.enusC«sar  Augustus,  son  of  ihe  Divine  Augustus !  < )n  tl,e  oh™ 
he  IS  seen  as  ••  Pontuex  Maxinius."  Such  eoins  must  luTve  protaned  ••  the  Tre  v 
sury,' and  hence  the  necessity  for  money-chaneers.  i"t-  iie.i 


Besides  this  census  or  head  tax,  there  were  custom  duties, 
or  taxes  on  exports  and  imports.  Matt.  ix.  9.  These  were 
fixed  by  law,  and  were  levied  by  revenue  farmers  through 


284  CUSTOMS — MODES    OF   RECKONING, 

their  servants.  These  servants  are  called  Publicans  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  farmers  of  the  revenue,  Chiefs  of  the 
Publicans.  This  system  of  farming  the  revenue  proved  a 
strong  temptation  to  the  Publicans,  who  were  generally  un- 
popular. 

The  third  public  tax  in  Judaea  was  the  half  shekel  required 
by  the  law  to  be  paid  by  every  Jew  into  the  temple  treasury. 
It  was  always  paid  in  Jewish  money,  and  by  all  Jews,  even 
by  those  who  lived  out  of  Palestine.  The  money-changers 
■who  sat  in  the  temple,  procured  this  Jewish  money  in  ex- 
change for  Greek  and  Roman  coins.  Matt.  xxi.  12 :  John  ii. 
16.  This  tax  was  regarded  as  paid  to  God  :  when,  therefore, 
our  Lord  intimates  to  Peter  that  the  children  of  kings  are 
exempt  from  tribute,  He  implied  that  He  himself  was  the  sou 
of  the  Father,  Matt.  xvii.  26. 

This  distinction  between  the  different  kinds  of  taxes  is 
always  preserved  in  the  original  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
generally  in  the  English  translation. 

368.  A  knowledge  of  the  modes  of  reckoning  employed  by 
y^  .  j^j.^  the  Jews  will  often  aid  us  in  gathering  lessons  from 
and  money.  Scripture,  and  is  sometimes  essential  to  an  intelli- 
gent interpretation  of  Scripture  language. 

The  following  are  tables  of  the  weights,  measures  and  money 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  They  are  taken  from  Arbuthnot's 
work,  as  quoted  by  Home. 

369.  (1.)  Jewish  weights  reduced  to  English  troy  weight: 

9>s.  oz.  pi-n.  gr. 

The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel 0  0       d      Vi 

Bekah,  half  a  shekel 0  0        5        0 

The  shekel 0  0      10        0 

The  maneh.  60  shekels 2  6        0        0 

The  talent,  50  maneh,  3,000  shekels 125  0        0        0 


CUSTOMS — WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES.     '  285 

370.  (2.)  Scripture  measures  of  length  reduced  to  English 
measure. 

Eng.  ft.      in. 

A  digit,  Jer.  Mi.  21 ^       ^''^^^ 

i  1  A  palm,  Exod.  sxv.  2.5 0        3-648 

0      10-944 


12  I      3  I  A  span,  Exod.  xxviii.  IC 
"W]      6]     3  I  A  cubit,  Gen.  vi.  15 1        ^'883 


90  I    24  I      6  I    2  I  A  fathom,  Acts  xxvii.  28 7        ^'SS^ 


144  I    36  I    12  I    6  I     l-5"l  Ezekiel's  reed,  Ezek.  xl.  3-5 10      11-328 


19-2  I    48  I    16  I    8  I       T\     V3~|  An  Arabian  pole 14        '?'104 

"480  I  16(1  1  sri  I     20  I  13-3  CW]  Measuring  line,  Ezek.  xl.  3, 145      11-04 

u^ii^nXmnwMinn 1^— — — ^ 

371.  (3.)  The  long  Scripture  measures : 

Eng.  miles,  paces,  ft. 

,  ..  0  0        1-824 

A  cubit 

40oTa  stadium,  or  furlong,  Luke  xxiv.  13 0  145  4-6 

"  2000  I     5~|  *A  Sabbath  day's  journey.  Acts  i.  12 0  729  3-0 

4000  I    10  I    2  I  An  eastern  mile,  Matt.  v.  41 1  403  1-0 

T'2O00  I    30  I    6  I    3  l^parasang 4  153  3-0 

'96o"obnT4(rjl[8  I  24]   8|  A  day's  journey 33  172  4-0 

*  So  called  because  this  was  the  distance  between  the  tabernacle  and  the  extreme 
point  of  the  camp. 

372.  (4.)  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  liquids,  reduced 
to  English  wine  measure  : 

Gal.  pints. 
0        0-625 

Alog,  Lev.  xiv.lO 0  0833 

A  cab 0  3-333 

A  hin,  Exod.  XXX.  24 1  2 

A  seah 2  4 

A  bath,  or  ephah,  1  Kings  vii.  26:  John  ii.  6...     7  4 

A  kor,  or  homer,  Ezek.  xl  v.  14:  Isa.v.lO....  75  5 

373.  (5.)  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  things  dry,  re- 
duced to  English  corn  measure : 

Peck.  gal. 

A  gachal ^ 

"~20  1  A  cab,  or  choenix.  2  Kings>,vi.  25:  Rev.  vi.  6 0 

~3C]      1-8  I  An  omer,  Exod.  xvi.  36 ;  xxix.  40 0 

T20]      6      j      3-3^1  A  seah,  Matt.  xiii.  33 1 

360  nis      ITlO      I    3  I  An  cphah,  Ezek.  xlv.  11 3 


1800  I    90     I    50     1 15  I    5  I  A  leteeh,  Hos.  iii.  2 16 


!al. 

pints 

0 

0-1416 

0 

2-8333 

0 

5-1 

0 

1 

0 

3 

0 

0 

3C00 1 180  I  h,o  1 30 1 10 1 2 1  {^ "^si!:::::.^!!"!';'.:!!.}  ^ 


286  CUSTOMS — WEIGHTS    AND    MONEY. 

374.  (6.)  Jewish  money,  and  its  value  in  English  coin : 

£.      s.      d. 

A  Gerah,  Exod.  XXX.  13 0      0      1-2687 

10  1  A  bekah,  Exod.  xxxviii.  26 0      1      1-6873 


20  I        2  1  *A  shekel,  Exod.  xxx  13:  ]sa.  vii.  23:  Matt,  xvii.27        0      2      3-375 


1200  I    120  I      50  I  A  maneh,  or  minah  Hebraica,  Luke  xix.  13....        5    14      0-75 


60000  I  6000  I  3000  |  60  |  A  talent 342      3      9 

A  solidus  aureus,  or  sextula,  wa.s  worth 0    12      0-5 

A  sicuhis  aureus,  or  gold  shekel,  was  worth 1    16      6 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth 5475      0      0 

*  First  coined  by  Simon  Maceabseus,  1  Mac.  xv.  6. 

In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  il.  per  oz.  In  ancient 
times,  gold  and  silver  were  much  scarcer  than  now,  and  therefore  of  higher  relative 
value.  A  shekel  would  probably  purchase  nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same 
nominal  amount  will  now  purchase. 

375.  (7.)  Roman  money  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  its  value  in  English  money : 

£.  s.  d.  far. 

A  mite  (^KT'Tov  or  ao-a-a'pv),  Mark  xii.  42 0  0  0  0-% 

A  farthing  ("'■tffavT)).-),  Mark  xii.  42 about  0  0  0  IJ^ 

A  penny,  or  denarius  (Sufafim),  Matt.  xxii.  19 0  0  7  2 

A  pound,  or  mina 3  2  6  0 

The  Grecian  drachma  in  common  use  was  of  about  the  .same 
value  as  the  denarius.    The  Persian  daric  is  the  first  coin  men-        //?^ 
tioned  in  Scripture,  and  is  the  most  ancient  history  makes  known        tl^., 
to  us.    It  was  rather  heavier  than  a  guinea.    See  1  Chron.  xxix.        |  ^_^^ 
7 ;  Ezra  ii  09  :  Neh.  vii.  70-72,  where  the  word  is  translated  dram. 

87B.  Many  passages  may  be  explained  by  these  Tables. 

From  Table  3,  we  learn  that  the  Sabbath  day's  journey  was 
less  than  a  mile.  How  suggestive  of  the  sacredness  of  the 
day,  when  everything  approaching  to  bodily  fatigue  was  for- 
bidden ! 

From  Table  6,  we  learn  to  admire  the  noble  disinterestedness 
of  Elisha.  -Naaman  offered  him  6,000  pieces,  or  shekels,  of 
gold,  or  more  than  ten  thousand  pounds.  This  was  the 
temptation  under  which  Gehazi  fell,  and  yet  it  did  not  excuse 
his  guilt. 

The  same  Table  illustrates  strikingly  the  unreasonableness 
of  an  unforgiving  spirit,  and  the  aggravations  of  our  own 


CUSTOMS^MODES    OF   RECKONING.  287 

guilt.  Tlie  debtor,  who  tlirew  liis  fellow-servant  into  prison 
because  he  owed  him  a  hundred  pence,  about  3/.,  had  himself 
been  forgiven  10,000  talents,  or,  if  these  were  silver,  upwards 
of  three  millions  sterling. 

How  clearly  does  it  illustrate  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  "  He 
was  despised  and  rejected  of  men,"  to  find  that  Judas  be- 
trayed our  Lord  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  oi  SI.  10s.  Sd.,  the 
price  paid  for  a  slave  when  killed  by  a  beast. 

From  Tables  4  and  5,  we  learn  the  displeasure  of  God  against 
covetousness. 

"  Ten  acres  of  vineyard  (says  the  prophet)  shall  yield  one  bath,  and 
the  seed  of  an  homei  shall  yield  an  ephah,"  Isa.  v.  10. 

That  is,  one  acre  of  land  shall  yield  less  than  a  gallon  of  wine, 
and  nine-tenths  of  the  seed  shall  perish.  Unfaithfulness  and 
irreligion  are  real  folly.  The  fear  of  the  Lord,  is,  in  all  senses, 
the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

377.  The  Jewish  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  peculiar. 
They  had  two  years  :  the  sacred  and  the  civil.    The 

Ti  -Tvj-i  A-T/  T  Time  and 

sacred  began  m  March  or  April  (according  to  the  modes  of 
moon),  the  month  of  deliverance  of  the  children  of 
Israel  from  Egypt ;  and  the  civil  in  September  or  October,  the 
commencement  of  seed-time.*  The  prophets  use  the  former ; 
those  engaged  in  civil  and  agricultural  concerns,  the  latter. 
The  year  was  divided  into  twelve  lunar  months,  with  every 
third  year,  a  thirteenth.  Till  the  return  from  captivity,  these 
months  had  no  separate  name,  except  the  first,  which  was 
called  Abib  (the  month  of  "  the  green  ears  of  corn"),  or  Nisan, 
the  month  of  "the  flight,"  Esth.  iii.  7.  (See  Exod.  xii.  33: 
Heb.)  After  the  captivity,  Babylonish  names  were  employed. 
The  natural  day  was  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set  (as  with  the 
Romans),  and  was  divided  (after  the  captivity)  into  twelve 

»The  Rabbins  say  that  the  year  began  in  March,  as  did  the  Roman 
year,  and  in  September;  but  tlie  probability  is,  that  in  earlier  times  it 
began  with  the  new  moon  of  April  and  October  respectively.  See  Jahn 
Archaeologia  Bib.,  ^103. 


288  CUSTOMS — MODES    OF  RECKONING. 

hours  of  unequal  length.  The  civil  day  (the  day  used  in 
common  reckoning)  was  from  six  in  the  evening  to  six  in  the 
next  evening ;  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  Roman  civil 
day,  which,  like  ours,  was  from  midnight  to  midnight.  This 
was  divided  again  into  night  and  day  of  equal  length. 

The  night  was  divided,  in  very  early  times,  into  three 
watches.  The  first  (Lam.  ii.  19)  till  twelve  o'clock  ;  the  mid- 
dle till  three  in  the  morning  (Judges  vii.  19)  ;  and  the  morn- 
ing watch  till  six  (Exod.  xiv.  24).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
however,  the  night  was  divided,  as  among  the  Romans,  into 
four  watches,  of  three  hours  each  (Mark  xiii.  35)  ;  the  third 
of  which  was  called  cock-crowing  (Matt.  xxvi.  34).  The  day, 
properly  so  called  (from  six  in  the  morning  till  six  at  night), 
was  divided  into  twelve  hours,  of  which  the  third,  the  sixth, 
and  the  ninth,  were  devoted  to  the  public  services  of  worship. 
This  division  is  still  retained  among  the  Jews.  In  very  early 
times,  and  till  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  day  was  divided 
into  the  following  parts : 

The  break  of  day.  Mid-day  at  12  o'clock. 

The  morning.  The  cool  of  the  day,  from  3 
The  heat  of  the  day,  from  9  o'clock  till  6. 

o'clock  till  12.  And  the  evening. 

From  the  sixth  hour  (or  twelve  o'clock),  till  the  close  of  the 
day,  was  called  evening.  This  part  of  the  day  was  divided 
into  two  portions,  called  evenings,  Exod.  xii.  6 .  Levit.  xxiii. 
5  (original). 

378.  These  distinctions  explain  several  passages. 

About  the  eleventh  hour  the  husbandman  said  to  the  laborers,  "why 
stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle?"  (Matt.  xx.  6.)  With  us,  the  eleventh 
hour  is  not  yet  noon ;  with  the  Jews,  it  was  about  an  hour  from  sunset. 
.  .  .  Peter's  reasoning  is  rendered  forcible  by  these  facts.  It  is  (said  he) 
but  the  third' hour  of  the  day  (nine  o'clock),  Acts  ii.  15,  the  time  of  the 
morning  sacrifice,  before  which  time  the  Jews  did  not  eat  or  drink. 

On  the  day  of  the  crucifixion  there  was  darkness  over  all  the  land 
from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour,  i.  e.,  from  twelve  o'clock  to  three. 
The  passover  was  always  kept  at  the  full  moon :  this  darkness,  there- 


CUSTOMS — MISCELLANEOUS.  289 

fore,  could  not  have  taken  place  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  from 
an  eclipse  of  tlie  sun.  ...  It  was  at  the  ninth  hour,  Jesus  cried  with  a 
loud  voice,  and  shortly  afterwards  (or  "  between  the  evening,"  the  time 
of  offering  the  customary  sacrifice)  he  expired.  .  .  .  John  says  that  Pilate 
brought  Jesus  forth  to  the  people  at  the  sixth  hour  (John.  xix.  14), 
probably  reckoning  from  midnight,  the  commencement  of  the  Roman 
civil  day.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  state,  the  adoption  of  the 
civil  day  of  Europe  and  Egypt  for  reckoning  was  the  more  natural. 

It  was  at  the  fourth  watch  of  the  night,  or  about  dawn,  that  Jesus 
■went  to  the  disciples  on  the  sea.  He  had  spent  the  whole  night,  there- 
fore, in  prayer,  Mark  vi.  48. 

The  highest  praise  was  bestowed  upon  the  servant  whom  his  Lord 
found  watching  in  the  second  or  third  watch,  i.  e.,  from  nine  till  three, 
Luke  xii.  38. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  Jews  and  other  Orientals 
generally  speak  of  any  part  of  a  day,  or  of  a  period  of  time, 
as  if  it  were  the  whole. 

Thus  Jesus  said,  "After  three  days  I  will  rise  again,"  Matt,  xxvii.  63; 
though  he  was  in  the  grave  only  a  day  and  a  half,  from  sunset  on  Fri- 
day to  the  earliest  morning  on  Sunday.  He  intimated,  also,  quoting 
from  Jonah,  that  he  would  be  in  the  grave  three  days  and  three  nights, 
i.  e.,  part  of  three  separate  civil  days  ;  day  and  night  meaning  a  day 
of  twenty-four  hours,  Matt.  xii.  40:  1  Sam.  xxx.  12,  13.  In  the  same 
way,  a  week  is  called  eight  days  in  John  xx.  26,  as  it  often  is  in  German. 


379.  There  are  many  othei  customs  referred  to  in    Misceiia- 

_,      .  ,.,...  .,  ,  ,  neous  ""' 

Scripture  on  which  it  is  impossible  to  enlarge.  tom.s. 


neous  cus- 


Opulent  Jews,  for  example,  in  ancient  times,  had  their  children  taught 
Bome  'mechanical  art,  to  prepare  them  for  any  reverse  of  fortune ;  and 
80  St.  Paul  received  a  liberal  edupation,  and  learned  tent  making. 
Acts  xviii.  3. 

At  the  time  of  the  passover  the  people  of  Jerusalem  prepared  jjru.'a^e 
rooms,  in  Yflilch  any  stranger  might  celebrate  the  feast ;  and  hence 
Christ  sent  Peter  and  John,  without  any  scruple,  to  seek  an  upper  room 
for  this  purpose,  Mark  xiv.  15. 

In  ancient  Rome,  children  were  adopted  at  first  privately  ;  then  the 
adoption  was  ratified  by  a  public  act;  and  the  children  so  adopted  be- 
came the  heirs  of  their  foster  parents.  Hence,  in  Rom.  viii.,  Christians 
25 


290  CUSTOMS — MISCELLANEOUS. 

are  said  to  be  adopted,  and  yet  to  wait  for  their  adoption,  even  the 
redemption  of  their  bodies ;  i.  e.,  for  their  public  recognition  at  the 
coming  of  the  Lord,  ver.  23. 

The  common  salutation  in  the  East  was  a  kiss;  sometimes  upon  the 
beard  (2  Sam.  xx.  9),  sometimes  upon  the  cheek :  the  kiss  of  respect 
and  homage  was  upon  the  brow  (Gen.  xxvii.  26 :  Exod.  iv.  27 :  1  Sam. 
X.  1:  Psa.  ii.  12:  Acts  xx.  37).  ...  In  meeting,  the  Jews  used  many 
ceremonies,  and  persons  charged  with  urgent  business,  therefore,  were 
forbidden  to  salute  by  the  way  (2  Kings  iv.  29 :  Luke  x.  4).  .  .  .  The 
usual  greeting  was,  "  Peace  be  with  thee,"  (Judges  xix.  20 :  1  Sam.  xxv. 
6) :  other  forms  may  be  seen  in  Pvuth  iii.  10 ;  ii.  4  :  Psa.  cxxix.  8. 

Persons  paying  visits  to  a  superior  generally  brought  presents  (Prov. 
xviii.  16:  Job  xlii.  11).  Kings  and  princes  also  made  presents  as 
marks  of  distinction  (Gen.  xlv.  22,  23:  Esther  viii.  15:  1  Sam.  xviii.  4). 
Not  to  wear  garments  thus  given  was  a  great  affront  (Matt.  xxii.  11,  12). 

An  insult  was  shown  by  maltreating  the  beard,  by  spitting  in  the 
face,  by  putting  men  to  degrading  employments  (Judges. xvi.  21  :  Lam. 
V.  13),  by  clapping  the  hands  (Job. xxvii.  23),  by  casting  contempt  upon 
a  man's  mother  (1  Sam.  xx.  30:  2  Sam.  iii.  39;  xvi.  10;  xix.  22),  by 
dishonoring  the  dead  (Jer.  xxvi.  23  ;  viii.  1 ;  xvi.  5,  7). 

In  the  earliest  times  there  were  no  inns  like  ours,  and  travellers 
generally  waited  in  the  street,  or  at  the  gate,  till  invited  to  some  house 
(Gen.  xix.  2:  Judges  xix.  15-21).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  there  were 
places  of  accommodation  where  lodging  was  provided,  but  where  each 
guest  brought  his  own  provisions,  fuel  and  bed.  In  the  stable  of  such 
an  inn,  there  being  no  room  in  the  lodging  apartment,  the  Saviour  of 
the  world  was  born.  Places  of  a  similar  kind,  probably  without  resi- 
dent occupants,  were  found  upon  the  main  roads  even  in  the  days  of 
the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xlii.  27;  xliii.  21:  Exod.  iv.  24).  Both  are  still 
found  in  the  East;  the  former  called  khans,  and  the  latter,  caravan- 
serais. 

Wben  a  person  died,  his  relations  rent  their  garmente  from  head  to 
foot;  a  smaller  rent  being  made  by  spectators  :  hired  mourners  often 
added  to  the  expressions  of  grief  by  their  lamentations  and  music  (Jer. 
ix.  17,  18 :  Matt.  ix.  23  :  Acts  ix.  39).  Embalming  was  common,  though, 
except  in  Egypt,  the  process  seems  to  have  consisted  of  little  else  than 
anointing  the  body  with  odoriferous  drugs  and  wrapping  it  in  linen. 
The  funeral  followed  death  within  twenty-four  hours ;  the  body  not 
being  placed  in  a  coffin,  but  closely  wrapped  from  head  to  foot  on  an 
open  bier,  and  so  borne  to  the  place  of  burial,  which  was  always,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  kings  and  distinguished  men,  at  some  distance  from 
the  city.     For  the  poor,  there  was  a  common  burial  ground  ;  but  fami- 


CUSTOMS — MISCELLANEOUS.  291 

lies  had  often  their  sepulchres  in  their  own  fields  or  gardens.  There 
was  no  particular  ceremonial  at  the  grave,  but  the  day  was  concluded 
by  a  funeral  feast  (2  Sam.  iii.  35  :  Hos.  ix.  4).  Mourning  was  expressed 
afterwards  by  rent  clothes  and  sackcloth,  sometimes  by  a  shrouded 
face,  and  sometimes  by  dust  sprinkled  upon  the  head  (2  Sam.  iii.  31 ; 
xix.  4:  Job  ii.  12).  The  graves  were  generally  dug  in  the  rocks,  with 
iiiches  all  round,  each  holding  a  corpse  (Job  x.  21,  22 ;  xxxiii.  18  .  Psa. 
Ixxxviii.  6 :  Isa.  xiv.  9-19 ;  xxxviii.  10 :  Ezek.  xxxii.  18). 

Crucifixion  was  the  punishment  of  slaves  only,  or  of  those  upon 
whom  it  was  intended  to  fix  the  deepest  ignominy.  It  was  not  a  Jew- 
ish punishment,  nor  was  it  inflicted  upon  a  Roman  citizen.  Thus  Christ 
was  delivered  to  the  Gentiles,  and  numbered  with  the  wicked  in  his 
death.  Matt.  xx.  19. 

At  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  the  people  ("  on  the  last  day  of  the  feast") 
drew  water  from  the  spring  of  Siloam,  which  issued  from  a  rock  near 
the  temple.  Part  of  this  water  they  drank  amidst  joyful  acclamations ; 
the  people  singing  the  words  of  Isaiah,  "  With  joy  shall  they  draw 
water  from  the  wells  of  salvation,"  and  the  rest  they  poured  on  the 
evening  sacrifice :  see  John  vii.  37. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  it  was  the  common  practice  for  the  kings  of 
Syria  to  visit  Rome,  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  their  title  from  the 
emperor  and  senate,  or  to  court  their  favor.  Herod  the  Great  went 
to  Augustus  for  this  purpose,  and  his  sons  visited  Eome.  They  went, 
as  our  Lord  expresses  it,  "to  receive  a  kingdom  and  to  return,"  Luke 
xix.  12  This  practice  explains  the  incidental  allusions  to  the  custom 
in  many  of  the  parables;  and  it  gives  an  indirect  proof  of  the  truth 
of  the  gospel. 

The  bottles  of  the  ancients  were  not  of  glass,  but  of  skins,  and  hence 
they  shrank  in  the  smoke  (Psa.  cxix.  83)  and  burst,  if  new  or  fermenting 
wine  were  placed  in  them,  Matt.  ix.  17. 

When  a  person  charged  with  crimes  against  the  State  was  tried  in 
ancient  times,  the  citizens  wlio  tried  him  voted  for  his  acquittal  by 
dropping  a  white  stone  into  the  box,  and  for  his  condemnation,  by 
dropjiing  a  black  one.  Our  Lord,  therefore,  is  said  to  give  unto  him 
that  overcometh  a  white  stone  (Rev.  ii.  17). 

Many  customs  were  connected  in  ancient  times  with  sealing;  the 
seal,  generally  a  signet-ring  bearing  the  name  of  the  owner,  preserved 
the  object,  Job  xiv.  17,  and  secured  privacy,  Isa.  xxix.  11.  It  gave 
authority  and  completeness  to  documents,  Neh.  ix.  38 :  Esther  viii.  8 : 
Dan.  vi.  9,  13,  17;  or  it  marked  the  object  as  the  peculiar  property 
of  him  whose  seal  was  placed  upon  it,  2  Tim.  ii.  19:  Rom.  iv.  11: 
Rev.  vii.  2,  3. 


-J'-^  UEOGRAPHY    OF   SCRIPTURE. 

380.  vii.  A  knowledge  of  geography,  under  its  twofold  di- 
vision of  historical  and  physical,  is  of  great  use  in  the  study 
of  Scripture. 

381.  The  Bible  directs  us  to  the  high  parts  of  Armenia  and 
,^,    ,     ,     „  the  fertile  plains  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphra- 

The  lands  of  i      ^  c  _  i: 

the  Bible,  tes,  as  the  first  settlement  of  mankind  after  the 
flood.  The  pride  and  idolatry  of  Shinaar  dispersed  them ; 
Shem  and  his  descendants  occupying  the  peninsula  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Indian /Ocean  ;  Ham,  Africa;  and,  after 
some  time,  Japhet,  Europe,  and  part  of  Asia. 

Going  south-westward  from  Ararat,  we  come  to  Mount 
Lebanon  in  Palestine,  and  have  around  us  "the  lands  of  the 
Bible."  Looking  southward  from  this  position,  we  have  on 
our  left,  far  over  the  Syrian  desert,  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris,  which,  taking  their  rise  in  Armenia,  run  into  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and,  as  they  flow,  inclose  the  country  called  Meso- 
potamia ("  between  the  rivers").  On  the  banks  of  these  rivers 
men  first  formed  societies ;  on  the  Euphrates  rose  the  city  of 
Babylon,  and  on  the  Tigris,  the  city  of  Nineveh. 

Between  the  Euphrates  and  the  table-land,  east  of  Jordan, 
is  Arabia  Deserta-;  southward,  Arabia  Petrea  (the  rocky),  with 
Petra  as  its  capital ;  southward  still,  and  reaching  to  the  In- 
dian Ocean  and  Persian  Gulf,  is  Arabia  the  fruitful,  whence 
(or  through  which)  came  the  gold  and  spice  of  Eastern  story. 

382.  Eeturning  to  Lebanon,  and  looking  (still  to  the  south) 
on  the  region  below  us,  we  find  Palestine,  having  on  its  north- 
ern seaboard-  Phoenicia  (the  coast  of  Tyre  and  Siclon),  and,  on 
its  southern,  Philistia.  Looking  northward  for  a  moment  (sup- 
posing that  we  stand  on  Hermon,  wheiie  Libanus  and  Antili- 
banus  seem  to  join),  we  find  two  ridges  of  hills  running 
through  the  whole  of  Syria,  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  till  they 
are  lost  in  Asia  Minor  ;  the  district  they  inclose  is  Ccele-Syria, 
(or  the  hollow  Syria),  called  also  the  Plain  of  Lebanon  ;  its 
capital  Baalbec,  the  city  of  the  sun.  Looking  southward, 
again,  we  find  these  ridges  running  through  the  whole  of  Pal- 
estine, till  the  left-hand  ridge  is  lost  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   SCRIPTURE.  293 

right-hand  ridge  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  scene  of  the 
wanderings  of  the  Israelites  during  forty  years. 
To  the  west  of  this  latter  region  we  find  Egypt. 

383.  Immediately  beneath  us-,  on  the  left,  we  have  the  city 
of  Damascus,  ever  famous  for  bigotry  and  fruitfulnes.s ;  on 
the  right,  we  have  the  blue  tideless  waters  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, connecting  the  trafiic  of  Europe  with  the  marts  of  the 
East;  and  in  succession,  Cyprus,  Crete,  Malta,  and  Sicily — 
"  the  isles  of  the  sea."  If  now  we  carry  our  eye  in  a  line  with 
our  right  hand,  we  enter  Asia  Minor,  whose  various  provinces 
are  mentioned  in  the  Acts.  Running  westward,  and  crossing 
the  ^gean  Sea,  we  come  to  Hellas,  or  Greece  ("Achaia"), 
having  Macedonia  on  the  north,  and  Thrace  on  the  north- 
east. From  Macedonia,  Illyricum  stretches  away  in  a  north- 
west line.  Crossing  the  Adriatic,  we  land  at  Brundisium,  in 
Italy,  whence  we  proceed  over  the  Ajopenine  Hills  to  Rome, 
on  their  western  side.  Thence  we  may  travel  by  land  over 
the  Alps,  or,  by  sea,  through  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  to  France 
(Gaul);  and  from  France,  over  the  Pyrenees,  to  Spain,  and 
proceeding  southward,  come  to  "Tarshish."  We  thence  sail 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  till  we  reach  Carmel  and 
Lebanon  aaain. 

Still  occupying  our  position  on  Mount  Hermon,  and  looking 
southward,  we  find  on  our  left,  beyond  Jordan,  the  high  lands 
£)f  Gilead  and  the  pasture-grounds  of  Bashan.  The  whole 
country  is  beautiful  and  verdant.  The  valleys,  says  Bucking- 
ham, are  filled  with  corn  and  olives,  and  the  hills  are  covered 
with  vines.  See  Numb,  xxxii.  1-4.  Here,  to  the  south,  were 
the  territories  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Edom. 

384.  Between  the  ridge  of  hills  which  runs  through  this 
district,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and  the  ridge  ,,  „ 

'  '  o      Valley  of 

of  Lebanon,  which  also  runs  southward  on  the  west  the  Jordan, 
side  (under  the  names  of  the  mountains  of  Naphtali,  of 
Ephraim,  or  Israel,  and  the  mountains  of  Judali),  lies  tke 
valley  of  the  Jordan ;  containing  the  lake  of  Gennesareth  (or 
sea  of  Galilee),  the  Jordan  itself,  and  the  Dead  Sea.  '  The 
25* 


294  GEOGRAPHY    OF   SCRIPTURE. 

whole  length  of  the  Jordan  with  windings,  is  about  200  miles; 
the  width  of  the  sea  of  Gennesareth  is  from  eight  to  ten. 
Compare  Matt.  xiv.  23  with  John  vi.  19.  Westward  of  this 
range  of  hills,  and  between  it  and  the  sea,  is  the  district  of 
Tyre,  the  plain  or  valley  of  Sharon,  and  the  country  of  the 
Philistines.  Southward,  "  as  thou  comest  to  Gaza,"  it  is  desert ; 
so  that  the  sea-board  plain  ends  in  the  desert  of  Gaza ;  the 
centre,  or  plain  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  desert  of  Sinai;  and  the 
district  beyond  Jordan  in  the  deserts  of  Edom, 

Isa.  XXXV.  2:  Cant.  ii.  1. 

385.  Looking,  again,  to  the  district  nearer  to  us,  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  mark  a  triangular  valley  opening  to  the  sea  at  Mount 
Carmel,  one  of  the  terminations  of  the  mountains  of  Israel, —  ' 
the  mountains  of  Naphtali,  or  of  Galilee,  and  another  part  of 
the  same  range,  the  mountains  of  Gilboa,  forming  the  other 

„  sides.  This  valley  has  been  called  successively  the 
Esdraeion.  plain  of  Esdraelou,  of  Jezreel,  and  of  Megiddo. 
The  river  Kishon,  that  "ancient  river,"  flows  through  it  into 
the  "Great  Sea,"  not  far  from  Acre,  Judges  iv.  13;  v.  21. 
The  little  town  of  Nazareth  lies  among  the  hills  to  the  north. 
This  valley  was  the  scene  of  the  victory  of  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak, of  Gideon,  of  the  Philistines  in  their  last  battle  with  Saul, 
of  Ahab  over  Benhadad,  and  of  the  Egyptians  over  Josiah. 
Here  the  Assyrians  and  Persians,  the  Crusaders  and  Saracens; 
the  Egyptians  and  Turks,  the  Arabs  and  Franks,  have  fought ; 
and  it  was  on  this  battle-field  of  nations  that  Bonaparte  gained 
one  of  his  victories  just  before  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish 
Syria.     Mount  Tabor  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  plain. 

Judges  iv.  12-24:  1  Sam.  xxxi. :   1  Kings  xx, :  2  Kings  xxiii.  29. 

386.  If  we  trace  in  this  way  the  history  of  particular  j)lare3 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  we  shall  find  the  exercise  highly  inter- 
esting and  instructive. 

Between  Jerusalem  and  Beersheba,  and  about  twenty  miles 
from  each  place,  lies  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,  now 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   SCRIPTURE.  295 

occupied  by  some  6,000  Arabs — the  city  of  Hebron. 
Here  lived  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  here  they 
received  the  promise  and  the  seal  of  the  covenant,  and  here, 
they  and  their  wives  were  buried.  In  the  days  of  the  spies 
it  was  inhabited  by  the  sons  of  Anak.  Joshua  destroyed  it, 
and  the  place  was  given  to  Caleb.  When  rebuilt,  it  became 
one  of  the  Levitical  cities.  Here  David  was  anointed  king 
over  Israel;  here  Abner  was  assassinated;  here  Absalom 
established  his  head-quarters  during  his  rebellion  ;  and  over 
one  of  the  pools  of  Hebron  (several  of  which  still  remain), 
David  hung  up  the  assassins  of  Ishbosheth. 

Numb.xiii. :  Josh.  x.  37;  xiv.  13  :  2  Sam.  ii.  11 ;  iii.  27;  xv.  7,  12. 

About  twenty  miles  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  and  accessible 
only  by  a  lonely  and  dangerous  road  (the  Bloody 
Way  as  it  was  called  in  Jerome's  days),  lies  the  city 
of  Jericho.  Within  sight  of  its  walls  the  manna  ceased.  In 
the  days  of  Joshua  it  was  overthrown,  and  a  curse  was  pro- 
nounced upon  who  should  rebuild  it,  a  curse  fulfilled  520  years 
afterwards  upon  Hiel.  In  the  time  of  Elisha,  it  was  a  school 
of  the  prophets.  Here  Herod  the  Great  died.  Once  the  city 
was  visited  by  our  Lord,  when  he  lodged  with  Zaccheus. 

1  Kings  xvi.  34:  2  Kings  ii.  4,  5:  Matt.  xx.  29,  30. 

Between  Jericho  and  the  Jordan  lay  the  town  of  Gilgal, 
where  were  erected  the  twelve  stones  taken  from 
the  river  when  the  Israelites  passed  over.  Here 
Samuel  offered  sacrifice,  held  his  yearly  courts,  and  recognised 
Saul  as  king.  And  here  was  one  of  the  schools  of  the  pro- 
phets. In  the  days  of  Ahaz,  however,  it  was  the  seat  of 
idolatrous  worship,  and  an  object  of  execration  by  the  pro- 
phets. The  place  where  the  children  of  Israel  had  renewed 
their  covenant  with  God,  and  whence  he  had  so  often  gone  up 
with  their  armies,  thus  became  defiled  with  idolatry,  Josh, 
iv.  19 :  Hos.  ix.  15. 

If  we  trace  the  history  of  Shiluh,  the  place  chosen  by  Joshua 


296  GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 

for  the  tabernacle,  and  where  it  remained  for  more 
than  400  years,  till  the  days  of  Eli,  we  shall  have 

in  brief  a  history  of  many  a  favored  and  afterwards  rejected 

city,  Josh,  xviii.  10 :  Judges  xxi.  19-23 :  1  Sam.  chaps,  i.-vi.  : 

1  Kings  xi.  29;  xii.  15;  xiv.   2,  etc.  :  Psa.  Ixxviii.   60:  Jer. 

vii.  12-14  ;   xxvi.  6. 

The  peculiar  feelings  with  which  Jacob  must  have  visited 
Beersheba,  where  he  offered  sacrifice  (Gen.  xlvi.  1), 
may   be   gathered  from   Gen.   xxxi.   33;    xxii.    19; 

xxvi.  23-35.     It  was  already  endeared  to  him  by  many  holy 

associations. 

A  brief  notice  of  Palestine  will  throw  light  upon  several 

passages,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

PALESTINE. 

387.  Its  Names. — It  is  called  the  world,*  the  earth,  or  the 
land.  Hence  Solomon  is  said  to  reign  from  the 
river  (Euphrates)  to  the  end  of  the  earth,  Psa.  Ixxii. 
In  the  person  of  Christ  these  words  have  a  still  larger  fulfil- 
ment. The  country  which  lay  to  the  south  of  Judasa,  was 
Arabia,  and  at  its  extreme  border  (from  the  sea)  was  the  city 
of  Sheba,  or  Saba.  And  hence  the  queen  of  Sheba  is  said  to 
have  come  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the- earth  to  hear  the 
wisdom  of  Solomon. 

The  countxy  was  early  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of 
Canaan,  the  grandson  of  Noah  (Gen.  xi.)  It  was  thence  called 
the  land  of  Canaan.  From  the  descendants  of  Jacob,  it  was 
called  the  land  of  Israel.  From  the  fact  that  the  tribe  of 
Judah  occupied  it  almost  alone  after  the  captivity,  it  was  called 
Judssa  (Psa.  Ixxvi.  1).  From  the  covenant  into  which  God 
entered  with  Abraham  and  his  posterity,  it  was  called  the 
land  of  promise, -Gen.  xii.  7;  xiii.  16:  Exod.  xv.  14:  Heb. 
xi.  9.  And  from  the  Philistines  or  Pali  (shepherds),  'who  in- 
habited its  southern  coasts,  Palestine. 

*  Luke  u.  1     Acts  xi.  28 .  Luke  iv.  2p ,  xsi.  26 .  James  v.  17. 


GEOGRAPHY PALESTINE.  207 

Tlie  land  of  God,  Lev.  xxv.  23 ;  the  holy  land,  Zech  ii.  12, 
are  also  terms  employed  in  Scripture.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  limits  of  the  country  to  which  these  names 
were  given,  have  varied  at  different  periods. 

Its  Extent  and  Divisions. — The  whole  land  of  Israel,  from 
Dan  to  Beersheba,  was  in  length  equal  to  the  dis- 

Its  extent 

tance   between   London   and  York,  or   about   200     and  dtvi- 
miles,  and  in  its  widest  parts  was  less  than  the  dis- 
tance between  York  and  Liverpool,  or  about  ninety  miles. 

For  seven  centuries  after  the  dispersion,  it  was  occupied  by 
the  Canaanites,  who  divided  it  among  ten  nations.  They  after- 
wards dwindled  to  seven.  Gen.  xv.  18-21 :  Deut.  vii.  1 ;  of 
whom  the  Amorites  were  the  most  powerful,  and  their  name 
is  sometimes  used  for  the  whole,  Gen.  xv.  16.  The  Philis- 
tines, Moabites,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  and  the  children  of 
Amalek  and  Edom  were  residing,  token  the  Israelites  entered 
Canaan,  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  some  of  them  within  its 
borders. 

Joshua  divided  the  country  into  twelve  parts,  giving  one  to 
each  tribe,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  being  reckoned  among  the 
tribes,  and  Levi  having  his  portioTi  among  the  rest. 

In  the  Horih,  dwelt  Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulon,  and  Issachar :  after- 
wards Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  and  Galilee  proper 

In  the  Middle,  Ephraim,  and  half  of  Manasseh  ;  afterwards  Samaria. 

In  the  South,  Judah,  Benjamin,  Dan,  and  tjimeon;  afterwards  Judtea. 

Beyond  Jordan,  Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Manaseeh;  afterwards 
Percea,  etc. 

Under  the  reign  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom  was  greatly  ex- 
tended, and  the  distinction  of  tribes  became  less  marked. 
The  whole  of  his  territory  was  therefore  divided  afresh  into 
twelve  districts,  each  under  its  own  officer  (1  Kings  iv.  7-19). 

On  the  death  of  Solomon,  ten  tribes  revolted  from  his  son 
Rehoboam,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  of  which  Sy- 
char  or  Shechem  was  the  capital.  The  other  tribes  of  Benja- 
min and  Judah,  with  parts  of  Dan  and  Simeon,  formed  the 


298  GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 

kingdom  of  Judah,  whose  chief  city  was  Jerusalem.  This 
division  ceased,  however,  on  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  by  Slialmaneser,  the  Assyrian,  after  it  had  continued 
for  254  years  :  and  the  country  fell  successively  into  the  hands 
of  the  Assyrians,  the  Clreeks,  the  Jews  (under  the  Maccabees), 
and  the  Romans. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  it  was  divided  into  five  provinces. 
1.  Galilee,  which  included  most  of  ■^he  scenes  of  his  personal 
ministry,  and  whence  most  of  his  disciples  were  chosen,  Isa. 
ix.  1 :  Matt.  ii.  22,  23  :  Luke  iv.  14 :  Matt.  xxvi.  69 ;  xxviii. 
7,  16.  This  district  was  despised  by  the  Jews  because  of  its 
distance  from  Jerusalem,  its  connection  with  the  Samaritans, 
and  the  impurity  of  the  dialect  spoken  by  the  people,  Mark 
xiv.  70.  2.  Samaria,  which  included  the  middle  division  of 
the  kingdom,  and  separated  Galilee  from  Judsea,  John  iv.  4. 
3.  Judsea,  which  was  nearly  co-extensive  with  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Judah.  4.  The  district  of  Feroea  (or  heyond 
Jordan),  which  included  Abilene,  where  Lysanius  was  tetrarch, 
Luke  iii.  1,  Trachonitis,  Ituraea,  or  Auranitis,*  Gaulonitis,*" 
Batansea,  the  ancient  Bashan,  but  less  extensive,  Pereea  proper 
(between  the  Arnon  and  the  Jabbok),  where  John  was  be- 
headed, and  Decapolis  (or  the  district  of  the  ten  cities).  5.  Idu- 
msea,  a  province  which  was  added  by  the  Romans.  It  com- 
prised the  extreme  south  parts  of  Judaea,  with  a  small  part 
of  Arabia.  After  some  time,  the  Idumseans  became  mingled 
with  the  Ishmaelites. 

388.  In  later  times,  these  divisions  have  undergone  various 
changes.  In  the  fifth  century,  the  country  was  di- 
visions.  vided  into  three  parts  :  Judasa  and  Samaria ;  Galilee 
and  Trachonitis ;  Perfea  and  Idumaea.  In  the  time  of  the 
Crusades,  episcopal  sees  were  established  in  the  principal 
cities.  Under  the  modern  Turkish  authority,  the  whole  coun- 
try is  divided  between  the  pachaliks,  or  governments,  of  Acre 
and  Damascus. 

»  1  ('hron.  i.  31,  (from  Jetur.):   Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  18  :  Hauran. 
''Josh.  XX.  8. 


GEOGRAPHY— PALESTINE. 


299 


389.   It  will  facilitate  the  study  of  Sacred  Scrip-  g^^^^  ^  ^ 
ture  to  have  a  distinct  idea,  both  of  the  divisions  govern- 

ment)  in 


of  the  country  and  of  the  changes  of  the  government  t'^e  days  of 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 


our  Lord. 


Herod  the  Great  reigns  from  B.  C.37  to  B.  C.  3,  over 


Judaea. 
Samaria,  Iduintea. 

Gahlee. 
Periea  Proper. 

Trachonitis  and 
Itur*a. 

Revenue,  400  lalonts  (about 
one  million  sterling). 

These  he  bequeaths'to  his 
sou. 

Revenue  200  talents. 

These  he  bequeaths  to  his 

son, 

Revenue,  100  talents. 

These  he  bequeaths  to 
liis  son, 

Archelaus.  who  is  banished, 
and  the  province  is  put 
imder     prooiu-ators.     of 
whom  one  of  the  chief 

Herod   Antipas,  who    be- 
headed John. 

Philip  Herod  (John  iv). 

was 

Pontius  Pilate,  A.  D.  7  to  36 
(dies  36). 

Herod  Antipas  banished 

(40). 

Phihp  dies  (37). 

Herod  Agrippa  (grandson  of  Herod)  made  king  of  the  whole  (Acts  xii.)  A.  D.  41^44. 
Herod  Agrippa  dies,  A.  D.  44. 


Roman  Governors. 
Fadus  Alexander. 
Felix  (4th  Governor). 
Festus  (5th  Governor). 


i  Agrippa  (son  of  H. Agrip- 
pa), tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,"  is  made  tetr.arch  of 
Galilee  also.  Paul  pleads  before  him  at  Csesarea 
(Acts  XXV.  26). 


Coin  of  Herob  the  Great.  Very  rare.  From  Akerman's  "Numismatic  IJkistrations 
of  the  New  Testament."  On  the  left  hand  ent  is  a  helmet  a  star,  and  two  olive 
branches:  on  the  reverse,  a  tripod  fiaming  altar,  with  the  inscription  "of  King 
Herod,"  and  numeral  letters,  "the  third  year,"  of  his  reign. 

390.   The  physical  appearance  of  the  country  is  remarkably 
broken  and  mountainous.     Thehigher  peaks  of  Leba-  t., 

^         -f  Physical 

non  and  of  Sinai  (which  lie  about  400  miles  apart)  appearance. 
rise  to  a  height  of  nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  Mediterranean. 


300  GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 

The  Jordan  springs  from  the  sides  of  the  former,  and  at  the 
lake  of  Tiberias  its  level  is  750  feet  below  the  Mediterranean. 
At  the  Dead  Sea,  the  depression  has  increased  to  1,312  feet ; 
and,  as  the  depth  of  that  sea  is  1,350  feet,  we  have,  altogether, 
a  more  remarkable  change  of  surface  than  is  to  be  found  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  From  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  the  hills 
to  the  south  continue  gradually  rising,  till  at  Jerusalem  we 
reach  a  height,  above  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  of  3,900 
feet.  In  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (south  of  Jerusalem)  they 
reach  a  still  greater  height :  eastward,  the  country  falls  rap- 
idly, so  that  Jericho,  which  is  but  twenty  miles  from  Jeru- 
salem, is  3,406  below  it :  so  accurate  is  the  description  given 
in  the  Bible,  Luke  x.  30 :  John  vii.  10 :  Acts  xxiv.  1.  Com- 
pare Gen.  xxvi.  2 :  xlvi.  3. 

Many  of  these  mountains  abound  in  caverns.  Their  sides 
afford  large  sheep  walks  (Amos  i.  2),  and  the  plains  which  are 
found  on  the  summits  of  some  are  covered  with  corn.  In  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  wherever  was  any  depth  of  earth, 
the  olive  flourished,  and  the  fig.  The  vales  were  most  luxu- 
riant and  fruitful,  and  the  very  deserts  were  formed  chiefly 
of  extensive  pasture-land,  unfit  for  the  plough,  but  rich  in 
grass  and  timber.  The  products  of  all  climes  were  thus  found 
in  Palestine,  and  upon  the  same  range  of  hills  were  often 
growing  the  fig  and  date  of  the  tropics,  with  the  oak  and  fir 
of  the  temperate  zone.  A  climate  all  soft  and  sunny  would 
have  injured  the  robust  industry  and  manly  character  of  the 
people  :  a  country  all  rugged  and  mountainous  would  have 
driven  them  into  alliance  with  their  heathen  neighbors.  Moun- 
tiuiiS,  which  grew  olives  and  wheat ;  the  snow-covered  heights 
of  Lebanon,  and  the  hot  deep  valley  of  Jordan — pasture  and 
tillage — all  seem  to  have  been  adapted  to  the  circum.stances 
of  the  chosen  people,  and  to  have  answered  the  description 
of  the  Bible—"  a  good  land,  a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  that 
Hpring  out  of  the  valleys  and  hills." 

391.  In  the  time  of  David,  the  population  was  probably 
four  or  five  millions  (see  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9),  or  between  400  and 


GEOGRAPHY — JEEUSALEM.  301 

500  to  every  square  mile ;  a  proportion  such  as  is 
now  found  in  tlie  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  The 
present  population  of  Syria,  which  is  four  times  the  size  of  the 
kingdom  under  David,  is  about  a  million  and  a  half.*  Even 
this  population  seems  sustained  with  difficulty,  and  a  grea^ 
part  of  the  country  is  completely  barren.  Its  former  fertility 
is  ascribed  in  Scripture  to  the  special  blessing  of  God,  and  its 
present  barrenness  to  "  the  heat  of  his  great  anger :"  see  Lev. 
xxvi.  3-5  :  Deut.  vii.  12-14 ;  xi.  8-15  ;  xxviii.  1-12,  compared 
with  Deut.  xxix.  23-25 ;  xxviii.  16-24,  38-42. 

392.  The  capital  of  Judsea  was  Jerusalem.  Its  name  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  was  Salem,*"  and  it  was  called  Jebus 
when  Israel  obtained  possession  of  the  Holy  Land." 
Its  Jewish  name  was  perhaps  suggested  by  these  facts,  and 
means  the  possession,  or  home  of  peace.  Pai't  of  the  city  be- 
longed to  Benjamin,  and  part  to  Judah.  The  foundation  of 
'the  whole  is  a  high  rock,  with  four  heads  or  hills,  and  with  a 
steep  ascent  on  every  side  except  the  north.'^  A  deep  valley 
surrounds  three  sides,  and  beyond  the  valley  are  still  higher 
hills ;  so  that  the  city  is  not  easily  visible  till  the  traveller  is 
near  it.  The  soil  is  very  stony,  and  the  country  around  is  dry 
and  barren. 

The  extent  of  the  city  differed  at  different  times.  It  was 
largest  at  the  time  of  its  final  overthrow  by  Titus.  It  then 
included  Zion,  Acra,  Moriah,  and  Bezetha.  Zion  was  on  the 
south-eastern  side  of  the  city,  and  immediately  north  of  it 
was  Acra.  Zion  was  the  higher  of  the  two  ;  the  part  of  Jeru- 
salem which  was  built  upon  it  was  called  the  uppex  city,  and 
the  part  built  on  Acra,  the  lower.  They  were  divided  by  a 
high  wall,  first  erected  by  David,  who  resided  on  Mount  Zion. 
Zion  is  now  the  site  of  an  English  Protest^ant  church. 

Moriah  (where  it  is  supposed  Abraham  was  about  to  offer 
Isaac,  when  the  angel  stayed  his  hand)  lay  to  the  east  of  Acra, 
and  was  the  site  of  the  temple.     The  valley  between  it  and 

»  Dr.  I'.Dwring's  Koport.      ''Gen.  xiv.  S.     <"  Josh.  xv.  8.     ''  Psa.  cxxv.  -. 
26 


302  GEOGRAPHY — JKRUSALEM. 

Acra  was  nearly  filled  up,  that  acceps  to  the  temple  might  be 
more  easy.  With  Zion,  Moriah  was  connected  by  a  bridge 
and  terrace.  It  is  now  the  site  of  the  mosque  of  Omar.  To 
the  north  was  the  hill  Bezetha,  which  Agrippa  joined  to  the 
city.  The  whole  circumference  of  the  walls  was  about  four 
miles  and  a  hal£ 

393.  The  name  of  the  temple  is  applied  in  the  English  Scrip- 
tures not  only  to  the  place  appointed  for  Divine  worship — ■ 
the  sanctuary  and  the  holy  of  holies — but  to  the  courts  and 
buildings  connected  with  it.  The  first  temple  had  been 
erected  by  Solomon.  It  retained  its  original  splendor  only 
thirty-four  years,  when  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  took  it,  and 
carried  away  its  treasures.  After  undergoing  repeated  pro- 
fanations, it  was  finally  plundered  and  burned  by  the  Chal- 
dseans  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  C.  584,  2  Kings  xxv.  13-15  : 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17-20. 

The  second  temple  was  erected  by  Zerubbabel,  but  witL 
greatly  diminished  glory,  Ez.  iii.  12 ;  and  was  profaned  by 
Antiochus  Epij^hanes,  who  erected  an  image  of  Jupiter  on  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  B.  C.  163.  In  this  condition  it  remained 
for  three  years,  when  Judas  Maccabseus  purified  and  repaired 
it,  B.  C.  100,  1  Mace.  162. 

About  sixteen  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  (i.  e.,  B.  0, 
20),  the  repairing,  or  gradual  rebuilding  of  this  temple  was 
undertaken  by  Herod  the  Great.  For  nine  years  and  a  half 
he  employed  18,000  workmen  upon  it,  and  spared  no  expense 
to  render  it  equal  in  magnitude  and  splendor  to  the  original 
structure.  After  his  death,  the  Jews  continued  to  ornament 
and  enlarge  it ;  so  that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  ministry  of 
our  Lord  it  was  still  unfinished,  though  forty-six  years  had 
elapsed  since  Herod  had  collected  his  materials  and  com- 
menced the  work,  John  ii.  20.  The  whole  pile  was  constructed 
of  hard  white  stones,  of  very  great  size,  and  was  surrounded 
by  a  wall  of  very  great  height.  AVhen  Titus  took  Jerusalem, 
he  wished  to  preserve  the  temple ;  but  his  most  strenuous 
efforts  were  unsuccessful,  and  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  fire 


GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM.  303 

on  the  same  day,  and  in  the  same  month,  in  which  the  first 
temple  had  been  burned  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  15  Lois  (August), 
A.  D.  73.  It  contained  no  ark  or  mercy-seat — no  shekinah — 
no  sacred  fire,  first  kindled  from  heaven,  nor  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim — no  prophetic  spirit,  as  did  the  first  temple — but  it  had 
been  rendered  "more  glorious"  through  the  presence  and 
teaching  of  Him  who  was  the  Desire  of  all  nations  (Hag.  ii.  9). 
■  But  let  us  enter  within  these  stupendous  walls  by  one  of 
the  eastern  gates,  "  the  gate  Beautiful."  We  are  now  in  the 
outer  court,  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  and  can  walk  around ; 
each  side  is  250  yards  long.  Here  is  a  market ;  salt,  incense, 
and  cattle — all  vised  in  sacrifice — are  here  on  sale.  Here  also 
are  the  money-changers ;  and  here,  or  perhaps  within  one  of 
the  next  inclosures,  is  the  treasury. 

Before  ijs,  but  raised  a  few  feet,  and  separated  by  a  low  wall 
or  partition,  is  the  court  of  the  wovien.  On  these  pillars,  which 
run  along  the  whole  of  the  wall,  we  may  read  inscriptions, 
warning  Gentiles  and  unclean  persons  not  to  enter  on  pain  of 
death.     See  Eph.  ii.  13-14. 

An  ascent  of  fifteen  steps  leads  us  into  the  inner,  or  men's 
court ;  and  in  these  two  courts,  called  collectively  the  court 
of  the  Israelites,  the  people  prayed,  while  the  priest  was  offer- 
ing incense  within  the  sanctuary,  Luke  i.  10.  In  the  corners 
of  this  square  are  rooms  appropriated  for  the  pui'ification  of 
lepers  and  for  the  use  of  Nazarites. 

Within  the  court  of  the  Israelites  is  the  court  of  the  priests, 
who  only  are  permitted  to  enter  it.  A  flight  of  twelve  steps 
leads  into  the  temple  itself.  In  entering,  we  pass  through  the 
portico,  where  are  suspended  the  votive  offerings'  of  devout 
worshippers :  see  Luke  xxi.  5.  Here  also  are  the  rooms  where 
the  Sanhedrim  used  to  assemble,  till  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  violence  rendered  it  necessary  for  them  to  hold  their  meet- 
ings in  the  outer  inclosure. 

From  this  porch  we  enter  the  sanctuary,  or  holy  place,  and 
still  in  front  of  us  is  the  holy  of  holies,  concealed  by  a  double 
veil,  which,  at  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord,  was  rent  in  two, 


o04  GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 

to  indicate  tiiat  the  way  into  the  holiest  was  made  manifest 
and  accessible  to  all  by  the  one  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ,  Heb. 
X.  19-22.  The  holy  of  holies  was  twenty  cubits  square  (from 
thirty  to  forty  feet),  and  was  entered  but  once  a  year,  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  Lev.  xvi.  2,  15,  34 :  Heb.  ix.  2-7. 

Here,  on  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Titus  found  the  golden 
candlestick,  the  table  of  shew-bread,  and  the  sacred  trumpets, 
which  had  been  used  to  proclaim  the  year  of  jubilee.  The 
arch  of  Titus  has  preserved  the  images  of  these  relics,  and  it 
is  still  among  the  evidences  of  the  truth  of  the  Bible. 

But  let  us  leave  the  temple.  Here  at  the  north-east  corner 
^,    ^,  was  the  sheep-market,  and  adioining  was  the  Pool 

The  Sheep-  ^  '  jo 

market,  etc.  of  Bethesda.  At  the  market  the  sheep  were  sold 
for  the  temple-service,  and  in  the  pool  they  were  washed  be- 
fore being  delivered  to  the  priests. 

At  the  north-west  corner  of  the  temple  wall  was  a  strong 
fortress,  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  called  Antonia.  It  was 
connected  by  a  flight  of  steps  with  the  temple-courts,  and 
was  guarded  by  a  P^oman  garrison.  It  was  from  this  place 
ihat  the  tribune  with  his  soldiers  ran  to  quell  the  tumult, 
which  the  Jews  raised  in  consequence  of  Paul  having  (as  they 
supposed)  taken  Trophimus  within  the  sacred  precinct  of  the 
temple.  Here  it  is  probable  that  Pilate  resided,  whenever 
he  came  from  Csesarea  to  Jerusalem.  This  fortress  was  there- 
fore the  Pra^torium  where  the  supreme  judge  held  his  court 
of  justice,  John  xviii.  28,  33 ;  xix.  9 :  Matt,  xxvii.  27,  orig. 
Before  the  Prsetorium  was  a  raised  pavement,  called  Gabbatha, 
and  on  it  stood  the  tribunal,  or  seat  of  judgment.  This  pave- 
ment was  constructed  that  the  Jews  might  have  their  causes 
decided  without  entering  the  Prsetorium,  and  thus  becoming 
defiled.  When  Pilate  examined  Jesus  apart  from  the  Jew.'*, 
he  was  within  the  Praetorium :  when  in  their  presence  it  was 
on  the  raised  pavement.  There  Pilate  condemned  him.  In 
the  Pi"setorium  the  soldiers  mocked  him,  Matt.  xv.  16.  Pro- 
bably to  produce  compassion  in  the  minds  of  the  Jews,  Pilate 
again  brought   him  to  the  pavement,  and  when  Jesus  was 


GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM.  305 

finally  delivered  to  them,  lie  was  conducted  through  the  gate 
of  justice  (west  of  the  temple)  to  Calvary,  which  was  just 
without  the  walls,  and  there  they  crucified  him. 

394.  On  the  night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal,  he  seems  to  have 
been  taken  from  Gethsemane,  to  the  house  of  Annas  (on  Acra), 
thence  to  the  house  of  Caiaphas,  on  Mount  Zion,  thence  to 
the  Prsetorium,  thence  to  the  palace  of  Herod,  in  Bezetha, 
thence  again  to  the  Prsetorium,  and  then  lastly  to  Calvary. 

395.  To  the  east  of  Jerusalem  lay  the  Mount  of  Olives,  with 
the  valley  of  the  Brook  Kedron  between  them.  This  valley 
has  been  for  more  than  3,000  years,  and  is  to  the  present  day, 
used  as  a  burial-place.  This  is  called  in  the  Old  Testament, 
the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  Joel  iii.  2. 

396.  Southward  was  the  valley  of  Hinnom  (Gehenna),  where 
the  Jews  had  once  worshipped  Moloch,  and  offered  to  it  in 
sacrifice  their  own  children.  When  Josiah  recalled  them  to 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  the  valley  was  made  the  recep- 
tacle for  the  filth  of  the  city,  and  for  the  bodies  of  criminals 
who  had  been  executed,  2  Kings  xxiii.  10  :  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3. 
To  consume  these  substances,  fires  were  kept  continually  burn- 
ing, and  hence  the  place  was  used  as  an  emblem  of  future 
punishment,  INIatt.  v.  22.  On  the  south  declivity  of  the  val- 
ley, lay  the  Potter's-field,  afterwards  called,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  its  purchase,  the  field  of  blood. 

397.  At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  more  than  a  million 
of  the  Jews  perished,  and  97,000  were  taken  priso- 
ners.     About  sixty  years  afterwards,  the  Jews  who  liistory  of 
had  begun  to  gather  around   their  ancient  home, 

were  all  banished,  their  return  prohibited  on  pain  of  death, 
and  the  site  of  the  temple  ploughed  up.  Several  hundred 
years  afterwards,  the  city  was  again  rebuilt.  In  614  the  Per- 
sians captured  it,  and  90,000  Christians  were  slain.  In  637  it 
was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  who  kept  it  till  1079,  when  the 
Turks  became  its  masters.  It  is  still  a  large  city,  with  about 
20,000  inhabitants,  but  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles,  a  "by- 
word and  a  reproach." 
26* 


306  GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 

After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  many  of  the  Jews 
removed  to  Tiberias,  which  was  long  the  chief  seat  of  their 
literature  and  worship. 

398.  A  knowledge  of  geography  will  often  explain  and 
reconcile  the  statements  of  the  Bible,  show  the  beauty  and 
truthfulness  of  particular  passages,  and  bring  out  the  sense 
which  might  otherwise  remain  concealed. 

Asia,  for  example,  means  in  the  New  Testament,  a  small  part 
of  Asia  Minor,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  capital :  hence  when  the 
apostle  was  forbidden  to  go  into  Asia,  he  felt  himself  free  to  go  to 
Bithynia,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Acts  ii.  9 :  1  Cor.  xvi.  19: 
Rev.  i.  4. 

The  word  "sea,"  is  often  applied  in  Scripture  to  great  rivers.  The 
Nile  is  so  called,  Nah.  iii.  8.  The  description  applies  to  No-Ammon,  or 
Thebes,  the  ancient  capital  of  Egypt,  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile, 
and  300  miles  from  the  Mediterranean ;  see  also  Isa.  xxvii.  1 :  Jer.  li.  36. 
Euphrates  is  so  called,  Isa.  xix.  5.  The  Nile  is  still  called  by  this  name, 
el  Bahr  (the  sea),  Robinson's  Researches,  i.  542.  The  word  "coasts," 
means  borders  or  districts.  Matt.  ii.  IG ;  xv.  21. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Jews  called  all  civilized  nations,  except 
themselves,  Greeks,  Acts.  xix.  10 ;  xx.  21  •  Rom.  i.  16 ;  ii.  9,  10 ;  x.  12; 
as  the  Greeks  called  all  except  themselves,  Barbarians.  Hence  the  woman 
whom  Matthew  calls  a  Canaanite  is  called  by  Mark  a  Greek,  and  a  Syro- 
Phcenician,  Matt  xv.  22  .  Mark  vii.  26 ;  the  word  "  Syro"  being  intended 
probably  to  guard  Roman  readers  (for  whom  his  Gospel  was  designed) 
against  supposing  that  she  belonged  to  Carthage,  a  "  Phcenician  city." 

The  word  "Grecian"  or  "Hellenist,"  however,  refers  to  Jeivs  who 
for  the  most  part  resided  out  of  Judaea,  and  used  the  Grecian  language 
and  manners,  Acts  vi.  1 ;  ix.  29  •  xi.  20. 

The  expression  in  John  iv.  4,  "  he  must  needs  go  through  Samaria," 
has  sometimes  been  taken  to  imply  that  the  "needs-be"  was  founded 
upon  the  Divine  purpose.  The  fact  is,  that  Samaria  lay  between  Judaja 
and  Galilee,  and  the  direct  road  to  Jerusalem  led  through  that  country. 

That  the  Gadarenee  kept  swine,  has  been  regarded  as  a  violation  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  on  that  account  it  is  supposed  our  Lord  allowed 
the  demons  to  enter  into  the  herd :  Josephus  states,  however,  that 
Gadara  was  a  Greek  city,  and  that  it  had  been  only  recentl}''  annexed 
to  Galilee,  Luke  viii.  37. 

On  comparing  Luke  xxiv.  50,  with  Acts  i.  12,  it  seems  that  our  Lord 
led  his  disciples  as  far  as  Bethany,  and  yet  he  ascended  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives.     In  fact,  the  Mount  of  Olives  has  on  the  side  of  it,  next  to 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


307 


Jerusalem,  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  on  the  other  side,  the  village 
of  Bethany.  The  top  of  the  Mount  overlooks  them  both,  and  the  two 
passages  are  qnite  consistent. 

In  Isa.  xxviii.  1,  Samaria  is  called  "the  crown  of  pride,"  and  her 
glory  is  compared  to  the  fading  fiower  of  the  drunkard.  The  custom 
referred  to  in  this  passage  (and  which  is  mentioned  in  Wisd.  ii.  7,  8),  is 
that  of  wearing  chapleta  in  seasons  of  festivity.  Samaria,  moreover, 
was  built  on  the  top  of  a  round  hill,  and  the  fact  suggested  the  appro- 
priate image  of  a  wreath  of  flowers  bound  around  the  head  of  the 
drunkard. 

The  chief  city  of  Edom  is  described,  with  equal  truth,  as  dwelling 
in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  and  holding  the  height  of  the  hill,  Obad  iii. : 
a  most  accurate  description  of  the  wondrous  city  of  Petra,  whose  ruins 
were  discovered  by  Burckhardt,  in  1811,  and  have  been  recently  visited 
by  Dr.  Wilson. 

399.  In  using  a  modern  atlas  of  Palestine,  giving  Arabic 
names,  the  following  table  will  be  of  use : 


Ain,  ayun — fountain,  s.|Hajr — great  stone. 
Arabah — plain,  or  des-  Hummaun — bath, 
ert. 


Bahr — sea,  or  lake. 
Beit — house. 
Bir — well. 
Burg — castle. 
Deir — convent. 
El,  en,  er,  etc. — the. 
Ghor — valley  between 
two  mountains. 


Mesjed — mosk,  temple. 
Mukam — tomb  of  a 

saint. 
Nahr — river. 
Nukb — pass. 
Ras — cape,  or  head. 
Tel— hill. 

Wady  I  — valley,  or 
Wely    J    water-course. 


Jebel,   jebal — moun 

tain,  s. 
Jisr — bridge. 
Kabr — tomb. 
Khan — inn. 
Khulat ") 

Kusr      I  — castle. 
Kasr      J 
Merj — meadow. 

400.  Under  physical  geography  are  included  climate, 
weather,  seasons,  etc.  ;  and  a  knowledge  of  these  will  often 
throw  light  on  Scripture. 

401.  The  heat  of  the  climate  of  Judaea  in  summer  is  intense, 
and  frequently  proves  fatal.     Near  Mount  Tabor, 

many  soldiers  from  the  army  of  Baldwin  IV.  died 
from  this  cause,  and  at  the  very  place  (Shunem)  where  the 
child  died  in  the  days  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  vi.  18-20.  How 
impressive  the  figure  of  the  prophet  when  speaking  of  the 
Saviour,  "  He  shall  be  as  the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a 
weary  land,"  Isa.  xxxii.  2. 

During  the  summer  there  was  no  rain  in  Palestine ;  but  in 
the  evening  the  dew  fell  heavily  and  suddenly,  often  Rain- 

wetting  the  incautious  traveller  to  the  skin.    It  was  as  suddenly 


808  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

dried  up  on  the  following  morning.  Compare  with  this  fact  the  fol- 
lowing passages,  Psa.  cxxxiii.  3 :  Hos.  vi.  4 ;  xiv.  5 :  2  Sam.  xvii.  12, 
Philo  tells  us  that  there  are  no  rains  in  Egypt ;  and  it  is 
„  certain  that  rain  in  that  country  is  exceedingly  rare.' 

No  rain  _  _     -^  .  . 

in  Egypt  Hence  the  evidence  of  the  miracle  of  rain  mentioned 
in  Exod.  ix.  18-26,  and  the  hardness  of  heart  displayed  by 
Pliaroah  in  resisting  the  message  of  Moses. 

Rain  is  generally  preceded  by  a  squall  of  wind.  Compare 
2  Kings  iii.  16,  17,  and  Prov.  xxv.  14. 

The  east  wind  of  Palestine  is  very  hurtful  to  vegetation. 
In  winter  it  is  dry  and  cold,  and  in  summer  drv  and 

Winds.  ■  rr-    ^  ■  c    ^       ^ 

hot.  It  carries  off  the  moisture  of  the  leaves  too  ra- 
pidly, and  withers  them.''  When  it  sweeps  over  the  Mediterra- 
nean it  is  peculiarly  dangerous."  It  was  this  wind — Eurocly- 
don,  or  a  Levanter,  as  modern  sailors  call  it — which  proved  so 
fatal  to  the  "  Castor  and  Pollux."''  The  west  wind  brought  show- 
ers, and,  after  a  long  drought,  heavy  rain.®  The  north  wind  was 
cold  and  drying.^  The  south  wind  brought  heat*^and  whirlwinds. 
These  whirlwinds  are  sometimes  used  in  Scripture  to  illus- 
trate the  power  of  God  in  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and 
the  suddenness  with  which  it  overtakes  them.''  Mr.  Bruce,  in 
his  travels  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile,  was  suddenly 
caught  by  a  whirlwind,  which  lifted  up  a  camel,  and  threw  it 
to  a  considerable  distance.  It  also  threw  himself  and  his  ser- 
vants down  on  their  faces,  so  as  to  make  the  blood  gush  from 
their  nostrils.  Sometimes,  Maillet  informs  us,  whole  caravans 
have  been  buried  under  the  sand  with  which  these  winc^  are 

charged.     When  conne^ed  with  the  hot,  pestilential 
'  simoom,  they  are  peculiarly  fatal.     Thevenot  men- 
tions the  suffocation  from  this  cause  of  4,000  persons  in  1655, 
and  of  nearly  20,000  in  1688.     Compare  Isa.  xvii.  13 :  Hos. 
xiii.  3  :   Isa.  xxxii.  2  :  Matt.  vii.  27  :   Prov.  xxix.  1. 
Ilarmer's  Observations,  i.  164. 

»Zech.xiv.  18.        bGen.  xli.  6:  Ezek.  xvii.  10;  xix.  2:  Hos.  xiii.  15. 
'  Psa.  xlviii.  7.     ^  Acts  xxvii.  14.     « Luke  xii.  54 :  1  Kings  xviii.  44,  45. 
fProv.  xxv.  23  .  Job  xxxvii.  9,  22.       8  Luke  xii.  55  :  Zech.  ix.  14. 
b  Prov.  i.  27;  x.  25. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY — SEASONS,    ETC.  309 

The  value  of  wells  in  tlie  East  can  be  fullv  appreciated  only 
by  those  who  know  the  scarcity  of  water  in  the  sum.- 

Wells. 

mer  season.  These  wells  were  a  source  of  strife  be- 
tween Abimelech  and  Isaac,  Gen.  xxyi.  ;  and  Moses  commemo- 
rates God's  bounty  in  giving  the  Israelites  wells  which  they 
digged  not,  Deut.  yi.  11.  Travellers  crossing  the  deserts  some- 
times go  as  much  as  80  miles  without  water.  The  wells,  too,  are 
often  very  deep,  many  of  them  160  feet,  and  then  filled  only  with 
rain-water.  In  going  to  Jerusalem,  the  devout  Israelites 
went  from  strength  to  strength,  the  rain  filling  the  pools, 
Psa.  Ixxxiv:  see  also  Gen.  xxiv.  16.  The  comparison  of  false 
teachers  to  wells  without  water  is  thus  seen  to  be  peculiarly  just; 
bitterly  disappointing  the  hopes  of  their  hearers,  2  Pet.  ii.  17. 
The  mirage,  or  glowing  watery  appearance  of  distant  sand,  is 
also  a  figure  expressive  of  disappointment.  Camels  and  travel- 
lers are  both  deceived,  and  when  they  reach  what  seemed  a  sheet 
of  water  they  find  burning  dust.    See  Jer.  xv.  18,  marg. 

Between  the  days  and  nights  of  Europe,  there  is  no  very  great 
difference  as  to  the  qualities  of  heat  and  cold.  In  ^^^^^ 
the  East  it  is  quite  otherwise.  In  the  height  of  sum-  nights, 
mer  the  nights  are  often  as  cold  as  at  Paris  in  the  month  of 
March,  and  the  days  scorchingly  hot.  Compare  Gen.  xxxi.  40, 
and  Jer.  xxxvi.  30 :  Isa.  xlix.  10  :  Rev.  vii.  16. 

Sir  J.  Chardin,  Harmer  i.  182. 

402.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  that  the  Scriptures  always 
represent  the-  weather,  whose  laws  are  apparently  the  most 
difficult  to  ascertain,  as  under  the  control  and  superintend- 
ence of  the  Creator,  Matt.  v.  45 :  Acts  xiv.  17 :  Jer.  v.  24 : 
Psa.  cxlvii.  16-18 :   Nahum  i.  5,  6. 

Harmer's  Observations  will  be  found  a  rich  store-hou.se  of  illustrations 
on  the  physical-geography  of  Palestine.  Recent  travellers,  and  especially 
Dr.  Robinson,  Dr.  Kitto,  and  Dr.  John  Wilson,  have  largely  added  to  our 
knowledge. 

403.  Combining  the  mode  of  reckoning  common  among  the 
Jews  with  the  facts  of  physical  geography,  and  the  seasons 
fixed  for  the  various  annual  feasts,  we  obtain  a  table  of  much 
interest  and  value. 


310 


CALENDAR    OF    THE   JEWS, 


The  first  mouth  of  the  sacred  year  was  the  one  whose  full  moon 
answered  to  March  and  sometimes  to 


Month  of     1 

Name. 

Answering 

to  the 
Months  of 

Festivals  and  Lessons. 

Sacred 
Year.  : 

Civil 
Year. 

1st 

7th 

Aljilj,  or    Nisan    (3u 
days'!.  Exod.  xii.  2  : 
Ezra  vii.  9:  Neh.  ii. 
1:  Esther  iii.  7. 

Parts        of 
Mar.     and 
April. 

3.  Lev.  vi. :  Jer.  vii.  21. 

14.  Paschal  lamb  slain.  The  Pas- 
sover. 

16.  The  first-fruits  of  the  barley 
harvest  presented. 

21.  End  of  the  Passover  and  un- 
leavened bread. 

2d 

8th 

Tyar.  or  Zif  (29  days), 
1  Kings  vi.  1. 

Parts       of 
Apr.      and 
May. 

11.  Lev.  xvi.  1:  Ez.  xxii. 
14.  The  second  Passover  (Numb. 
ix.  10.  11).  for  such  as  could 
■  not  celetsrate  the  first. 

3d 

9  th 

Sisan,  or  Si  a  van  (30 
days),  Esther  viii.  9. 

Parts        of 
May      and 
June. 

6.  Pentecost,  or  feast  of  weeks. 
First-fruits  of  wheat-harvest 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17,  20).  and  first- 
fruits  of  all  the  ground.  Deut. 
xxvi.  2;  X.  16:  1  Kings  xii. 
2.5-33. 
10.  Numb,  i.;  Hos.  i. 

4th 

10th 

Thammuz  (29  days). 

Pts.  of  June 
and  July. 

3.  Numb.  xiii.  1 :  Josh.  ii. 
26.  Numb.  xxii.  2:  Mic.  v.  7. 

5th 

11th 
12th 

All  (30  days),  Ezra 
vii.  9. 

Pts.  of  July 
and  Aug. 

3.  Numb.  x.xx.  2:  Jer.  i. 
20.  Deut.  i. :  Isa.  i. 

6tli 

Elul  (29  days),  Neh. 
vi.  15. 

Pts.  of  Aug. 
and  Sept. 

3.  Deut.  vii.  12 :  Isa.  xlix.  14. 
20.  Deut.  xvi.  18 :  Isa.  Ii.  12. 

7th 

1st 

Tisri.orEthaninU.SO 
days)  1  Kings  viii.  2. 

Parts        of 
Sept.     and 
Oct. 

1.  Feast  of  trumpets.  Lev.  xxiii. 
24:  Numb,  xxix.l. 

10.  Day  of  atonement,  Lev.  xxiii. 
27,  2S. 

15.  Feast  of  tabernacles,  or  of  the 
in-gatherings.  Ex.  xxiii.  16: 
Lev. xxiii. 34.  Fivst-truits  of 
wine  and  oil,  Lev.  xxiii.  39. 

21.  Gen.  i.:  Isa.  xlii.  5. 

8th 

2d 

Marchesvan.  or  Bnl 
(29  ds.)l  Kings  vi. 38 

Pts.  of  Oct. 
and  Nov. 

8.  Gen.  x.xiii.  i. :  1  Sam.  i.  1. 

9th 

3d 

Chisleu    (30     days), 
Zech.  vii.  1:  Neh.  1. 
1. 

Parts        of 
Nov.     and 
Dec. 

10.  Gen.  xxxvii.  i. :  Amos  ii.  6. 
25.  Feast  of  the  dedication.l  Mac. 
iv.  ,=)2-59:  John  x.22,  23. 

10th 

4th 

Tliebeth  (29    days). 
Esther  ii.  16. 

Parts       of 
Dee.     and 
Jan. 

1 

25.  Exod.  X.  1 :  Jer.  xlvi.  13. 

11th 

5th 

Shevet,orShebat(.30 
days),  Zech.  i.  7. 

Parts       of 
Jan.      and 
Feb. 

17.  Exod.  xxi.  1 :  Jer.  xxxiv.  ;>. 

12th 

6th 

Adar  (29  days),  Ezra 
vi.  15. 
Vc  Adar.  or  2d  .\dar 

Parts        of 
Feb.      and 

Mar. 

1 

1.  Ex.  xxxviii.21 :  lSam.xvii.13. 
14, 15.  Feast  of  Purim. 
25.  Lev.i.l:  Isa.  xliii.  21. 

SHOWING   THE    SEASONS    OF   THE    YEAR,  ETC. 


!11 


followed  next  after  the  vernal  equinox,  and  therefore  sometimea 

April,  and  soiiiutimes  to  parts  of  both. 


Seasons  and  Weather. 


Harvest 
begins. 


Sumni'r 
begins. 


Hot 

season. 


Seed- 
time 
becins. 


Winter 
begins. 


Cold 
season. 


Excessive  drnncrlit.  F'rom  .April  to  Sept.  no  rain 
or  thunder,  1  .Sam.  xii.  17  :  Prov.  xxvi.  1. 

The  morniyig  ckmd  seen  early,  but  soon  disap- 
pears, Hos.  vi.  4:  xiii.  3. 

Copious  dews  at  night.  Jobxxix.9:  Psa.  cxxxiii.3. 

North  and  East  vvunds  increa.se  drought,  Gen. 
xli.  6-' Jer.  iv.  8. 


The  kiftw  rain  begins  to  fall,  Deut.  xi.  14 :  Zech. 

X.  1. 
The  weather  during  the  rains  chilly,  Ezra  x.  9; 

.John  xviii.  10. 

This  rain  prepares  the  corn  for  harvest. 
Great  heat,  especiallj'  in  tlie  plains. 
The   rivers  swell  from  the  rains,  Josh.  iii.  15: 

1  Cliron.  xii.  15  :  Jer.  xii.  .5. 


The  latter  rains  still  frequent. 
These    rains    often    preceded   by   whirlwinds, 
1  Kings  xviii.  45;  att.  viii.  24.  _ 


Heat  increases. 


Heat  intense ;  country  apparently  burned  up. 
Lebanon  nearly  free  from  snow. 


Heat  still  intense,  2  Kings  iv.  19,  20 :  Psa.  cxxi.  6: 
Isa.  xhx.  9, 10:  Rev.  vii.  16. 


Heat  in  the  iny;  nights  frosty,  Gen.  xxxi.  40. 
Showers  frequent;  the  former,  or  early  rain. 
Ploughing  and  sowing  begin. 


.Sometimes  the  early  rain  begins  now. 
Wheat  and  barley  sown. 


Trees  lose  their  foliage. 

Snow  begins  to  fall  on  the  mountains,  Jos.  xxxvi. 

22. 


On  the  mountains  the  cold  is  severe. 
Hail;  snow.  Jush  x.  11  :  Psa.  xlvii.  10,17. 
i  Weather  warm  at  intervals,  Ezra  xxxiii.  30.  31. 


f'orn  still  sown. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season  the  weather 
cold,  but  gradually  becomes  warm. 


Productions. 


Barley  ripe  at  Jericho;  wheat 
partly  in  ear;  fig-tree  blo.s- 
sonis;  wint<T-fig  still  on  the 
tree.  Mat.  xxi.  19:  I\lar.xi.23. 


Barley  gcner'lly  three  weeks 
earli'r  than  wheat.  Barl'v  ge- 
nerally cut  this  month. Ruth 
i.  22.  Wheat  begins  to  ripen. 


Wheat  ripening  on  the  hills 
in  June ;  in  the  valleys,  early 
in  May. 

Grass  in  some  places  a  yard 
liigh,  John  vi.  10. 


Early  vintage.  Lev.  xxvi.  5. 
Rice  and  early  figs  ripen. 


Ripe  figs  at  Jerusalem:  olives 
at  Jericho;  grapes  ripening. 


Grape  harvest  general. 


The  latter  grapes  gathered. 


Gra.ss  and  herbs 
after  the  rains. 


sprmg  up 


The  winter-fig  found  on  the 
trees,  tho\it;h  tliey  are 
stripped  of  their  leaves. 


Thunder  and  hail  frequent 
Barley  sometimes  sown. 


The  almond-tree  blossoms. 


812  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY — UTILITY. 

404.  The  perusal  of  this  table  will  suggest  one  or  two  obvi- 
ous analogies.  The  summer  and  winter  in  Palestine  coincide 
"with  the  same  seasons  in  England  ;  as  does  the  time  of  greatest 
heat,  July  and  August,  and  of  greatest  cold,  January.  Seed 
time  is  in  our  autumn ;  and  harvest  begins  in  our  spring,  and 
extends  through  the  early  summer. 

The  rainy  seasons  in  Palestine  begin  about  the  Equinoxes ; 
the  rain  in  our  autumn  is  the  early  or  seed  rain ;  the  rain  in 
our  spring  is  the  latter  or  harvest  rain.  The  one  quickens 
the  seed,  the  other  fills  the  ear.  The  rains  generally  come 
from  the  west  (Luke  sii.  54),  driven  up  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea.  During  harvest  and  summer,  rain  is  most  unusual, 
a  fact  which  explains  the  surprise  of  the  people  as  described 
in  1  Sam.  xii.  17. 

The  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  in  April,  when  the  river 
was  swollen  with  the  winter  rains,  and  hence  the  necessity  for 
the  miracle  recorded  in  Josh.  iii. 

In  Scripture,  dates  are  often  fixed  by  a  reference  to  the  sea- 
sons or  productions,  2  Sam.  xxi.  9 :  Numb.  xiii.  20 ;  or  by  a 
reference  to  the  feasts,  John  x.  22. 

The  fact  recorded  in  Luke  iv.  17,  has  been  thought  to  fix 
the  time  of  our  Lord's  visit  to  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth. 
The  reading  of  the  Law  was  completed  in  the  fifty-two  Sab- 
baths of  each  year,  and  was  begun  in  Tisri  (or  Sept.),  a  cus- 
tom founded  on  Neh.  viii.  2 ;  and  Deut.  xxxi.  10,  11.  Gen. 
i.-vi.  was  read  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles ;  and  on  the  Sab- 
bath before,  Deut.  xxix.  10,  with  Isa.  Ixi.  1 ;  Ixiii.  10.  This 
reckoning,  which  is  Lamy's,  fixes  the  visit  on  the  14th  Tisri. 
The  time  seems  fixed  by  the  context,  however,  nearer  to  Pen- 
tecost, and  the  phraseology  of  Luke  rather  intimates  that 
Christ  had  chosen  the  passage,  than  that  he  found  it  in  the 
general  order  of  reading.  Lamy  has  given  all  the  lessons 
(App.  Bibl.  Bk.  i.,  chap.  v).  The  preceding  Table  gives  the 
commencement  of  a  few  only. 

The  zeal  of  the  people  mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xxx.  23,  be- 


INTER!  KETATION  OF  ALLEGORIES.  313 

comes  more  obvious,  when  it  is  remembered  that  tbey  kept 
the  feast  other  seven  days,  in  the  vtidst  of  the  harvest. 

Important  lessons  are  often  suggested  by  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  such  facts  as  this  table  contains.  Our  Lord,  for 
example,  was  crucified  on  the  day  when  the  paschal  lamb  was 
offered,  and  rose  on  the  day  when  the  first  fruits  of  the  early 
harvest  were  presented,  "the  first  fruits  of  them  that  slept." 
The  Spirit  was  poured  out  at  Pentecost,  when  the  first  fruits 
of  the  ground  were  presented  at  the  temple :  and  on  that 
day  3,000  persons,  "  out  of  every  nation  under  heaven,"  were 
added  to  the  church,  Acts  ii.  5,  41.  The  feast  of  tabernacles 
(when  thanks  were  oftered  for  the  ingathering  of  all  the  fruits 
of  the  land),  is  yet  to  come. 

The  language  of  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiii.  27,  29),  comparing 
the  Pharisees  to  whited  sepulchres,  becomes  clearer  from  the 
fact,  that  it  was  spoken  just  before  the  Passover,  and  after 
the  winter  rains,  when  the  Jews  were  busy  whitewashing  the 
burial-places  near  Jerusalem,  and  preparing  for  the  feast. 

Sec.  7. — On  the  Application  of  these  Rules  to  the 
Interpretation  op  the  Allegories,  Parables,  Types 
AND  Symbols  of  Scripture.  • 

"  The  Scriptures  being  written  to  the  thoughts  of  men,  and  to  the 
succession  of  all  ages  ....  are  not  to  be  interpreted  only  according 
to  the  latitude  of  the  proper  sense  of  the  place,  and  respectively  towards 
that  present  occasion  whereuj)0n  the  words  were  uttered  ....  but 
have  in  themselves,  both  distributively  and  collectively,  infinite 
springs  and  streams  of  doctrine  to  water  the  church  in  every  part 

not  that  I  wish  men  to  be  bold  in  allegories  ....  but  that  I 

do  much  condemn  that  interpretation  of  the  Scripture,  which  is  only 
after  the  manner  men  use  to  interpret  a  profane  book." — Bacon  ;  Ad- 
vancement of  Learnina. 

"  Our  Lord  might  have  uttered  the  common  places  of  morality,  but 
he  teaches  by  parables,  because  he  knew  that  they  would  more  con- 
stantly inhabit  both  the  memory  and  the  judgment." — Sir  P.  Sydney. 

"  Manifcste  dicta  absolvent  parabolas." — Irenceus,  lib.  ii.  c.  47. 

405.  We  have  been  engaged  thus  far  in  collecting  the  sense 
of  Scripture,  and  in  order  to  ascertain  that  sense,  it  has  only 
been  necessary  to  find  the  meaning  of  the  words.     There  are 
27 


314  ALLEGORICAL   AND    FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE. 

some  parts  of  the  Bible,  however,  where  we  need  an  addi- 
tional kind  of  interpretation.  Hitherto  the  meaning  of  the 
words  has  been  regarded  as  the  Bible.  In  the  passage  to 
which  we  are  about  to  refer,  however,  there  is  a  further 
meaning  called  the  allegorical  or  spiritual.  To  this  class 
belong' the  allegories  and  para.bles,  types,  typical  actions,  and 
symbols  of  the  sacred  volume,  and  as  they  agree  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  interpretation  applicable  to  them  all,  we  class  them 
under  one  name  as  allegories. 

Fi  uresand  '^^^'  ^^^7  ^^i^^^  from  the  figures  of  Scripture  in 
Parables.      several  particulars. 

First,  They  present  to  our  view  only  the  less  important  meaning  they 
are  intended  to  convey,  the  moral  or  spiritual  one  being  for  a  time 
concealed ;  while  in  figures  the  secondary  or  important  meaning  is 
generally  the  prominent  one.  When  it  is  said,  for  example,  that  the  Son 
of  Man  is  the  sower,  we  use  a  figure,  and  the  meaning  of  the  word 
"sower"  is  fixed  by  its  place  in  the  sentence.  But  when  we  say,  "A 
sower  went  forth  to  sow,'  we  express  but  one  meaning,  though  there  ia 
an  ultimate  meaning  in  view  which  is  not  expressed. 

Secondly,  Figures  always  represent  one  thing  as  another  thing,  and 
the  meaning  is  at  once  fixed  by  excluding  the  points  in  which  they 
differ  and  combining  those  onlj'  in  which  they  agree.  In  the  case  of 
allegories  or  parables,  it  is  never  said  that  one  thing  is  another,  though 
this  may  be  said  when  the  parable  is  explained. 

Thirdly,  In  figures  there  is  but  one  meaning  consistent  with  the 
context  and  scope :  in  the  allegory  and  parable  there  are  two,  the 
verbal  and  the  allegorical ;  the  verbal  being  the  explanation  of  the 
words,  and  the  allegorical,  of  the  thing  or  things  signified  by  them. 

407.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  in  an  allegory  or  type, 
we  are  not  to  expect  an  agreement  between  the  verbal  sense 
and  the  allegorical  meaning  in  all  points.  The  allegory,  so  far, 
is  like  a  figure  of 'speech.  In  the  latter,  it  is  enough  if  the 
two  things  compared  touch  the  one  point,  and  in  the  former, 
things  must  not  be  expected  to  touch  in  all.  At  the  same 
time,  the  allegory  so  far  differs  from  the  figure,  that  it  gene- 
rally touches  in  more  than  one.  It  is  in  its  very  nature  a 
continued  comparison,  and  an   expositor  may  safely  proceed 


ALLEGORIES — THE   SCOPE.  315 

on  the  presumption  that  there  is  contact  in  most  points ;  nor 
need  he  desist  from  his  comparison  till  the  resemblance  refuses 
to  appear,  unless  it  be  forced,  or  till  it  is  evident  that  the  cir- 
cumstances under  consideration  is  added  only  to  give  beauty 
or  energy  to  the  narrative. 

408.  The  occasions  on  which  it  is  proper  to  use  an  allego- 
rical representation  are  numerous.  It  tests  a  teach-  „  . , . 
able  disposition  (Matt.  xiii.  13).  It  is  peculiarly  when  used, 
useful  in  giving  a  figurative  exhibition  of  truth,  before  it  is 
intended  to  reveal  it  clearly.  It  often  serves  this  purpose  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  book  of  Eevelation.  It  is 
useful  in  gaining  a  man's  judgment  against  him.self,  as  in  the 
case  of  David,  and  as  in  many  of  the  parables  ;  and  even 
when  there  is  no  need  of  concealment,  it  often  attracts  the 
attention  of  men  who  might  otherwise  remain  indifferent. 

409.  All   the   rules    of  allegorical   interpretation  take   as 
granted,  that  the  verbal  interpretation  of  the  pas- 
sage has  been  completed,  and  that  if  the  allegory  words  to  be 
be  a  type  or  symbol,  we  have  ascertained  precisely 

what  the  action  or  symbol  is,  whose  allegorical  meaning  we 
are  about  to  investigate.  Till  this  be  done,  no  step  can  be 
taken  in  the  real  interpretation  :  we  must  first  know  what  the 
thing  is,  before  we  can  know  what  it  is  intended  to  represent. 

410.  (1.)  The  first  rule  of  interpretation  is  :  ascertain  what 
is  the  scope,  either  bv  reference  to  the  context,  or  to     ,,.   ,     , 

■'■'•'_  '  first  rule: 

parallel  passages ;  and  seize  the  one  truth  which  the  scope. 
the  type  or  parable  is  intended  to  set  forth,  distinguishing  it 
from  all  the  other  truths  which  border  upon  it,  and  let  the 
parts  of  the  parable  which  are  explained,  be  explained  in 
harmony  with  this  one  truth. 

In  the  case  of  allegories  the  scope  is  generally  told  us,  as  in  Psa. 
Ixxx  ;  the  whole  being  explained  in  verse  17,  where  the  man  of  God's 
right  hand  is  introduced  in  such  a  way  as  directs  us  to  Israel  as  the 
Vine.  Sometimes,  however,  we  have  to  look  to  other  parts  of  the 
Bible. 

The  entire  book  of  Canticles  is  an  extended  allegory,  and  under  this 


316  ALLEGOKIES — SUBORDINATE     TRUTHS. 

form  is  shadowed  forth  the  spiritual  aifection  between  Christ  and  his 
church.  To  explain  the  book,  we  have  recourse  to  other  places,  where 
the  relation  between  God  and  his  church  is  described  under  a  similar 
representation.  So  also  Isa.  v.  1-7 :  Ezek.  xv.  19,  10,14;  xix.  1-9; 
xxiii. ;  xxxi.  3-17. 

In  the  parables,  the  scope  is  generally  told  us  in  the  context ;  some- 
times by  our  Lord  himself  (Matt.  xxii.  14),  sometimes  by  the  inspired 
narrator  in  his  own  words  (Luke  xviii.  1). 

Sometimes  it  is  set  forth  at  the  commencement  of  the  parable  (Luke 
xviii.  9 ;  xix.  11);  sometimes  at  the  close  (Matt.  xxv.  13 ;  Luke  xvi. 
9);  sometimes  at  both,  as  in  Matt,  xviii.  23;  see  verses  21  and  35. 
So  again  in  Matt.  xx.  1-16 :  Luke  xii.  15-21. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  we  need  to  turn  to  a  parallel  passage;  as, 
for  the  full  interpretation  of  Luke  xv.  3,  we  turn  to  Matt,  xviii. 
12,  etc. 

When  from  none  of  these  circumstances  the  scope  can  be  gathered, 
we  must  then  have  recourse  to  the  occasion  or  the  subject  of  the  para- 
ble itself.  The  meaning  of  the  parable  of  the  barren  fig-tree  (Luke 
xiii.  6,  9),  and  the  prodigal  son,  is  gathered  in  this  way.  The  progress 
of  the  parables,  and  the  study  of  the  circumstances  under  which  they 
were  spoken,  will  clearly  show  the  design  of  our  Lord  in  uttering 
them. 

411.  In  the  case  of  a  type,  it  is  important  to  remember  that 
g  ,  the  scope  or  intention  of  God  in  instituting  it  can 
types.  \^Q  gathered  only  from  the  Bible.  Sometimes  from 
the  Old  Testament,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses,  Deut.  xviii.  15, 
frequently  only  from  the  New,  as  in  John  iii.  14  ;  vi.  32 ; 
1  Cor.  V.  7,  8 :  Matt.  xii.  40,  etc.  The  principle  laid  down  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  is  that  the  whole  of  the  previous 
dispensation  was  typical — -a  shadow  of  things  to  come.  In 
applying  this  principle,  the  rules  found  below  must  be  care- 
fully observed. 

Views  in-  412.  Any  interpretation  of  a  parable  or  allegory 
with'the"*  't'^^'t  is  inconsistent  with  the  great  truth,  which  it 
reie^^ed^^    is  thus  Seen  to  involve,  must  be  rejected. 

The  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  for  example,  has  been  supposed 
to  refer  to  our  Lord ;  the  woundud  traveller,  to  our  sinful  race ;  the 
priest  and  Levite,  to  the  moral  and  Levitical  law ;  the  inn,  to  the 


ALLEGORIES — SUBORDINATE    TRUTHS.  317 

church :  an    interpretation   entirely  inconsistent   with  our   Saviour's 
designs.     It  is^nough,  therefore,  that  the  truths  which  we  suppose  to     ''VurC 
be  contained  in  the  allegories  and  types  of  Scripture  are  Scriptural ; 
they  must  be  evidently  shown  to  be  involved  in  the  purpose  of  God  in 
instituting  the  one,  and  of  inspired  teachers  in  speaking  of  the  other. 

This  remark  is  applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  parables,  and  it  may  be 
reversed.  We  have  the  right  interpretation  when  all  the  main  circum- 
stances are  explained.  If  any  important  member  of  the  narrative  is 
rendered  by  our  interpretation  nugatory,  or  is  paralysed,  the  inter- 
pretation is  false;  and  when  we  have  a  true  interpretation  of  the  whole, 
that  interpretation  of  any  part  is  to  be  rejected  which  does  not  con- 
duce to  the  consistency  and  force  of  the  whole.  In  interpreting  the 
parable  of  tihe  prodigal  son,  for  example,  some  expositors  have  de- 
scended to  details  which  are  quite  inconsistent  with  the  obvious  scope 
and  force  of  the  narrative.  The  alienation  of  the  prodigal  from  all 
home  affections — his  resolution  to  seek  happiness  where  God  is  not — ■ 
the  fearful  change  in  his  position,  and  his  consciousness  of  that  change 
■ — his  attempt  to  repair  his  broken  fortunes — his  bitter  disappointment 
and  wants — the  resolve  to  return — the  father's  love  and  welcome — the 
festal  rejoicing  which  his  return  created — the  discontent  and  grudging 
spirit  of  the  elder  brother — the  father's  noble  remonstrance — all  illus- 
trate the  great  truth  of  the  passage,  that  God  welcomes  the  return  of 
the  vilest  of  his  children,  and  all  are  important.  To  deny,  as  some 
have  done,  that  the  prodigal's  desertion  of  his  home  has  any  reference 
to  man's  apostasy,  weakens  the  parable  •  and  to  teach  that  the  ring  is 
the  everlasting  love  of  God,  or  the  seal  of  the  Spirit — that  the  sinner 
is  called  the  younger  son,  because  man  as  a  sinner  is  younger  than 
man  as  righteous — -that  the  citizen  to  whom  he  went  was  a  legal 
preacher — tliat  the  swine  were  self  righteous  persons — that  the  hu.<ks 
were  works  of  righteousness — that  the  fatted  calf  was  Christ — that 
the  shoes  were  means  of  upright  conversation,  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts of  the  Scripture — that  the  music  which  the  elder  brother  heard 
was  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel — is  to  call  our  attention  from  the 
great  lesson  of  the  parable  to  doctrines  which  the  disciples  could  not 
have  found  in  the  parable  itself.  By  turning  the  most  delicate  touches 
into  important  Scriptural  truths,  the  great  design  of  the  whole  i.s 
obscured,  and  we  learn  to  bring  a  meaning  into  the  passage,  and  not 
out  of  it;  a  habit  which  we  are  likely  to  employ  with  more  s'erious 
mischief  in  other  places. 

41-^.  But  while  everything  that  is  explained,  must  be  ex- 
27* 


318  ALLEGOEIES — OTHER  RULES. 

„     ,     ,     plained  with  reference  to  the  writer's  scope,  it  is  an 

How  far  de-   f  ^         ^     ' 

tniis  to  he  important  question,  how  far  the  details  of  the  para- 
bles  and  allegories  of  Scripture  have  a  reference  to 
corresponding  facts,  in  the  application  of  them.  From  the 
inspired  interpretation  of  parables  given  us  in  Scripture,  we 
may  gather  that  we  are  to  avoid  both  the  extreme  of  sup- 
posing that  only  the  design  of  the  whole  should  be  regarded, 
and  the  extreme  of  insisting  upon  every  clause  as  having  a 
double  meaning. 

In  the  parables  of  the  sower  and  the  tares,  for  example,  which  onr 
Loni  himself  interpreted,  the  moral  application  descends  to  the  minu- 
test particulai's  of  the  narrative;  the  birds,  and  thorns,  and  stony 
ground,  have  all  their  meaning :  and,  as  Tholuck  has  remarked,  it  may 
be  said  generally  that  the  similitude  is  perfect,  in  proportion  as  it  ie  on 
all  sides  rich  in  applications.  Even  in  these  parables,  however,  not  all 
the  circumstances  are  explained.  "While  men  slept,"  in  the  parable 
of  the  tares  (Matt.  xiii.  25),  and  the  phrase,  "  I  cannot  dig,'"  and  "to 
beg  I  am  ashamed,"  in  the  parable  of  the  unjust  steward,  have  neither 
of  them  any  application  in  the  explanation  which  our  Lord  himself 
gave  So  in  the  longest  allegory  in  Scripture — the  book  of  Canticles — ■ 
the  description  given  of  the  bride  is  probably  no  more  than  an  expres- 
sion of  the  love  and  complacency  of  Jehovah  towards  his  chosen. 

The  two  following  rules,  in  addition  to  the  one  just  given 
as  to  the  scope  of  the  parable,  will  be  sufficient  to  guard  us 
in  the  interpretation  both  of  the  parables  and  allegories  of 
Scripture. 

414.  (2.)  Even  of  doctrines  consistent  with  the  design  of 
the  parable  or  type,  no  conclusion  must  be  gathered 
of  interpre-  from  any  part  of  either  of  them,  which  is  inconsistent 
with  the  clearer  revelations  of  Divine  truth. 

The  high  priest,  under  the  law,  offered  first  for  his  own  sin,  and  then 
for  the  sins  of  the  people.  It  does  not,  therefore,  follow  that  Christ 
p.artook  of  our  sinful  nature;  the  contrary  is  the  fact;  "for  in  him  was 
no  sin."  So  of  the  paschal  lamb;  it  was  a  type  of  our  Lord;  it  sha- 
dowed forth  his  death  and  person,  "but  not  the  efficacy  of  his  death,  nor 
at  all  adequately  the  lioliness  of  his  nature. 
.  If  it  be  attempted  to  prove  from  the  fact  that  the  rich  man  in  the 


ALLEGORIES — OTHER  RULES.  319 

parable  prayed  to  Abraham,  that  therefore  we  are  to  pray  to  glorified 
saints,  we  reject  the  interpretation  as  inconsistent  with  the  express  state- 
ments of  Scripture ;  or  if,  from  the  parable  of  the  faithful  servant,  or 
the  prodigal  son,  it  be  gathered  (as  by  the  ancient  Pelagians)  that  God 
pardons  us  without  sacrifice  or  intercession,  on  the  ground  simply  of 
our  repentance  or  our  prayers,  we  reject  the  interpretation  as  inconsist- 
ent with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Bible  (John  viii.  24:  Heb.  x.)  Nor 
can  we  gather  from  Luke  xv  7,  that  the  Pharisees  were  just  men  who 
needed  no  repentance,  or  from  verse  29,  that  the  elder  brother  had 
never  transgressed  his  father's  command ;  nor  from  Luke  xvi.  1,  that 
dishonesty  is  in  any  good  sense  true  wisdom.  David  was,  in  his  kingly 
character,  a  type  of  our  Lord  ;  and  also  in  his  family  descent,  but  not 
in  his  sins. 

415.  (3.)  It  is  important  that  neither  types  nor  parables  be 
made  the  first  or  sole  source  of  Scripture  doctrine. 
Doctrines  otherwise    proved  may   be  further  illus-  of  interpre- 
trated  or  confirmed  by  them,  but  we    are  not  to 

gather  doctrine  exclusively  or  primarily  from  their  represen- 
tations. 

From  the  parable  of  the  unjust  steward,  some  of  the  early  Scripture 
expositors  gathered,  without  reason,  the  history  of  the  apostacy  of  Satan. 
He  was  said  to  be  the  chief  among  the  servants  of  God,  and  being  driven 
from  his  place  of  trust,  he  drew  after  him  the  other  angels,  whom  he 
tempted  with  the  promise  of  lightei  tasks  and  easier  service.  Nor  can 
we  conclude,  from  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins,  that  because  five  were 
wise  and  five  foolish,  half  of  those  who  make  a  profession  of  religion 
will  finally  be  saved  and  half  finally  perish.  In  the  parable  of  the  lost 
sheep,  one  in  a  hundred  only  went  astray  :  in  that  of  the  lost  piece  of  ■ 
silver,  one  in  ten  was  lost:  neither  circumstance  can  be  made  the  foun- 
dation of  a  doctrine. 

Both  these  rules  are  a  modification,  as  it  will  be  seen,  of  the 
rule  which  bids  us  interpret  according  to  the  analogy  of  faith, 
and  to  look  to  passages  that  are  clear  for  the  meaning  of  those 
that  are  abstruse. 

416.  The  interpretation  of  symbols,  and  of  symbolical 
actions,  is  regulated  by  the  same  principles  as  the 

.     .  ,     ,•  r     n  •  A  111  Symbols. 

interpretation  oi  allegories.     A  symbolical  expres- 


320  PARABLES   CLASSIFIED. 

sion  is  'simply  a  figurative  one,  founded  on  analogy  or  resem- 
blance, and  is  interpreted  on  the  principles  common  to  the 
interpretation  of  all  figurative  language. 
Parabies,etc.      417.  The  following  are  the  parables  and  fables  of 
Testament,    the  Old  Testament. 

Jotham's:  the  trees  making  a  king,  Judges  ix.  7. 

Nathan's:  the  poor  man's  ewe  lamb,  2  Sam.  xii.  1. 

Two  brothers  striving  together,  2  Sam.  xiv.  6. 

The  prisoner  that  made  his  escape,  1  Kings  xx.  39  . 

Micaiah's  vision,  1  Kings  xxii.  19-23. 

The  thist**,)  and  cedar,  2  Kings  xiv.  9. 

The  vineyard  yielding  wild  grapes,  Isa.  v.  1, 

The  parables   in    the   Gospels   will   be  found   enumerated 
chronologically  in  the  introduction  to  the  Gospels. 

418.  Neander  has  classified  the  parables  of  our 

Parables  of  i  i        •         i 

the  New        Lord  With  reference  to  the  truths  taught  m  them, 

Testament.  i     ,      ■  •  •  i     t  ■     i  •        i 

and  their  connection  with  his  kingdom. 

Parables  on  the  progress  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ: 

1.  The  sower,  Matt.  xhi.  3  :  Mark  iv.  3  :  Luke  viii.  5. 

2.  The  tares.  Matt.  xiii.  24. 

3. .The  mustard-seed,  Matt.  xiii.  31:    Mark  iv.  31:  Luke  xiii. 
18,  19. 

4.  The  leaven.  Matt.  xiii.  33  •  Luke  xiii.  20,  21. 

5.  The  net.  Matt.  xiii.  47. 

Moral  requisites  for  entering  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
Anti-pharisaic  parables,  or  negative  requisites. 

6.  The  lost  sheep,  Matt,  xviii.  12  :  Luke  xv.  4. 

7.  The  lost  piece  of  money,  Luke  xv.  10. 

8.  The  prodigal  son,  Luke  xv.  11-32. 

9.  The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  Luke  xviii.  9-14. 

10.  Strife  for  the  first  places  at  feasts,  Luke  xiv.  7-12. 
Positive  requisites. 

11.  The  two  sons,  Matt.  xxi.  28. 

12.  The  hidden  treasure,  Matt.  xiii.  44. 

13.  The  pearl,  Matt.  xiii.  45,  46. 

14.  The  tower  and  the  warring  king,  Luke  xiv.  28-33, 

15.  The  wedding  garment,  Matt.  xxii.  11. 
Call  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 


PARABLES   CLASSIFIED.  821 

16.  The  feast,  Lnke  xiv.  16-24:  Matt.  xxii.  1-14. 
Activity  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

17.  The  vine,  John  xv.  1. 

18.  The  wicked  vine-dresser.  Matt.  xxi.  33-41. 

19.  The  talents,  Matt.  xxv.  14-30:  Luke  xix.  12-27. 

20.  The  barren  fig-tree,  Luke  xiii.  6. 

21.  Favor  independent  of  works,  Matt.  xx.  1-16.     The  laborers. 
The  true  spirit  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

Forgiveness. 

22.  The  good  Samaritan,  Luke  x.  25-37. 

23.  The  unforgiving  servant,  Matt  xviii.  23 :  Luke  vii.  41. 
The  right  use  of  worldly  possessions. 

24.  The  unjust  steward,  Luke  xvi.  1-23. 

25.  The  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  Luke  xvi.  19. 
The  Christian  spirit  under  the  name  of  prudence. 

26.  The  ten  virgins,  Matt.  xxv. 
Prayer. 

27.  The  importunate  widow,  Luke  xviii.  1. 

28.  The  friend  on  his  journey,  Luke  xi.  5-10. 

419.  Other  authors  have  adopted  a  different  division.  Dr. 
Gray  divides  them  into 

(1.)  Such  as  represent  the  nature  and  progress  of  the  Gospel  dispen- 
sation. 

(2.)  Such  as  represent  the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  and  the  calling  of 
the  Gentiles. 

(3.)  Such  as  deliver  moral  instruction. 

Greswell  divides  them  into  the  prophetic  and  mofal. 

420.  Lisco's  division  is  preferable  to  either.  He  regards 
them  as  of  three  classes. 

i.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  as  containing  truths  and 
powers  Divine  in  their  origin,  and  blessed  in  their  effects.  See  prece- 
ding list,  1,  3,  4,  11,  12. 

ii.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  founded  on  these  truths, 
and  tliese  are : 

1.  Those  that  respect  the  church  as  a  whole,  20,  18,  16,  15  (call- 

ing and  election  differ),  2,  5. 

2.  Those  that  respect  the  entrance  of  individuals  into  the  church, 

6,  7,  8,  14. 


322  ALLEGORICAL    INTERPRETATION   OF   HISTORY. 

iii.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  in  the  faith,  love,  and 
hope  of  its  members.     In  relation — 

1.  To  Faith  and  humility,  etc.,  21,  9,  11,  25,  26. 

2.  To  love  (Luke  vii.  41),  23,  22. 

3.  To  hope,  26,  19. 

These  classifications  are  important,  chiefly  as  showing  the 
views  of  eminent  authors  on  the  scope  of  each  parable.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  adhere  so  rigidly  to  the  classification  we 
adopt  as  to  miss  obvious  moral  lessons. 

421.  The  principles  which  are  applicable  to  the  interpre- 
...  .^  .  tation  of  allegories  and  parables,  properly  so  called, 
interpreta-  apply  equally  to  much  that  is  historical  in  Scrip- 
tory-  ture.  The  ancient  Jewish  people,  for  example, 
sustained  to  God  the  same  relation  as  is  now  sustained  by  the 

Christian  church  and  by  each  Christian.      Their 

Foundation  _  •'         _ 

of  it.  sufferings  in  Egypt,  their  deliverance  under  Moses, 

their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  their  entry  into  Canaan,  pre- 
figure important  facts  in  the  history  of  all  Christians.  The 
Israelites  not  only  lived  under  the  same  authority  with  us, 
and  were  governed  by  an  economy  of  discipline  like  our  own, 
but  the  facts  of  their  history  were  typical  of  the  history  of 
the  church  (Kom.  ii.  28 :  1  Cor.  x. :  Heb.  iv.  :  1  Pet.  ii.  10 : 
Rev.  XV.  5). 

422.  It  is  observable,  too,  that  the  relation  between  the 
Jewish  people,  and  some  of  the  nations  that  surrounded  them, 
is  a  type  of  the  relation  between  the  Christian  church  and  its 
adversaries  :  Sodom  and  Ishmael :  Egypt  and  Babylon,  have 
all  their  representatives  in  the  history  of  the  true  Israel  (Gal. 
iv.  25 :  Rev.  xiv.  8). 

423.  It  may  be  added,  that  while  in  one  aspect  Israel  as  the 
son,  is  the  representative  of  our  Lord,  eminent  characters 
among  the  Israelites  were  types  of  Him ;  as  Moses  among  the 
prophets,  David  and  Solomon  among  the  kings ;  and  hence 
expressions,  which  were  originally  true  of  the  type,  are  applied 
to  Christ  as  the  antitype  or  fulfilment.  See  Hos.  xi.  1,  com- 
pared with  Matt.  ii.  15,  etc. 


ALLEGORY — ABUSE.  323 

424.  And  as  tlie  people,  so  the  rites  and  worsliip  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  typical.  The  whole  dispensation  was  the 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  not  the  very  image  or  sub- 
stance of  them.     That  substance  was  Christ  (Heb.  x.  1). 

Thus  it  is,  that  since  the  beginning  of  our  race,  there  has 
been  a  connected  series  of  representations,  each  embodying 
some  truth,  and  all  tending  to  illustrate  the  office  and  work 
of  our  Lord,  or  the  character  and  history  of  his  people. 

Jewish  history  and  worship  form  one  grand  type.  The 
Old  Testament  (as  Augustine  long  ago  remarked),  is  the  New 
veiled,  and  the  New  Testament  is  the  Old  unveiled. 

425.  In  the  interpretation  of  all  these  types,  and  of  history 
in  its  secondary  or  spiritual  allusions,  we  use  the 

same  rules  as  in  interpreting  parables  and  allegories 
properly  so  called :  compare  the  history  or  type  with  the 
general  truth,  which  both  the  type,  and  the  antitype  embody ; 
expect  agreement  in  several  particulars,  but  not  in  all,  and  let 
the  interpretation  of  each  part  harmonize  with  the  design  of 
the  whole,  and  with  the  clear  revelation  of  Divine  doctrine 
given  in  other  parts  of  the  sacred  volume. 

426.  In  applying  these  rules,  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  the  inspired  writers  never  destroyed  the  his- 
torical sense  of  Scripture,  to  establish  the  spiritual 

(as  some  inquirers  have  done),  nor  do  they  find  a  hidden 
meaning  in  the  words  (as  do  the  Jews),  but  only  in  the  facts 
of  each  passage ;  which  meaning  is  easy,  natural,  and  Scrip- 
tural ;  and  that  they  confine  themselves  to  such  expositions 
as  illustrate  some  truth  of  practical  or  of  spiritual  importance 
(Heb.  V.  11 ;  ix.  5).  Indeed,  an  examination  of  the  passages 
quoted  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  will  show  that 
they  are  adduced  exclu.sively  with  reference  either  to  the  per- 
sonal history  and  mediatorial  office  of  our  Lord,  to  the 
spiritual  character  of  his  kingdom,  or  to  the  future  destiny 
of  his  church. 

427.  The  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture 

has  been  so  greatly  abiised,  that  it  becomes  import-  abuse  of 
ant  to  illustrate  these  remarks  at  greater  length. 


324  ALLEGORY — ABUSE. 

428.  The  ancient  Jews  allegorized  on  the  words  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

In  the  original  of  the  word  translated  "created,"  for 
jl^r^*'^^  instance,  Gen.  i.  1,  they  find  the  first  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
for  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  and  hence  they  prove  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  They  refer  Psa.  xxi.  1,  to  Christ,  because  the 
letters  of  the  original,  for  "  shall  joy,"  made  by  transposition,  Messiah. 
The  letter  j^  occurs  six  times  in  Gen.  i.  1,  and  as  j^  represents  1000, 
they  suppose  that  the  existence  of  the  world  for  6000  years,  is  the 
truth  included  in  this  fact,  fi;^^,  the  sign  of  the  definite  accusation  in 
Hebrew,  they  regard  as  including  the  whole  essence  of  a  thing,  because 
it  is  made  up  of  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  In 
the  same  spirit,  the  pseudo-Barnabas  says  that  Abraham  circumcised 
318  men  of  his  house,  Gen.  xiv.  14,  because  this  number  in  Greek 
letters  represents  Jesus  and  the  cross,  I  =  10,  H  =  8,  and  T  =  300. 

429.  Some  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  allegorize  Scripture 
by  destroying  Hb  facts. 

John  the  Baptist,  for  example,  is  said  to  have  had  no  real  existence, 
but  to  be  only  a  mythic  representation  of  the  collective  body  of  the 
Jewish  prophets  in  their  relation  to  Christ.  The  narrative  of  the  inn 
and  manger  at  Bethlehem,  exhibits  nothing  more  (they  add),  than  the 
common  birth  into  our  world  of  everything  Divine. 

In  the  same  spirit,  the  seven  days'  creation  were  held  to  imply 
merely  the  perfection  of  the  work  of  God,  and  the  moving  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  on  the  face  of  the  waters,  to  indicate  the  spiritual  washing  of 
Christian  baptism. 

430.  A  practice  more  freqnent,  though  scarcely  less  mis- 
chievous, has  been  adopted  in  all  ages,  of  admitting  the  hi.s- 
torical  truth  of  the  inspired  narrative,  and  basing  upon  every 
part  of  it  some  spiritual  doctrine,  not  as  illustrated,  but  as 
proved  and  intended  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

To  this  tendency  may  be  traced  the  impression  that  the  seventh 
thousand  years  in  the  history  of  the  world,  will  be  the  millenium. 
The  division  of  animals  into  clean  and  unclean,  was  held  on  a  similar 
principle  to  represent  virtue  and  vice  in  human  nature.  The  simplest 
statements  were  thus  made   ridiculous.      Moses  had  said,    "  All  that 


ALLEGORIES   AND   TYPES.  325 

divideth  the  hoof  and  cheweth  the  cud,  ye  shall  eat,"  indicating,  says 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  that  we  should  hold  fast  to  those  who  meditate 
on  the  command,  and  who  (divide  the  hoof,  that  is)  live  in  this  world, 
but  liave  their  expectation  in  another.  Heaven  and  earth  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  refer  (sidys  Tertullian)  to  the  body  and  the  soul  of  man,  Luke 
xi.  2.  The  five  loaves  with  which  our  Lord  fed  the  multitude,  repre- 
sent, says  Clement,  the  five  senses,  John  vi.  9.  Another  writer  (Cyril), 
regards  them  as  the  five  books  of  Moses,  and  the  two  fishes  as  the 
Grecian  philosophy,  which  is  generated  and  carried  through  heathen 
waters  :  or  our  Saviour's  teaching,  as  apostolic  and  evangelical.  Origen 
even  builds  upon  the  images  of  Scripture,  as  he  calls  them,  the  doctrine' 
of  the  final  restoration  of  the  whole  spiritual  universe  to  its  original 
blessedness  and  purity. 

Justin  thinks  that  the  wrestling  of  Jacob  was  a  type  of  the  tempta- 
tion of  our  Lord,  that  the  injury  he  received  represented  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  Christ. 

Athanasius,  who  sometimes  condemned  this  style  of  interpretation, 
expounds  Matt.  v.  29,  and  supposes  the  body  to  mean  the  church,  the 
eyes  and  hands  the  bishops  and  deacons,  who  ought  to  be  cut  off,  if 
they  commit  acts  hurtful  to  the  church. 

Hilary  thinks  that  the  fowls  of  the  air  (Matt.  vi.  26-30),  are  unclean 
spirits,  to  whom  God  gives  life  without  trouble.  The  lilies  are  the 
angels :  the  grass,  the  heathen.  The  mother  of  Zebedee's  children  re- 
presents the  law  :  her  children  the  believing  Jews. 

Cyril  thinks  Malchus  a  type  of  the  Jews,  and  that  as  Peter  cut  off 
his  right  ear,  so  they  were  to  be  deprived  of  right  hearing,  their  hear- 
ing being  only  sinister  or  disobedient. 

These  interiirorations  were  all  justified  on  principle.  The  obvious 
historic  sense  of  a  passage  was  always  regarded  as  the  less  important, 
sometimes  even  as  altogether  untrue;  while  the  spiritual  or  allegorical 
was  alone  deemed  worthy  of  an  enlightened  mind.  Hence  Origen 
maintains  that  tlie  history  of  the  creation,  of  Lot's  incest,  of  Abra- 
ham's tv/o  wives,  of  Jacob's  marriage  with  Leah  and  Rachel,  is  all  an 
allegory ;  so  readily  do  extremes  beget  each  other. 

The.se  examples  were  widely  copied  among  the  various  sects  which 
sprang  up  in  the  early  church.  All  justified  their  dogmas  by  allegori- 
cal interpretations  of  Scripture :  and  in  the  end  the  literal  historic 
sense  with  all  the  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  it  conveyed  was  over- 
looked or  denied. 


481.  Intelligent  piety  will  reject  all  these  fabulous  intei-pre- 
2S 


326  ALLEGORY — LITERATURE. 

tations,  the  result  of  a  vagrant  fancy,  and  will  be  at  no  loss 
to  elicit  from  the  historical  parts  of  Scripture,  the  chief 
lessons  of  holy  wisdom  they  were  designed  to  supply.  The 
essential  points  are,  that  many  characters  and  transactions 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  are  typical,  that  many  more 
exhibit  qualities  which  we  are  to  imitate  or  condemn,  that 
others  illustrate  principles  of  Divine  government  which  are 
still  in  force,  and  that  none  must  be  intepreted  without  a 
reference  to  the  clear  revelations  which  are  given  in  other 
parts  of  the  Divine  word. 

432.  Tyj)es  (it  may  be  added),  are  prophetic,  and  may  be 
Types,  both  ^sed  to  prove,  as  well  as  to  illustrate  the  Gospel. 
andi)f(>''^'  Examples,  analogies,  and  resemblances,  not  an- 
phetic.  nounced  as  typical,  are  illustrative  only.  They 
explain  truth  rather  than  prove  it. 

433.  On  the  subjects  discussed  in  this  section,  see  especially 
on  the  parables — ■ 

Dodd's  Discourses  on  the  Miracles  and  Parables,  4  vols.,  1757. 

A.  Geay's  Delineation  of  the  Parables,  1777. 

Lisco  on  the  Parables.     Clark,  1840. 

Trench's  Notes  on  the  Parables  of  our  Lord,  1847. 

On  the  Types,  besides  M'Ewen  and  Wilson  (of  Irvine) — ■ 

The  Gospel  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  St.  Matthew,  by  Charlotte 
Elizabeth. 

Marssh's  Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation,  where  it 
is  maintained  that  nothing  is  a  type  unless  formally  recognised  as  such 
in  the  New  Testament :  Fatrbairn  (Typology  of  Scripture,  2d  Series), 
maintaining  that  the  whole  of  the  previous  economy  is  affirmed  in  the 
New  Testament  to  be  typical.  This  principle  he  applies  to  the  patri- 
archal and  Mosaic  institutions  and  history. 

Edwards  on  the  Types  of  the  Messiah. 

On  Allegorical  Interpretation,  see — 

Olshausen  on  Biblical  Interpretation,  as  taught  by  the  in.«ipired 
■writers  :  or,  on  the  deep  spiritual  sense  of  Scripture.    Neufch.,  1841,  and 

Maesscheb  on  the  Types,  and  the  Typical  Interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture.    Am.  Bibl.  Rep.,  January,  1841. 


prophetic  language,  327 

Sec.  8. — On  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy. 

"  In  a  certain  sense,  history  has  been  justly  called  the  interpreter  of 
prophecy ;  but  to  the  Israelite,  prophecy  was  more  the  interpreter  of 
history,  for  it  gave  him  intelligible  notice  of  approaching  events,  and 
it  supplied  him  with  the  reasons  of  God's  providence  in  bringing  those 
events  to  pass." — Davison  ;  Lectxires  on  Prophecy. 

434.  All  the  difficulties  of  Scripture  interpretation  to  which 
we  have  referred  are  to  be  found  in  prophecy.     Its 

r      r         J      ^  Peculiar  dif- 

lansuage  is  largely  figurative,  and  often  allegorical,  ficuity  of 

A  Ti      •  in-  1       ■  p     ^       prophetic 

Allusions  to  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the  mterpre- 

rm  TIP        tation. 

times  are  frequent.      I  he  events  recorded  are  for 
the  most  part  future,  and  but  dimly  revealed.    On  all  grounds, 
therefore,  the  utmost  attention  is  required  rightly  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  the  inspired  predictions. 

As  the  prophets  are  called  seers,  the  prophecies  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  commonly  called  visions.  Numb.  xxiv.  -a     .     • 

•'  '  Prophecies; 

17:2  Chron.  ix.  29 :  Ezek.  xxxvii.  :  Hab.  ii.  1.  Some  ■omom. 
of  them  were  recorded  in  writing,  for  the  information  of  the 
church  throughout  all  time  ;  others  were  communicated  orally 
by  the  prophets  to  their  cotemporaries  :  the  whole  in  language 
taken  largely  from  the  customs  and  worship  prevalent  among 
them.  Hence  have  originated  several  peculiarities  Hence  pe- 
of  the  prophetic  Scriptures.  iTindica-^ 

tions  of 

435.  As  to  time :  '  *i™«- 

,  1.  The  prophets  often  speak  of  things  that  belong  to  the 
remote  future  as  if  present  to  their  view. 

Thus  in  Isa.  ix.  6,  it  is  said,  "  Unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto  us  a  son 
is  given  ;"  so  in  Isa.  xlii.  1. 

2.  They  speak  of  things  future  as  past. 

In  Isa.  liii.,  for  example,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  transactions  of  the 
life  of  the  "  servant"  of  God  are  represented  as  finished ;  the  prophet 
seeming  to  stand  between  the  death  of  our  Lord  and  his  coming  glory. 

3.  When  the  precise  time  of  individual  events  was  not 


328  PEOPHETIC    LANGUAGE. 

revealed,  the  prophets  describe  them  as  continuous.  They  saw 
the  future  rather  in  space  than  in  time ;  the  whole,  therefore, 
appears  foreshortened,  and  perspective  rather  than  actual 
distance  is  regarded.  They  seem  often  to  speak  of  future 
things  as  a  common  observer  would  describe  the  stars,  group- 
ing them  as  they  appear,  and  not  according  to  their  true 
positions. 

In  Jer.  1.  41,  for  example,  the  first  conquest  and  the  complete  destruc- 
tion of  Babylon  are  connected,  without  any  notice  of  the  interval  be- 
tween them ;  in  fact,  nearly  a  thousand  years  elapsed  between  the  first 
shock  of  the  empire  in  the  attack  of  the  Persians  and  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  city. 

In  Isa.  chaps,  x.,  xi.,  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  yoke  of 
the  Assyrians  is  connected  with  the  deliverance  which  was  to  be  effected 
by  the  Messiah. 

In  the  same  way,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Hosea,  Ezekiel,  and  Jeremiah  all 
connected  these  two  events,  without  intimating,  however,  that  the  Mes- 
siah was  to  take  part  in  both. 

Zechariah,  again,  who  lived  after  the  exile,  connects  the  spiritual  sal- 
vation of  the  church  in  the  distant  future  with  the  temporal  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  under  Alexander  and  the  Maccabees. 

In  the  description  which  is  given  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of  the 
Messiah,  there  is  seldom  any  notice  taken  of  the  time  which  is  to  elapse 
before  his  kingdom  is  established.  Both  p.re  often  connected  in  the  same 
verses,  as  in  Zech.  ix.  9,  10.  Joel  connects  in  the  same  way  the  effusion 
of  the  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  its  general  effusion  in  later 
times,  chap.  ii.  28,  etc. 

Sometimes,  indeed,  the  precise  time  was  revealed  to  the  prophet,  and 
is  recorded,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sojourn  of  Abraham  and  his  posterity 
in  Egypt,  Gen.  xv.  13 ;  the  sixty-five  years  in  which  Israel  was  to  be 
broken,  Isa.  vii.  8 ;  and  the  captivity  in  Babylon,  Jer.  xxix.  10 ;  but 
more  commonly  the  prophets  were  ignorant  of  it,  as  the  apostle  Peter 
tells  us,  and  as  Zechariah  has  acknowledged,  1  Pet.  i.  10-12:  Zech. 
xiv.  7. 

Very  often  the  events,  instead  of  being  represented  as  continuous,  are 
blended  together.  The  latter  parts  of  Isaiah,  and  some  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  our  Lord,  concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  final 
judgment,  illustrate  this  remark,  Matt.  xxiv.  28,  21). 

436.   As  to  language : — As  the  future  was  thus  represented 


PROPHETIC   LANGUAGE.  829 

in  visions,  and  under  a  typical  dispensation,  it  can     Hence  pe- 

1  1     1      •        f  T  -IT        culiaiities 

excite  no  surprise  that  the  whole  is  often  described  of  phrn- 
in  figurative,  and  allegorical  or  symbolic  terms.  If 
prophecy  had  everywhere  consisted  of  literal  description,  it 
would  have  defeated  its  object,  and  either  have  prevented  the 
fulfilment,  or  have  taken  from  the  fulfilled  prophecy  all  evi- 
dence of  a  Divine  original.  Besides,  as  everything  earthly 
supplies  images  for  describing  things  spiritual,  so  does  the 
whole  of  the  Jewish  economy.  Language  borrowed  from  na- 
ture and  the  law  is  therefore  as  appropriate  as  it  is  necessary. 
The  unity  and  vastness  of  God's  plans  are  illustrated  by  it  all. 

Under  the  Gospel,  for  example,  Messiah  is  to  be  king,  and  hence  the 
prophets  represent  him  as  possessed  of  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
most  distinguished  princes  of  the  Jewish  theocracy,  and  more  than  once 
apply  to  him  the  title  of  David,  who  was,  in  many  respects,  the  ideal 
of  kingly  authority,  Hos.  iii.  5 :  Jer.  xxx.  9 :  Acts  xiii.  34.  They  de- 
scribe his  character  as  prophet  or  priest  in  the  same  strain,  multiply  in  cr 
images  in  each  case  adapted  to  give  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  his  office 
Psa.  ex.:  Zech.  vi. :  Heb.  vii.  In  the  same  way  they  speak  of  his 
kingdom,  either  of  grace  or  glory,  as  the  highest  perfection  of  the  Jew- 
ish economy.  It  is  called  Jerusalem,  or  Zion,  Isa.  Ixii.  1,  6,  7 ;  Ix.  15- 
20:  Gal.  iv.  26-28  :  Heb.  xii.  22.  See,  also,  Isa.  Ix.  6,  7;  Ixvi.  23.»  To 
Joel,  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  appears  as  a  general  extension  of  the 
three  forms  of  Divine  revelation  which  occur  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  idea  that  all  nations  should  worship  the  true  God,  Zechariah  ex- 
presses by  the  declaration  that  they  will  join  in  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
(xiv.  16).  The  perfect  love  and  fidelity  of  the  people  of  God  appear  to 
Hosea  and  others  as  the  removal  of  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  the  aban- 
donment by  the  church  of  Assyria  and  Egypt,  Zech.  xiv.  16 :  Isa.  xix. 
19-21 :  Zech.  chaps,  ii.,  xiv.,  xiii. :  Mic.  v.  The  glory  of  the  Messiah's 
days  is  represented  by  the  prosperous  times  of  David  and  Solomon, 
Zech  iii.  10 :  1  Kings  iv.  25.  The  prevalence  of  peace,  by  the  union  of 
Judah  and  Israel,  Hos.  i.  11 ;  Isa.  xi.  13.  In  the  same  way,  the  ene- 
mies of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  are  not  only  called  by  the  name 
given  to  the  enemies  of  the  ancient  theocracy,  viz.,  the  nations  of  the 
Gentiles,  but  they  often  bear  the  name  of  some  one  people  who,  at  the 
time,  were  peculiarly  inimical  or  powerful.      la  Isa.  xxv.  they  are 

»See  "  Bickersteth  on  the  Prophecies,"  p.  50. 
28* 


330  LANGUAGE    FOUNDED   ON    JEWISH    HISTORY. 

called  by  the  name  of  Moab ;  in  Isa.  Ixiii.  and  Amos  ix.  12,  by  the 
name  of  Edom ;  and  in  Ezek.  xxxviii.,  by  the  name  of  Magog.  There 
are,  of  course,  specific  prophecies  concerning  most  of  these  nations  and 
cities,  but  their  names  are  also  used  generically,  or  figuratively,  in  these 
and  otlier  passages.  Hence  we  have  foretold  the  restoration,  in  the 
latter  days,  of  Moab  and  Elam,  Jer.  xlviii.  47 ;  xlix.  39.  Hence,  also, 
the  "blessing  to  the  earth"  is  to  proceed  "in  that  day"  from  Israel, 
Assyria,  and  Egypt,  Isa.  xix.  18-25. 

437.  Nor  need  this  peculiarity  of  prophetic  language  excite 
This  pecuii-  surprise.  It  is  found  pervading  the  whole  ancient 
phetic  Ian-  dispensation.  That  dispensation  began  with  the 
Soif'fn'^a'n'"  promise  to  Abraham.  His  descendants  were  to  be 
Scripture.      ^^  ^-j^^  stars,  and   in  him  and  his  seed  all  nations 

were  to  be  blessed.  The  first  part  of  this  prediction  was  fulfilled 
in  his  literal  seed,  as  Moses  implies,  Exod.  xxxii.  13 :  Deut. 
i.  10,  11.  Paul  also  applies  it  to  his  spiritual  seed,  even  to  all 
who  believe,  Rom.  iv.  16 :  Gal.  iii.  8,  9.  The  blessing  upon 
all  nations,  the  second  part  of  the  promise,  is  also  upon  all 
as  believers,  and  is  received  through  Christ,  who  is  the  seed 
according  to  the  flesh,  Gal.  iii.  16,  19,  29. 

The  next  remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Jews  is  their 
deliverance  from  Egypt,  and  in  connection  with  that  deliver- 
ance the  most  remarkable  expressions  are  used  to  indicate  the 
favor  which  God  bore  them.  All  of  these  expressions,  how- 
ever, are  in  the  New  Testament  applied  to  the  church.  God 
is  said  to  have  chosen  them  (Deut.  x.  15  :  Ezek.  xx.  5  :  Eph. 
i.  4).  He  delivered  and  saved  them  (Exod.  iii.  8;  xiv.  30: 
Gal.  i.  4 :  1  Thess.  i.  10 :  2  Tim.  i.  9) ;  He  created  and  called 
them  (Isa.  xliii.  1 ;  xliv.  2 :  1  Cor.  i.  8 :  Col.  iii.  10).  Both 
are  sows,  helpless,  and  dear  (Ezek.  xvi.  3-6 :  Isa.  xliv.  2  : 
Deut.  xxxii.  6 :  Gal.  iii.  26  :  1  Pet.  i.  3) ;  both  are  brethren 
(Deut.  i.  16  :  Col.  i.  2) ;  a  house,  2^  family  (Numb.  xii.  7  :  Heb. 
iii.  6) ;  a  nation  (Deut.  iv.  34 :  1  Pet.  ii.  9)  ;  both  fellow-citi- 
zens, with  aliens  around  them  (Exod.  xx.  10 :  Eph.  ii.  19) ; 
and  both  heirs  of  their  appropriate  inheritance  (Numb.  xxvi. 
53  :  Heb.  ix.  15).     Compare  in  the  same  way  the  ajiplication 


LANGUAGE   FOUNDED   ON   JEWISII    HISTORY.  331 

of  the  following  words  under  the  two  dispeiif^ations.  "  Ser- 
vants;" "husband"  and  "  wife;''  "mother"  and  "  children  ;" 
"  adultery  ;""  sanctuary"  or  "temple;"  "priests;"  "saints" 
or  "holy;"  "near"  or  "nigh,"  and  "  afar  off;"  "  congrega- 
tion" or  "church  ;"  "vine,"  "vineyard  ;""  shepherd,"  "flock;" 
"inheritance"  or  "heritage;"  or  the  privileges  and  duties 
which  these  terms  imply,  and  it  will  be  found  that  nearly  all 
the  characteristic  names  of  Is]-ael  are  applied  to  the  body  of 
believers.  In  the  first  case,  the  blessings  and  relations,  sio  far 
as  the  people  were  concerned,  are  earthly  and  temporal  ;  in 
the  second,  spiritual  and  eternal :  individual  spiritual  blessings 
being  enjoyed  in  both. 

The  apostles  reason  throughout  their  writings  on  the  same 
principle.  AVe  who  believe,  and  are  united  to  Christ,  are 
children  of  Abraham  and  heirs  of  his  promise  (Gal.  iii.  29 : 
Rom.  iv.  11,  16);  the  Israel  of  God  (Gal.  vi.  16),  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Israel  according  to  the  flesh  (1  Cor.  x.  18) ; 
the  true  circumcision  (Phil.  iii.  8),  who  therefore  appropriate 
ancient  promises  (Gen.  xxii.  16,  17,  applied  to  all  believers: 
Heb.  vi.  13,  20 :  Deut.  xxxi.  6  :  Josh.  i.  5,  quoted  Heb.  xiii. 
4,  5 :  Hos.  i.  10 ;  ii.  23,  quoted  Rom.  ix.  24-36). 

438.  After  the  exode  comes  the  institution  of  the  ritual  law, 
its  sacrifices,  priesthood,  mercy-seat,  tabernacle  and  j^^^.^.  . 
temple,  and  worship.  All  these,  it  need  hardly  be  'a«"- 
remarked,  are  represented  in  the  prophets  as  being  restored 
in  the  latter  days,  and  in  the  Gospels  each  expression  is  ap- 
plied to  our  Lord  or  to  his  church.  He  is  priest,  and  propi- 
tiatory (i^acTT^pioii),  tabernacle  (c-Kuvii,  John  i.  14),  and  temple 
(nxa?,  John  ii.  19);  as  also,  since  his  ascension,  is  his  church 
(1  Cor.  iii.  16)."  Her  members  offer  spiritual  offerings.  They 
form  a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy  nation. 

439.  The  next  prophetic  era  begins  with  Samuel.    His  chief 
office  was  to  prepare  for  the  establishment  of  kingly   ^     , ,.  , 

^      ^  _      _  o  -^      Establish- 

authority.     He  was  commissioned,  moreover,  to  give  mem,  of  the 

TA       •  1  11  1      ■  kingdom. 

to  David  an  assurance  that  his  seed  should  sit  upon 

his  throne  forever,  i.  e.,  literally  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom, 


332  LANGUAGE    FOUNDED   ON    JEWISH    HISTORY. 

or,  spiritually,  in  the  person  of  his  greater  Son,  till  all  things 
should  be  jiut  under  his  feet.  Of  this  enlarged  meaning 
Samuel  says  nothing,  nor  does  Nathan ;  but  David,  himself  a 
prophet,  clearly  understands  it,  applies  it  in  part  to  himself 
(2  Kings  ii.  4),  but  passes  on  the  fulness  of  the  promise  to 
his  Lord,  Psa.  ii.  ;  Ixxii.  ;  ex.  All  these  Psalms  are  applied, 
in  the  New  Testament,  to  the  kingdom  which  Christ  com- 
menced when  he  appeared  on  earth  (Heb.  i.  5),  or  rose  from 
the  dead  (Eom.  i.  4). 

440.  This  prophetic  era  is  closed  with  the  predictions  of 
-.  ,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  the  later  prophets.     The 

Later  jire-  '  '  _'  ... 

fii(tti(\ii.s.  great  theme  of  their  predictions  is  the  restoration 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  re-establishment  of  that  dispensation 
which  seemed  hastening,  without  hope  of  remedy,  to  decay ; 
and  under  a  twofold  form  this  theme  is  presented.  The  pro- 
phets who  preceded  the  captivity,  and  those  who  lived  in  it, 
foretell  a  restoration,  and  borrow  from  it  phrases  to  describe 
the  establishment  of  a  new  kingdom.  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
foretell  the  rebuilding  of  a  temple,  and  under  that  figure  speak 
of  the  church.  After  the  temple  was  finished,  Jewish  wor- 
ship was  selfish  and  insincere.  Malachi  therefore  foretells  the 
coming  of  one  who  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi,  and  secure 
from  all  a  spiritual  offering. 

In  a  word,  not  only  the  prophets,  but  all  the  inspired  writers 
describe  the  church  in  terms  borrowed  from  successive  stages 
in  the  history  of  the  ancient  economy.  Whether  because  Old 
Testament  prophecy  is  expressed  in  terms  founded  on  that 
economy,  therefore,  when  applied  to  the  church  it 
interpreui-    l^^as  no  further  or  more  literal  fulfilment,  is  another 

tion  heiiee 

arising.  question.  In  the  meantime,  mark-  the  fact  from 
which  that  question  arises.  That  fact  is  itself  of  great  im- 
portance in  explaining  both  the  Gospel  and  the  law. 

441.  From  the  typical  character  of  ancient  dispensations 
arises  another  peculiarity  of  prophecy.  It  not  only  speaks 
their  language,  but  it  has  often  a  double  application.    It  applies 


DOUBLE   APPLICATION   OF   PROPHECY.  333 

to  one  obiect  by  anticipation  and  partially,  and  to    Double  ap- 

''  ■'  -L  _  r  .  plication  of 

another  completely  ;  the  earlier  obiect  being  the  re-    piophecies 

■f^  •'    •  ■^  o  _  to  the  type 

presentative    of    the    later.       In    the    promises   to    and  to  the 

,        ,  ,     .  .      .  antitype. 

Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  etc.),  in  the  prediction  of  Jacob 
concerning  Judah  (Gen.  xlix.),  and  of  Balaam  (Numb.  xxiv. 
17),  of  Nathan  (2  Sam.  vii.  12-17),  and  of  David  in  some  of 
the  Psalms,  in  many,  parts  of  Isaiah  and  other  prophets,  there 
is  this  double  reference.  As  the  history  of  the  Jews  fore- 
shadows the  history  of  the  church,  so  does  prophecy  the 
experience  of  both.  Not  all  parts  of  prophecy  are  thus  ap- 
plicable, nor,  judging  from  examples  given  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, are  any  parts  thus  applicable  to  be  applied  indiscrimi- 
nately. In  fact,  the  double  application  is  restricted  to  similar 
events  under  two  ditferent  and  remote  economies,  and  is 
never  extended  to  two  different  events  under  the  same 
economy.  Prophecies  on  the  restoration  from  Babylon  (Jer. 
xxxi. :  Isa.  Hi.),  on  the  setting  up  of  the  tabernacle  of  David 
(Amos  ix.),  and  on  his  kingdom  (2  Sam.  vii.),  had  all,  to  a 
certam  extent,  an  immediate  fulfilment,  and  are  yet  applied 
in  the  New  Testament  to  the  gospel  dispensation.  To  that 
dispensation  in  itself,  or  in  its  results,  this  double  application 
must  be  confined. 

442.  It  follows  from  this  double  sense  that,  as  in  the  fii'st 
fulfilment  there  is  a  limit  to  the  blessing  foretold, 
so,   in    the   second,   there  is   a  fulness  of  meaning     filled  in 
which  it  seems  impossible  to  exhaust.     To  David, 
for    example,    the    promise    was    partly    conditional,    partly 
absolute.     As  conditional,  it  cannot  be  applied  to  Christ,  and 
as  absolute,  it  cannot  be  applied  in  its  fullest  literal  meaning 
to  David.     "  I  will  establish  the  throne  of  his  kingdom  for 
ever.     If  he  commit  iniquity  I  will  chastise  him  with  the  rod 
of  men  .   .  .   b\it  my  mercy  shall,  not  depart  away  from  him  as 
I  took  it  f)'om  Saul,"  2  Sam.  vii.  13-15.     The  condition  both 
David  and  God  repeat  (1  Kings  ii.  4 ;  ix.  4),  and  the  promise 
that  David's  seed  should  occupy  the  throne  for  ever,  had  of 
course,  in  a  literal  sense,  but  a  limited  fultilment.     For  ever 


Q   -1 


]4  REPEATED   FULFILMENTS. 

may  mean  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  or  till  the  end  of  the 
polity  ;  the  phrase  implying  perpetuity  of  duration  through- 
out the  period— a  system  of  things  to  which  reference  is 
understood  to  be  made.  In  fact,  David's  family  occupied  the 
throne  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  holding  it  through  twenty 
descendants  for  upwards  of  400  years;  while,  in  the  brief 
duration  of  Israel  (254  years),  there  were  nineteen  kings,  of 
nine  different  families.  There  was,  therefore,  a  literal  fulfil- 
ment of  the  promise,  but  clearly  a  fulfilment  less  glorious 
than  when  applied  to  the  Messiah.  In  truth,  prophecy  bor- 
rowed from  previous  types  is  as  unequal  to  describe  his  king- 
dom as  is  narrative,  founded  on  ritual  institutions,  to  describe 
his  office.  We  call  him  prophet  and  priest ;  our  sacrifice 
and  intercessor;  but  no  one  of  the  institutions  whence  these 
names  are  taken,  nor  uU  combined,  can  speak  his  glory  or  tell 
his  worth. 

443.  We  must  add  that,  while  there  is  in  reference  to  types 
Repeated  and  antitypes  a  double  aptplication  of  prophecy, 
of'prophe-^  there  are  prophecies  which  are  of  the  nature  of 
*''®®"  general  moral  principles,  and  which  are  therefore 
repeatedly  fulfilled.  The  proud  shall  be  brought  low  (Isa.  ii. 
11),  They  that  forsake  God  shall  be  consumed  (i.  31),  The 
bread  of  the  upright  shall  be  given  him,  and  his  water  shall 
be  sure  (xxxiii.  15,  16),  are  instances.  Each  prediction  was 
spoken  on  a  particular  occasion,  and  each  is  applicable  as  a 
general  truth  to  all  time.  In  such  moral  predictions  the  pro- 
phetic writings  abound  ;  and  in  reference  to  them  the  remark 
of  Leighton  is  peculiarly  appropriate,  that  the  "  sweet  stream 
of  prophecy  did,  as  the  rivers,  make  its  own  banks  fertile 
and  pleasant,  as  it  ran  by  and  flowed  still  forward  to  after 
ages." 

444.  Such  being  the  structure  of  prophecy,  the  rules  of 

interpretation  of  most  importance  are  clearly  such 

as  refer  to   the   hif^tory   and  circumstances  of  the 

authors — the  use  and  meaning  of  figurative  language  generally, 

— parallel  predictions  and  partial  fulfilment,  and  especially 


RULES   OF   INTERPRETATION,  335 

such  as  are  suggested,  by  the  application  made  in  the  New 
Testament,  of  ancient  predictions. 

1.  Let  the  student  of  propliecy  ascertain  the  exact  position 
of  the  prophet  in  relation  both  (1),  to  his  age,  and  Ascertnin 
(2),  to  his  predictions.  (1.)  Each  prophet  was  a  Xuo"h  pro- 
messenger  to  his  own  times.  From  the  circum-  P'^et. 
stances  of  his  country  he  borrowed  his  imagery,  and  to  the 
moral  and  physical  condition  of  his  country  as  existing  or  as 
foreseen,  he  adapted  his  message.  If  he  foretells  impending 
evil,  the  more  distant  future  is  the  opposite  of  the  evil  he 
foretells.  If  he  'describes  immediate  good,  the  future  is  the 
completion  of  the  good  he  describes.  And  even  when  that 
future  is  more  distant,  it  is  ever  linked  with  the  present  by 
phrases  level  to  the  capacity,  and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
age.  (2.)  Ascertain  also  his  standing  point  in  relation  to  his 
own  predictions.  Let  the  student  also  take  his  place  if 
possible  by  the  prophet's  side,  and  look  with  him  on  the  past 
and  on  the  future.  If  his  country  lies  desolate  around  him, 
realize  and  learn  to  describe  its  condition.  If  he  seem  in 
vision  amidst  the  scenes  of  the  Gospel,  stand  near  him  at  the 
birth,  or  death,  or  in  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord. 

To  understand  Isaiah,  for  example,  read  repeatedly  2  Kings  14-21 : 
2  Chron.  16-22.  Mark  also  the  connection,  and  if  possible,  the  centre 
of  each  prediction  (see  p.  286).  When  and  where  the  last  six  chapters 
of  Zechariah  were  written  is  a  question  essential  to  a  right  under- 
standing of  that  part  of  his  prophecies.  If  written  by  him  (and  not 
as  some  suppose,  by  Jeremiah),  these  chapters  must  refer  to  the  time 
of  our  Lord,  the  second  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  subsequent  events 
(xiv.  2).  If,  again,  they  were  written  after  the  return  of  Ezra,  with 
the  last  band  of  the  captivity,  the  predictions  ot  chapter  x.  have  not 
yet  received  even  a  partial  fulfilment.  See  Introductions  to  the  pro- 
phetic hooks.  • 

2.  Familiarize  yourself  with  the  language  of  prophecy — its 
figures  and  symbols.      In  these  prophecy  is  more  g^^^    ^j^^ 
rich  than  common    history.      Its  poetic  style   and  {|fn"uac4®of 
other  reasons  make  its  usage  in  this  respect  both  Scnptuie. 


336  RULES   OF   INTERPRETATION. 

necessary  and  appropriate.  The  meaning  of  these  figures  is 
pretty  nearly  fixed :  and  though  perhaps  not  clear  to  those 
•who  first  used  them,  to  us  with  the  completed  Bible  in  our 
hands  they  ought  to  be  familiar. 

Compare,  for  examj^le,  the  following  passages  : — 

Descriptions  of  afflictions  and  distress,  Psa.  xlii.  7:  Isa.  xiii.  13; 
xxix.  6;  xxxiv.  4:  Jer.  iv.  23-26:  Ezek.  xxxii.  7,  8;  xxxviii.  20:  Joel 
ii.  10,  30,  31  :  Amos  viii.  8,  9. 

Interpositions  of  Divine  Providence  and  grace  in  delivery  from 
dangers,  Psa.  xviii.  7-17  :  Nah.  i.  4,  5  :  Hab.  iii.  5-11 :  Zech.  xiv.  4. 

The  joy  of  deliverance,  Tsa.  xxxiii.  17;  xxxv.  1-7;  Iv.  12,  13;  Ix. 
13  ;  Ixv.  25 :  Joel  iv.  18. 

See  also  the  classification  of  Scripture  symbols,  at  the  close  of  this 
Section. 

Further  light  may  often  be  obtained  in  determining  whether 
words  be  used  figuratively  or  not : 
(a.)  From  the  words  themselves. 

To  this  rule  belong  numerous  illustrations  founded  on  the  typical 
character  of  the  Jewish  people.  The  kingdom  of  David  is  foretold  after 
he  had  appeared,  and  the  earlier  occurrences  of  Jewish  history,  are 
spoken  of  as  if  they  were  to  be  repeated,  Isa.  xi.  15,  16 :  so  in  Zech. 
X.  1]  :  Hos.  ii.  14,  15:  Isa.  iv.  5. 

(Jj.)  Sometimes  from  the  context: 

To  interpret  Isa.  Ixvi.  20  literally,  requires  that  verses  21,  23  should 
also  be  interpreted  literally ;  involving  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Jewish  priesthood  and  worship.  This  last  view  seems  inconsistent 
with  the  reasoning  of  Heb.  x.  In  the  last  eight  chapters  of  Ezekiel, 
the  literal  interpretation  seems,  at  first,  to  have  much  in  its  favor,  and 
yet  many  passages  cannot  be  explained  literally.  In  chapter  xlvii. 
1-12,  for  example,  a  stream  of  water  of  unfathomable  depth  is  said  to 
flow  out  from  .the  temple,  restoring  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
spreading  life  wherever  it  comes.  The  aptness  of  this  passage  to  de- 
scribe the  progress  of  the  Gospel  through  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit, 
is  obvious  :  so  in  Zech.  xiv.  8.  In  any  case,  the  whole  must  be  consist- 
ently explained. 

(c.)  Sometimes  we  need  to  refer  to  parallel  passages: 


EULES    OF    INTERPRETATIOlSr,  337 

In  Isa.  xi.  tlie  kingdom  of  Messiah  is  spoken  of  as  a  kingdom  of 
peace;  and  in  chapter  ix.  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  wars  and  victories 
of  his  reign.  A  reference  to  the  New  Testament,  or  to  other  parts  of 
the  same  prophet,  shows  that  chapter  ix.  is  figuratively  expressed.  The 
war  and  peace  are  real,  but  not  literal. 

3.  It  is  a  golden  rule,  that  as  prophecy  is  not  "self-inter- 
pretative" (of  private  interpretation,  2  Pet.  i.  20,  compare 
21),  each  of  the  predictions  of  Scripture  must  be  ^rnVknown 
compared  with  others,  on  the  same  topic,  and  -with.  *^'"'™®'i**- 
history,  both  profane  and  inspired.  Parallel  predictions  will 
often  throw  light  upon  one  another,  and  recorded  fulfilments 
will  explain  predictions  or  parts  of  predictions  still  unfulfilled. 
History  and  the  New  Testament  will  thus  often  fix  the  mean- 
ing of  individual  passages,  and  these  will  illuminate  and 
explain  their  respective  connections. 

Compare  in  this  way  the  parallel  predictions  on  Babylon,  TjTe, 
Egypt,  Ammon,  Nineveh,  Edom,  and  Moab  (see  Epitome  of  the  Pro- 
phets, Part  ii.),  and  on  the  man  of  sm,  2  Thess.  ii. :  1  John  ii.  18:  Dan. 
vii. :  Rev.  xiii. 

A  few  instances  of  recorded  fulfilments,  taken  fiom  profane 
history,  may  be  seen  in  the  Section  on  Evidences. 

Fulfilments  recorded  m  the  New  Testament  may  be  seen  in 
the  chapter  on  Scripture  Difficulties. 

4.  Mark  the  principles  of  prophetic  interpretation  sanc- 
tioned by  the  New  Testament.     It  gives  from  God  ,,   ,  ,^ 

•^  _        o  Mark  the 

the  meaning  of  the  Old,  and  while  fixing  the  sense  principles 

"  _  _     "_  _         of  interpre- 

of  particular  passages,  it  suggests  principles  of  in-  tation  sano- 
terpretation  applicable  to  all  (see  chap.  vi.  sec.  1).     the  New 

Testamsnt. 

Instead  of  pointing  out  these  principles  at  length, 
we  may  notice  and  illustrate  o^e  which  is  suggested  in  almost 
every  chapter  of  the  later  Revelation. 

The  great  end  and  theme  of  prophecy  is  Cheist  ;  either  in  his  person 

and  ofSce,  or  in  the  establishment  of  his  kingdom.     Under 

Its  Errc&t 
this  twofold  division  most  of  the  Old  Testament  predictions        end  is 

may  be  ranged:  some  of  them  are  already  fulfilled,  otherg        Christ. 

29 


338  TWO   SYSTEMS   OF    INTERPRETATION. 

are  in  course  of  fulfilment,  and  others,  again,  are  to  be  fulfilled  at  some 
future  day. 

In  paradise  prophecy  gave  the  first  promise  of  a  Redeemer.  In 
Abraham  it  connected  the  covenants  of  Canaan  and  of  the  Gospel.  In 
the  law  it  spoke  of  the  second  prophet,  and  foreshadowed  in  types  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  To  David  it  revealed  the  kingdom  of  his 
greater  Son.  In  the  days  of  the  later  prophets  it  pre-signified  the 
changes  of  the  Judaic  economy ;  gave  the  history  of  the  chief  pagan 
kingdoms,  and  completed  the  announcement  of  the  Messiah.  After  the 
captivity  it  gave  clearer  information  still  of  the  advent  of  the  Gospel. 
In  the  days  of  our  Lord  it  spoke  in  parables  and  direct  predictions; 
and  at  last,  in  dark  symbolical  language,  foretold  the  history  and  final 
glory  of  his  reign.  "The  testimony  of  Jesus"  is  indeed  "the  spirit  of 
prophecy,"  John  v.  39:  Acts  iii.  18;  x.  43:  Rom.  i.  2;  iii.  21,  22: 
Rev.  xix.  10. 

This  fact  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  proves  the 
general  scope  of  ancient  predictions,  and  limits  them.  It 
teaches  us  to  seek  Christ  everywhere,  under  both  Dispensa- 
tions, and  it  makes  plain  the  general  meaning  of  these  pre- 
dictions themselves. 

445.  While  most  inquirers  concur  on  the  whole  in  these 
rules,  the  application  of  them  has  led  to  very  dif- 
tems'of  in-  ferent  results,  owing  chiefly  to  the  importance  which 
^^^^'^        '  is  attached  by  various  classes  to  particular  rules. 

In  much  that  is  essential  these  results  agree: 

1.  The  literal  fulfilment  of  predictions  which  refer  to  our 
p  "nts  of  Lord's  first  coming  is  admitted  by  all.  Passages 
agreement  -^yliich  might  Seem  Sufficiently  fulfilled  in  a  general 
sense  by  the  events  of  his  life,  were  nevertheless  fulfilled  to 
the  letter.  His  riding  upon  an  ass,  the  division  of  his  raiment, 
the  appointment  of  his  death  with  the  wicked,  and  of  his 
grave  with  the  rich,  are  examples,  Zech.  ix.  9:  Psa.  xxii.  18: 

Isa.  liii.  9. 

2.  The  literal  fulfilment  of  many  predictions  in  relation  to 
the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  of  other  nations,  is  admitted  by 
most ;  and  both  facts  are  used  by  one  class  of  inquirers  as 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture ;  by  the  other  class  they 


TWO    SYSTEMS    OF    INTERrRETATION.  S39 

are  likewise  used  as  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  and 
also  as  illustrations  of  the  principles  of  interpretation  which 
we  ought  to  apply  to  prophecy  not  yet  fulfilled. 

3.  As  to  the  scheme  of  prophecy  generally,  most  admit 
that  it  has  two  centres,  around  which  all  events  revolve : 
these  centres  marking  the  eminences  from  which  the  history 
of  the  world  and  of  the  church  may  be  best  surveyed.  The 
one  is  the  first  advent  of  our  Lord,  to  sufier ;  the  other  is  his 
second  advent,  to  reign ;  the  latter  to  be  followed,  after  an  in- 
terval, by  the  judgment. 

4.  The  future  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  the  general  pre- 
valence of  truth,  in  fulfilment  of  the  glorious  predictions  of 
both  Testaments — ending,  after  various  struggles,  in  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  the  faith,  are  also  generally  ad- 
mitted. To  this  view  many  from  both  classes  add  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Jews  to  their  own  land. 

In  describing  these  events,  there  is  also  extensive  agree- 
ment. Predictions  of  spiritual  blessing  to  be  enjoyed  under 
the  Gospel  are  applied  by  both  parties,  without  scruple,  to 
the  Christian  Church ;  and  the  reign  of  righteousness,  it  is 
held  on  both  sides,  will  be  visible  as  well  as  spiritual,  affecting 
social  relations,  and  modifying  by  its  influence  all  human 
society.  So  far,  there  is  substantial  agreement  among  most 
students  of  prophecy. 

446.  The  above  is  (in  brief)  all  which  the  one  class  of  in- 
quirers find  there.  Giving  great  weight  to  the  facts,  points  of 
that  the  Jews  were  types,  that  the  distinction  be-  '^'^'^rence. 
tween  Jew  and  Gentile  is  formally  abolished,  and  that  our 
dispensation  is  spiritual;  thinking,  moreover,  that  the  descrip- 
tions in  prophecy,  if  taken  literally,  would  lead  to  a  belief  in 
the  restoration  of  Judaism,  and  in  the  introduction  of  a  system 
adapted  to  the  infancy  rather  than  the  maturity  of  the  church ; 
finding  that  these  descriptions,  as  far  as  the  re-establishment 
of  the  Jews  is  concerned,  are  not  repeated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  that  many  prophecies  which  seem  to  npply  to  them 
as  a  nation,  are  referred  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  church, 


340  SYSTEMS    OF    PROPHECY. 

or  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  Acts  ii.  17-21  :  Rom.  xi.  26; 
they  conclude  that  a  spiritual  interpretation  of  the  whole  se- 
ries is  most  consistent  with  the  tenor  of  Scripture. 

The  other  class  go  further.  Much  of  this  reasoning  they 
admit  to  be  true  ;  deeming  it,  however,  not  all  the  truth. 
Finding  that  predictions  even  of  spiritual  blessing  have  had 
for  the  most  part  a  literal  accomplishment,  that  the  Jews  are 
spolvpn  of  in  both  dispensations  as  still  beloved  for  their  father's 
snke,  that  many  prophecies  (those,  for  example,  which  speak 
of  Israel  and  Judah  in  terms,  either  inapplicable  to  the  first 
return,  or  written  after  it,  Isa.  xi.  12 :  Hos.  iii.  15:  Zech.  xiv.), 
remain  unfulfilled,  that  the  language  of  these  prophecies, 
though  often  applicable  in  a  general  subordinate  sense  to  the 
Christian  church,  cannot  be  confined  to  it  without  doing  vio- 
lence to  the  commonest  rules  of  speech.  That  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament prophecies  having  undoubtedly  an  earlv  fulfilment  in 
Jewish  history,  or  in  the  Christian  church  (as  Isa.  xiii.  9,  10; 
XXV.  8  :  Hag.  ii.  6),  seem  referred  to  as  having  fulfilments  still 
future  (Matt.  xxiv. :  1  Cor.  xv.  54:  Heb.  xii.  26),  they  main- 
tain, that  besides  a  first  accomplishment  of  many  predictions 
in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  the  spiritual  accomplishment 
of  others  under  the  Gospel,  many  remain  to  be  accomplished 
in  a  literal  and  more  extended  sense.  They  hold,  therefore, 
throughout,  the  principle  of  literal  interpretation,  whether 
predictions  refer  to  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  to  the  second, 
i.  e.  as  most  think  it,  the  pre-millenial  advent  of  Christ,  or 
the  establishment  of  his  reign. 

447.   A  complete  view  of  these  tv/o  systems  of  internreta- 

tion  ma.v  be  obtained    from  the  following  Tables. 

ey.stoma        One  is  taken  from  Powel's  "Concordance"  (1673); 

illustrated.    ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^   ^^^    Bickersteth's  "  Guide  to  the 

Prophecies." 

i.  The  Jews  shall  be  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  earth  and  brought 

(a)  in  re-        to  their  own  land,  Tsa.  xi.  11;  xxvii.  12,  13;  xliii.  5.  6; 

lationto  xlix.  11,  12;  Ix.  4.  Compare  Jer.  iii.  18 ;  xvi  14,  15 ;  xxiii. 
the  Jews.  ^ 


SYSTEMS   OF   PROPHECY.  oil 

3;  XXX.  10;  xxxi.  7-10;  xxxii.  37:  so  Hos.  xi.  10,  11:  Zeph.  iii.  10: 
Zech.  vii.  7,  8;  x.  8-10. 

ii.  They  shall  be  carried  by  the  Gentiles  to  their  place,  who  shall  join 
themselves  with  the  Jews,  and  become  the  Lord's  people,  Isa.  xlix.  22; 
xiv.  2;  Ix.  9;  Ixvi.  18,  20;  ii.  2-4.  Compare  Jer.  iii.  17;  xvi.  19:  Ezek. 
xlvii.  22,  23:  Mic.  v.  3:  Zech.  ii.  11;  yiii.  20-23. 

iii.  Great  miracles  shall  be  wrought  when  Israel  is  restored. 

1.  Drying  up  the  Euphrates,  Isa.  xi.  15,  16:  Zech.  x.  11:  Rev.  xvi. 
12:  Hos.  xi.  15:  Mic.  vii.  15. 

2.  Giving  rivers  in  desart  places,  Isa.  xli.  17-19;  xlviii.  20,  21 ;  xliii. 
19,  20. 

3.  Sending  prophets,  Isa.  Ixvi.  18-21:  Hos.  xii.  9,  10. 

4.  The  Lord  Christ  himself  as  their  head,  Isa.  xxxv.  4;  Iii.  12;  Iviii. 
8:  Hos.  i.  10,  11:  Mic.  ii.  12,  13. 

iv.  The  Jews  restored  from  a  state,  with  judges  and  counsellors ;  the 
Lord  Christ  their  king,  who  will  then  be  acknowledged  as  king  over 
the  other  nations,  Isa.  i.  26;  Ix.  17  Compare  Jer.  xxiii.  4 ;  xxx.  8,  9, 
21:  Hos.  iii.  5:  Ezek.  xxxiv.  23,  24;  xxxvii.  24,  25:  Isa.  liv.  5:  Obad. 
xxi.:  Zech  xiv.  5,  9:  Psa.  xxii.  27,  28. 

V.  They  shall  have  victory  over  all  enemies,  and  all  kingdoms  and 
nations  shall  submit  themselves  unto  them,  Isa.  xi.  13,  14;  xiv.  1,  2; 
xli.  14-16;  xlix.  23;  Ix.  12;  xxv.  10,  12:  Joel  iii.  7,  8,  19,  20:  Obad. 
xvii.  18:  Mic.  iv.  6-13;  v.  5-7;  vii.  16,  17:  Zech.  ii.  13;  ix.  13-16;  x. 
5,  6;  xii.  6;  Numb.  xxiv.  17:  Isa.  Ix.  10-16;  Ixvi.  19,  20. 

vi.  The  Jews  restored  will  live  peaceably,  without  division  or  conten- 
tions, Isa.  xi.  13,  14;  xiv.  1,  2:  Jer.  iii.  18;  1.  4:  Ezek.  xxxvii.  21,22: 
Hos.  i.  11. 

Be  very  numerous,  Isa.  xxvii.  6;  xliv.  3,  4;  xlix.  18-21;  Hv.  1-3; 
Ixi.  9;  Jer.  xxiii.  3;  xxx.  18-20;  xxxi.  27:  Ezek.  xxxvi.  37,  38. 

Have  great  outward  prosperity,  Isa.  xxxii.  16-18;  xxxiii.  24;  liv. 
13-17;  Ix.  18,  21:  Jer.  xxni.  3-6;  xxx.  10;  xxxi.  34-40;  xxxiii.  6-9; 
1.  9,  10:  Joel  iii.  17,  18:  Mic.  vii.  18-20:  Zeph.  iii.  13, 

Be  a  blessing  to  the  earth,  Isa.  xix.  24,  25;  Ixi.  9;  Jer.  xxxiii.  9: 
Ezek  xxxiv.  26:  Jeph.  iii.  19:  Zech.  viii.  13. 

vii.  The  land  of  Judaea  shall  be  eminently  fruitful,  Isa.  xxix.  17: 
xxxv.  1-9:  Ii.  3,  16;  liv.  11-13;  Iv.  12,  13;  Ix.  13,  17;  Ixv.  25:  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  26,  27;  xxxvi.  36;  Joel  iii.  18:  Amos  ix.  13,  14. 

viii.  Jerusalem  shall  be  rebuilt,  never  to  be  destroyed,  Isa.  Hi.  1 ; 
xxvi.  1;  Ix.  18;  xxxiii.  6:  Joel  iii.  17:  Obad.  xvii.;  Zech.  xiv.  10,  11: 
Jer.  xxxi.  38-40;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  11. 

ix.  A  little  before  the  time  of  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  there  shall 
be  great  wars  and  desolation,  Isa.  xxxiv.:  Joel  iii.  1-10:  Zeph.  iii.  8, 9; 
29* 


342  SYSTEMS   OF   PKOPHECY. 

Ezek.    xxviii.    25,  26:    Hag.   ii.    21-23:    Jer.  xxx.    7-10:    2   Chron. 
XV.  3-7. 

Such  is  one  view.  Each  passage  is  taken  literally  as  it 
stands.  The  other  view,  looking  at  the  typical  character  of 
the  ancient  Jews  and  the  nature  of  prophetic  language,  re- 
gards the  whole  as  applicable  either  to  the  first  return  from 
captivity,  or  subsequent  return  to  the  church  of  Christ  under 
the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel,  or  the  conversion  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  establishment  among  them  of  that  system  which  their 
own  law  prefigured. 

Before  deciding  on  either  view,  let  the  student  compare, 
humbly  and  prayerfully,  the  inspired  interpretation  of  ancient 
prophecy  as  given  in  the  New  Testament. 

448.  Mr.  Bickersteth's  Table  gives  events,  in  part,  contem- 
poraneous with  the  preceding  ;  in  part,  subsequent  to  it. 

i.  As  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  are  passing  away,  their  power  is  over- 
thrown, though  vast  numbers  have  been  converted  to  the 
tio'n  to  the      faith  (Dan.  ii.  7:  Rev.  vii.  9-14:   Rom.  xi.  25-32 :  Luke 
^^A^l^!^!^ir,„   xxi.  24,  25);  the  Jews  are  visibly  recalled  into  the  church, 
of  our  Lord.   Dan.  ix.  27:   Ezek.  xx.  32-44;   Isa.  xlix.  9-12;  Ixii.  1. 

ii.  They  partake  of  renewed  favor,  are  restored  to  their  own  land,* 
and  are  exposed  to  persecution  from  apostate  Gentiles,  who,  under  the 
last  Antichrist,  come  against  restored  Israel.'' 

iii.  Soon,  signs  in  the  sun  and  stars  appear,'^  and  the  sign  of  the  Son 
of  Man  himself  is  seen  in  the  heavens.'' 

iv.  Christ  raises  his  dead,  changes  his  living  saints,  and  they  rise  to 
be  with  him  in  the  air.  Matt.  xxiv.  31 :  Rev.  xi.  15,  18 :  1  Cor.  xv. 

^  Ezek.  xxxvi.  1-38;  xxxvii.  20-23:  Psa.  xxxvii. :  Isa.  xi.  11,  12; 
Ixii.  4;  Ix.  21:  Jer.  xxxi.  1-6:  Gen.  xiii.  14-18;  xv.  18-21;  xvii.  7, 
8;  xxvi.  3,  4:  Exod.  vi.  2-8 :  Lev.  xxvi.  40-44:  Deut.  xxx.  4-6; 
xxxii.  43. 

■>  Jer.  xxx.  1-9:  Isa.  x.  20-27:  Dan.  ix.  27:  Isa.  xxxi.;  xxxiii. 
1-10:  Ezek.  xxxviii.  1-16:  Dan.  xi.  41-45:  Joel  ii.  1-20:  Mic.  iv. 
8-10:  Dan.  xii.  12. 

•^  Matt.  xxiv.  20-29:  Luke  xxi.  24-26:  Heb.  xii.  26-28:  Hag.  ii.  6, 
7:  Isa.  xiii.  9-11;  xxxiv.  1-4:  Joel  ii.  12-15;   ii.  31,  32:  Mal.  iv.  1-6. 

J  Matt.  xxiv.  29,  30:  Isa.  xviii.  3-7;  xi.  12-14:  Dan.  viii.  13,  14: 
Matt,  xxiii,  39  :  Luke  xvii.  24. 


SYSTEMS    OF    PROniECY.  34.3 

51-64:  1  Thess.  iv.  15-17:  2  Thess.  i.  7:  Isa.  xxvii.  12,  13:  Rev.  iii. 
10:  Isa.  xxvi.  19-21:  Mai.  iii.  17. 

V.  The  beast  and  the  kings  of  the  earth  combine  against  the  Lord,* 
and  he  pours  his  judgments  on  Antichrist  and  his  a(iherents,  pleading 
with  all  flesh  by  fire  and  sword.'' 

vi.  The  character  of  this  dispensation  is  discriminating,  punishing, 
and  purifying  (1  Cor.  iii.  12-15  :  Mai.  iii.  3  :  Zech,  xiii.  9  :  Mark  ix.  42, 
50:  Jer.  xx.  9  ;  xxiii.  29:  Psa.  xcviii.  3 :  1  Pet.  iv.  12  :  2  Pet.  iii.  10-13 : 
Pv.ev.  iii.  18).  The  Jews  have  a  special  promise  (Isa.  li.  16).  The  fire 
and  tribulation  have  a  crisis  at  the  beginning  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  22 ; 
xxxix.  6 ;  Isa.  Ixvi.  15,  16),  and  again  at  the  close  of  the  millennial 
kingdom  (Rev.  xx.  9),  Matt.  xxiv.  1 :  Dan.  xii.  1 :  Jer.  xxx.  7 :  Rev. 
xix.  20;  XX.  9. 

vii.  Christ  descends  on  Olivet,  with  his  saints,  in  sight  of  Israel," 
who  welcome  his  coming.''  Satan  is  bound :  the  millennial  kingdom 
begins,  over  his  saints  and  the  nations  not  yet  consumed.^ 

viii.  This  reign  very  blessed,  but  rebellion  still  lurks  among  the 
nations.     Satan  loosed  for  a  season,  Zech.  xiv.  17-19 ;  Rev.  xx.  9. 

ix.  The  final  judgment,  Rev.  xx.  10-15. 

X.  The  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth  ;  no  more  sea.  The  holy 
city  descends,  God  is  All  in  all,  and  the  saints  reign  for  ever  and  ever, 
Rev.  xxi.;  xxii.  5. 

Whether  all  the  details  of  this  scheme  are  to  be  fulfilled 
literally  and  precisely  in   this   order  is  not  agreed,  but  the 

•  Matt.  xxiv.  30:  Rev.  xi.  18;  xvi.  14:  Isa.  viii.  8-10;  x.  24-26; 
xxiv.  21,  22;  xxvii.  4;  xxxi.  4;  liv.  15;  Ixvi.  18:  Joel  iii.  1,  2:  Mic. 
iv.  11-13:  Zeph.  iii.  8,  9:   Zech.  xii.  2-5;  xiv.  1-5:  Rev.  xix.  19. 

"  Matt.  xxiv.  36-39:  Rev.xv.  1;  xvi.  1:  Dan.  ix.27:  Isa.  x.  24,  26; 
xiv.  24,  26;  xxiv.  21-23;  xxxiv.  63:  Rev.  xix.  10-21:  Joel  iii.  11-16: 
Nah.  xix.  11,  15:  Isa.  xxx.  27-33:  Ezek.  xxxviii.  17-23:  Dan.  vii. 
9-14:  Mal.iv.  1,3:  Matt.  iii.  12:  2  Thess.  i.8;  ii.  8 :  Rev.  xix  15,  20: 
Isa.  Ixvi.  16:   Rev.  xix. 

«  Acts  i.  11:  Zech.  xiv.  4,  5,  10-14:  Isa.  Ixiv.  1;  Ixvi.  1  ;  Ix.  13: 
Ezek.  xliii.  7-9  :  Isa.  Ixvi.  18,  19 :  Isa.  xxv.  9 ;  Matt,  xxiii.  29 :  Rom. 
xi.  26:  Isa.  lix.  20:  Zech.  ii.  10,  12. 

J  Zech.  xii.  10-14:  Jer.  xxxi.  8-12:  Acts  iii.  19-21:  Isa.  xii.  2,4: 
Psa.  cxvii ;  cxviii.  98  :  Rev.  xix.  1-G. 

«  Isa.  xxxii.  1:  Dan.  vii.  18,  27;  xii.  4:  Luke  xxii.  28-30:  John  L 
51:  Rev.  xi.  18;  xx.  4,  6. 


844  THE    COMING   OF   CHRIST. 

general  plan  itself  is,  on  this  system  of  interpretation,  as  is 
here  described. 

The  other  view  of  these  passages  we  can  only  indicate. 
Those  that  are  taken  from  ancient  prophets,  and  have  not  yet 
been  fulfilled,  are  interpreted  spiritually  of  the  church  and  its 
enemies,  either  in  its  present  state,  or  when  augmented  by 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  yet  large  accessions  from  the 
Gentiles :  those  in  1  and  2  Thess.  and  in  1  Cor.,  that  speak 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  are  referred  to  the  one  resur- 
rection :  and  those  that  speak  of  the  coming  of  our  Lord 
are  interpreted  according  to  one  or  other  of  the  following 
facts. 

i.  "  The  coming  of  Christ"  is  an  expression  applied  to  his  coming  in 
the  flesh,  either — 

(a).  At  his  birth,  John  xvi.  28  :  1  John  iv.  2,  3  :  2  John  vii. :  Matt, 
xviii.  11;  xx.  28:  Eph.  ii.  17  :  1  Tim.  i.  15. 

(b).  On  his  entering  upon  his  ministry,  Matt.  iii.  11 :  Mark  i.  7 : 
JLuke  iii.  16:  John  i.  15,  30;   Matt.  xi.  17:  John  v.  43 ;  ix.  39. 

ii.  It  is  applied  to  any  great,  though  invisible,  interposition. 

(a).  As  for  punishment,  or  reward.  Rev.  ii.  15,  16;  iii.  3:  Matt.  x. 
23  (?). 

(6).  As  in  the  remarkable  gift  of  the  Spirit,  John  xiv.  18,  28 :  Matt, 
xvi.  28  :  Mark  ix.  1. 

(c).  As  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Matt.  xxiv.  27 :  Luke  xxi. 
6,  7,  27 :  Mark  xiii.  2G,  ver.  30. 

iii.  It  is  applied  to  his  appearance  for  general  judgment,  Matt.  xvi. 
27,  and  in  many  other  places. 

From  this  language  it  is  concluded  that,  as  Christ  came  in 
the  flesh,  at  Pentecost,  in  Asia  Minor  to  remove  the  privileges 
of  apostate  churches,  in  Judaea  to  destroy  the  ancient  temple, 
so  he  will  come  in  the  fresh  and  enlarged  outpouring  of  his 
Spirit,  and.  at  last,  in  person,  for  judgment.  All  "  comings" 
for  punishment  being  taken  from  the  last,  and  all  "  comings" 
in  grace  from  the  first.  His  reign  began  at  his  resurrection 
and  at  Pentecost  (Psa.  ii.  :  Mark  ix.  1:  Rom.  i.  4:  Heb.  i.  5). 
After  struggles  of  great  principles,  such  as  many  of  the  pas- 


THE    COMING   OF   CHRIST.  345 

sages  above  quoted  indicate,  it  will  .be  completed,  so  far  as 
EARTHLY  manifestation  is  concerned,  in  millennial  glory. 

449.  Having  stated  tbese  different  systems,  we  deem  it  un- 
necessary to  examine  or  defend  them.  We  mark  g„,-,g|jjnfijji 
rather  their  substantial  agreement.  The  coming  iiarmony. 
triumph  of  truth,  the  spirituality  and  glory  of  Christ's  reign, 
the  dignity  and  blessedness  of  his  church,  the  consequent 
diminution  of  earthly  evils,  are  common  to  both.  Where  they 
differ  is  rather  in  relation  to  the  modes  of  accompaniments  of 
these  changes  than  to  the  changes  themselves  ;  and  in  relation 
to  these  accompaniments,  we  can  but  commend  the  student  to 
the  disclosure  of  the  New  Testament  and  to  the  general 
principles  of  interpretation  sanctioned  in  its  quotations  from 
the  Old.     See  Chap.  VI. 

450.  In  the  interpretation  of  the  times  of  prophecy,  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  when    years   are   not   men-  Qnthein- 
tioned,  days  are  reckoned  as  years.      This  rule  is  terpretation 

'        •'  _         •'  ot  time  in 

founded  on  several  analogies,  and  is  at  least  highly  prophecy, 
probable.     See  Numb.  xiv.  34  •  Ezek.  iv.  5,  6 ;  where  God 
expressly  appoints  "  each  day  for  a  year." 

Again  the  expression,  "  Time,  times  and  a  half  time,"  is 
understood  as  meaning  three  prophetic  years  and  a  half,  i.  e. ' 
years  of  360  prophetic  days  each,  or  1260  years  in  all,  the 
period  assigned  for  the  rise  and  fall  of  Antichrist,  Dan.  vii. 
25.  See  also  Rev.  xi.  2,  3,  where  the  same  period  seems 
spoken  of  as  1260  days,  or  42  months. 

Some  of  the  most  remarkable  predictions  of  Scripture,  how- 
ever, specify  the  time  in  years.  Such  are  the  430  and  400 
years  of  the  history  of  Abraham's  descendants,  Gen.  xv.  13  : 
Exod.  xii.  40;  the  sixty-five  years  foretold  by  Isaiah,  in  wliich 
Israel  was  to  be  broken,  Isa.  vii.  8;  the  seventy  years  of 
Judah's  captivity ;  and  the  seventy  weeks  of  years  (for  the 
word  day  is  not  found  in  this  passage),  in  which  Messiah  was 
to  be  cut  off,  Dan.  ix.  26. 

Concerning  the  precise  times  foretold  in  tie  Scripture,  it  is 


Cio  INTERPRETATION   OF   TIME. 

Tiine  often    clearly  not  God's  intention  to  give  us  exact  know- 

of  difficult      ,     .  _,  ,    •      1  •  11 

interpreta-  ledge,  inese  are  put  m  his  own  power,  and  there 
when  fui-  is  often  very  little  of  a  sanctified  spirit  in  seeking 
to  know  them.  The  prophecy  sustains  our  hope, 
and  elevates  our  feelings.  It  assures  us  of  the  final  issue,  and 
lays  down  certain  prognostics  tigkly  useful  for  a  moral  and 
spiritual  discernment  of  the  Divine  purpose,  which,  however, 
is  very  different  from  the  merely  mechanical  process  we  have 
above  condemned.  Even  in  prophecies  which  have  been  ful- 
filled, the  dates  are  often  difficult  of  adjustment;  a  fact  that 
should  suggest  humility  and  modesty  in  interpreting  prophe- 
cies whose  fulfilment  is  yet  to  come. 

The  captivity,  for  example,  lasted  seventy  years,  and  there  are  at  least 
two  different  dates  from  which  it  may  begin. 

From  the  carrying  away  of  Daniel,  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  2  Cliron. 
xxxvi.  5-7 ,  xxii. 

From  the  destruction  of  the  temple  in  the  days  of  Zedekiah,  to  the 
decree  of  Darius  to  restore  it,  2  Ghron.  xxxvi.  14-21 :  Ezek.  vi. 

Prideaux  adds  a  third,  from  the  final  deportation  by  Nebuzaradan, 
to  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  Jer.  lii.  30 :  Ezek.  vi. 

The  interpretation  of  the  seventy  weeks  in  Daniel  is  subject  to  alike 
difBculty.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  the  precise  date  when  the 
period  begins,  and  though  the  meaning  is  now  comparatively  clear,  the 
passage  gave  to  the  ancient  Jew  but  a  general  idea  of  the  time  of  the 
coming  of  our  Lord.  See  Bickersteth  on  the  Prophecies,  p.  191 ;  Hales, 
quoted  by  Dr.  Kitto ;  and  Fuller  on  the  Apocalypse,  Dis.  30. 

"What,  and  what  manner  of  time,"  are  both  proper  sub- 
jects of  inquiry  in  studying  the  prophets :  but  then  we  must 
remember  that  God  gave  us  their  predictions  rather  as  part 
of  our  moral  training  than  to  gratify  our  curiosity  and  "  he 
means  that  his  providence,  and  not  ours  should  be  manifested 
by  them  to  the  world." — Sir  I.  Newton. 

451  Amidst  all  these  difficulties,  two  facts  are  highly  con- 
solatory to  the  ordinary  reader. 

With  care,  he  will  easily  distinguish  between  prophecy,  and 


SPIRITUAL    LESSONS.  347 

those  parts  of  the  prophetical  writings  which  are  Moral  les- 
purely  nistoncai  or  moral,     ouch  portions  are,  as  general 
we   have   seen,    frequent    and    liighly    instructive,   ways  cilar. 
They  contain  afiecting  descriptions  of  the  guilt  and 
degradation  of  the  Jews,  powerful  appeals,  and  sti'iking  exhi- 
bitions of  the  Divine  character,  but  they  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  prophetic  narrative.     However  mysterious 
the  prophecy  may  be,  the  moral  lesson  is  generally  plain.    See 
Jer.  IX.  11-14. 

452.  When  the  precise  reference  of  any  particular  prophecy 
is  not  clear,  its  general  meaning  can  often  be  ascertained. 

On  reading  Rev.  vi.  1,  2,  for  example,  it  is  plain  that  whatever  be 
understood  by  the  white  horse,  the  era  or  event  to  which  the  prophet 
refers,  and  which  is  the  first  of  a  series,  will  be  peaceful  and  prosperous  ; 
as  the  era,  or  event  described  (vi.  3,  4),  is  one  of  persecution  and  blood- 
shed. Verses  5,  6,  describe  an  era  of  equitable  government,  united  with 
famine;  verses  7,  8,  an  era  of  mortal  sickness  and  ruin;  verses  9-11, 
of  severe  protracted  persecution;  verses  12-17,  the  era  of  universal 
change,  the  breaking  up  of  empires,  and  the  overthrow  of  established 
institutions.  There  may  be  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what 
particular  era  or  event  these  predictions  refer,  but  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  the  era  are  admitted  almost  on  all  hands. 

So  of  the  whole  book  of  Revelation  ;  whatever  be  the  meaning  of 
specific  terms,  it  clearly  reveals  the  coming  of  our  Lord  in  power  and 
great  glory ;  till  that  coming,  the  suffering  and  affliction  of  his  church, 
and  after  it,  her  triumph  and  blessedness.  How  consolatory  are  these 
,  truths  in  every  age,  and  how  impressively  are  they  revealed  in  nearly 
all  the  prophetic  writings  of  Scripture. 

The  moral  and  spiritual  lessons,  therefore,  of  prophecy, 
remain,  and  may  be  applied  by  all  to  stimulate  their  efforts, 
and  sustain  their  faith.  Obedience  to  these  lessons  is,  more- 
over, the  best  preparation  for  understanding  what  is  myste- 
rious :  a  special  blessing  being  given  to  them  "  that  read,  and 
hear,  and  keep"  the  sayings  which  prophecy  contains. 

453.  In  addition  to  predictions  on  the  coming  and  work  of  our  Lord 
(see  part  ii.),  and  those  given  in  the  prophets  (see  Introduc- 
tion to  Prophetical  Books,  part  ii.),  it  is  important  to  no-    oi'sci'ipture. 


848  SYMBOLIC   LANGUAGE. 

tice  that  nearly  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  contain  prophecies. 
The  principal  events  of  Jewish  history  were,  as  Mr.  Davison  has  re- 
marked, all  foretold.  A  complete  view  of  these  predictions  may  be  seen 
in  Brown's  "Harmony  of  the  Scripture  Prophecies,"  or  in  Simpson's 
"  Key  to  the  Prophecies,"  London,  1809. 

In  the  historical  books,  for  example,  from  Gen.  to  2  Chron.,  there  are 
upwards  of  a  hundred  predictions  recorded,  with  their  fulfilments ;  the 
whole  supplying  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  or  illustrating 
principles  of  prophetic  interpretation. 

The  flood,  Gen.  vi.  17  (vii.  21,  23).  Canaan  and  Shem,  ix.  25,  26 : 
(Josh.  ix.  23  :  1  Kings  ix.  20,  21).  Ishmael's  history,  xvi.  12  (see  Heb.: 
Job  xxxix.  5);  xxi.  20  (Isa.  xxi.  17);  xvii.  20  (Gen.  xxv.  18).  The  re- 
building of  Jericho,  Josh.  vi.  26  (1  Kings  xvi.  34).  Eli's  house,  1  Sam. 
ii.  30;  iv.  14,  17;  xxii.  9-23  (1  Sam  iv.  11 ;  ii.  27:  see  Ezek.  xliv.  15). 
Name  and  conduct  of  Josiah,  1  Kings  xiii.  1-3  (2  Kings  xxiii.  15-20 ; 
350  years  after). 

454.  The  interpretation  of  symbolic  or  figurative  language  is  a  sub- 
ject of  much  difficulty.     Full  information  in  reference  to  it 
tiun  (ifsym-  must  be  sought  for  m  such  works  as  Wemyss's  "  Key  to  Sym- 
^'o'»-  bolical  language,"  Edin.  1835  ;  Mills's  "  Sacred  Symbology," 

1853  ;  or  Daubuz's  "  Preliminary  Discourse  in  his  Commentary  on  Reve- 
lation." The  nature  of  this  language  may  be  gathered  from  the  fol- 
lowing examples : 

Adultery,  unfaithfulness  to  covenant,  and  so  a  symbol  of  idolatry, 

especially  among  an  enlightened  people,  Jer.  iii.  8 :  Rev.  ii.  22. 
Arm,  s.  of  strength  or  power,  Psa.  x.  15 :  Isa.  Iii.  10 ;  a.  made  hare,  of 

power  put  fortli. 
Babylon,  r.  of  an  idolatrous,  persecuting  enemy  of  the  church;  Rome 

especially,  pagan  and  papal,  Isa.  xlvii.  12:  Rev.  xvii.  18. 
Balance,  s.  of  fair  dealing.  Job  xxxi.  6  ;   or  (when  the  sale  of  corn, 
etc.,  is  indicated)  of  scarcity.  Lev.  xxvi.  26:  Ezek.  iv.  16:  Rev.  vi.  5. 
Beast,  s.  of  a  tyrannical,  usurping  power,  or  power  merely  worldly, 
Dan.  vii.  3,  17  :  Ezek.  xxxiv.  28. 

Bear,  s.  of  a  fool-hardy,  ferocious  enemy,  Prov.  xvii.  12:  Isa.  xi. 

7  :  Rev.  xiii.  2. 
Bull,  s.  of  a  furious  enemy,  Psa.  xxii.  12:  Ezek.  xxxix.  18 ;  bul- 
locks ^people,  Jer.  1.  26  :  and  stalls  =  cities  or  houses. 
Dog,  s  of  uncleanness  and  apostacy,  Prov.  xxvi.  11:  Phil.  iii.  2: 

Rev.  xxii.  15 ;  also  of  watchfulness,  Isa.  Ixvi.  10. 
Crocodile  (in  Heb.  of  Job.  vii.  12:  Isa.  xxvii.l  ;li.  9:  Ezek.  xxix.3: 


SYMBOLIC    LANGUAGE.  349 

xxxii.  2:  Psa.  Ixxiv.  13),  s.  of    Egypt,  and   so   of   any   anti- 
christian  power,  Rev.  xi.  18 ;  xiii.  1. 
Goat,  s.  of  Macedonian  kings  (^Egeades),  and  especially  of  Alex- 
ander,  Dan.   viii.  5-7;  s.  of  the  wicked  generally.  Matt.  xxv. 
32,  33. 
Horse,  s.  of  agencies  fit  for  war  and  conquest,  Zech.  x.  3 :  s.  for 
speed,  Joel  ii.  4:  to  ride,  is  to  have  dominion.  Dent,  xxxii.  13: 
Isa.  Iviii.  14. 
Leopaed,  s.  of  a  cruel  and  deceitful  foe  (Isa.  xi.  6:  Jer.  v.  6:  Hab. 

i.  8),  Dan.  vii.  6 :   Rev.  xiii.  2. 
Lion,  s.  of  one  having  energy  and  dominion,  2  Kings  xxiii.  33: 

Amos.  iii.  8  :  Dan.  vii.  4:  Rev.  v.  5. 
Locust,  s.  of  a  hostile,  destroying  army,  Joel  i.  2:  Rev.  ix;  the 
chief  called  Abaddon,  or  Apollyon,  i.  e.  the  destroyer,  ver.  11. 
Bee,  s.  of  Assyrian  king,  Isa.  vii.  18,  so  represented  in  hieroglyphics ; 

also  of  any  fierce  invader.  Dent.  i.  44:  Psa.  cxviii.  12. 
Book,  received,  s.  of  inauguration,  2  Kings  xi.  2 ;  written  within  and 
without,  of  a  long  series  of  events ;  sealed,  of  what  is  secret ;  to  eat  a 
book,  s.  of  consideration,  Jer.  xv.  16^  Rev.  x.  9;  "the  hook  of  life," 
the  list  in  which  the  names  of  the  redeemed  are  enrolled  ;  see  Ezra 
ii.  62:  Rev.  iii.  5;  a  book  opened,  s.  of  the  beginning  of  judgment, 
Rev.  XX.  12. 
Bow,  s.  of  conflict  and  victory,  Rev.  vi.  2 ;  or  (because  apt  to  start 

aside)  of  deceit,  Hos.  ix.  16:  Jer.  ix.  3. 
Brass,  s.  of  baseness  and  obduracy,  Isa.  xlviii.  4 :  Jer  vi.  28  ;  or  of 

strength  and  firmness,  Psa.  cvii.  16  ;   Isa.  Ixv.  4. 
Br.EART-PLATE,  what  protects  a  vital  part,  and  strikes  terror  into  an 

adversary,  Isa.  lix.  7:  1  Thess.  v.  18:  Rev.  ix.  9. 
Bkim  (i.  e.  burning)  stone,  s.  of  torment.  Job  xviii.   15:  Psa.  ix.  6: 

Rev.  xiv.  10;  XX.  10. 
Chariot,  s.  of  government  or  protection,  2  Kings  ii.  12 :  Psa.  Ixxx.  8 ; 
chariot  and  two  riders,  Isa.  xxi.  7 ;  Cyrus  and  Darius  (Lowth).  In 
Zech.  vi.  1  ;  the  four  great  empires.  Chariots  of  God,  the  hosts  of 
heaven,  Psa.  Ixviii.  18:  Isa.  Ixvi.  15. 
Cherubim,  s.  of  God's  regal  glnry  (Wemyss),  Psa.  xviii.  12;  or  of  the 
Trinity  and  human  nature  of  Christ  (Parkhurst) ;  of  angels  (Low- 
man,  Pierce,  Mack.);  of  the  excellencies  of  God's  servants  (Taylor, 
Newo.) ;  of  angels  and,  in  Revelation,  of  the  redeemed  (Mede) ;  of 
God's  manifested  perfections:  see  Gen.  iii.  23:  Exod.  xxv.  18,  22; 
xxxvii.  7,  9:  Lev.  xvi,  2:  Numb.  vii.  8,  9:  1  Kings  vi.  23;  viii.  7: 
2Chron.  iii.  10,  13:  Ezek.  i.  10. 

Color,  s.  of  the  nature  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is  applied  ;  black  s.  of 
30 


350  SYMBOLIC    LANGUAGE. 

anguish  and  affliction,  Job  xxx.  .30:  Rev.  vi.  .5-12;  p«?c,  of  mortal 
disease,  Rev.  vi.  8;  red,  of  bloodshed,  or  victory,  Zech.  vi.  2:  Rev. 
xii.  3 ;  or  of  what  cannot  be  discharged,  Isa.  i.  18  ;  white,  of  beauty 
and  holiness,  Ecc.  ix.  8  :  Rev.  iii.  4 ;  white  and  shining  was  the  Jew- 
ish royal  and  priestly  color,  as  purple  was  the  Roman. 

Crown,  s.  of  delegated  authority.  Lev.  viii.  9  ;  or  of  imperial  authority 
and  victory,  Rev.  xix.  12  (Greek,  diadem). 

Cup,  s.  of  enticing  luxury.  Rev.  xvii.  11 ;  of  idolatrous  rites,  1  Cor.  x. 
21 ;  of  a  man's  portion,  Rev.  xiv.  10;  xviii.  16. 

Drunkenness,  of  the  folly  of  sin,  Jer.  li.  7 ;  and  of  the  stupidity  pro- 
duced by  Divine  judgments,  Isa.  xxix.  9. 

EABTHftUAKB,  s.  of  violent  agitation,  Joel,  ii.  10 :  Hag.  ii.  21 :  Rev. 
vi.  12. 

Eating,  s.  of  meditation  and  communion  with  truth,  Isa.  Iv.  1,  2;  s. 
of  results  of  previous  conduct,  Ezek.  xviii.  2 ;  s.  of  destruction  of  a 
man's  peace  or  property,  Rev.  xvii.  16 :   Psa.  xxvii. 

Egypt,  s.  of  a  proud,  pjersecuting  power,  as  Rome,  Rev.  xi.  8. 

Eyes,  s.  of  knowledge,  fidelity,  glory,  Zech.  iv.  10 ;  of  government, 
Numb.  X.  31.     Evil  eye  =  envy  ;  bountiful  eye  =  liberality. 

FiBE,  s.  of  God's  word,  Jer.  xxiii.  29 :  Hab.  iii.  5 :  of  destruction.  Isa. 
xlii.  25:  Zech.  xiii.  9;  of  purification,  Mai.  iii.  2;  of  persecution, 
1  Pet.  i.  7;  of  punishment  and  suffering,  Mark  ix.  44. 

FiRST-BOKN,  had  power  over  their  brethren.  Gen.  xx.  37 ;  were  the 
priests  of  the  family,  Exod.  xxiv.  5;  were  consecrated  to  God,  Exod. 
xiii.  1,  13 ;  sanctified  the  family  by  their  own  acceptance,  and  had  a 
double  share  of  the  inheritance,  Deut.  xxi.  17.  See  Heb.  ii.  10,  11 ; 
iii.  1:  Col.  i.  12., 

Fish,  s,  of  the  rulers  of  the  people,  i.  e.  of  the  sea,  Ezek.  xxix.  4,  5 : 
Hab.  i.  14. 

Forehead,  written  on,  the  mark  of  a, priest,  Lev.  xix.  28  ;  of  a  servant 
and  of  a  soldier :  see  Rev.  xxii.  4.  Servants  of  idols  wore  a  mark,  a 
name,  or  a  number  :  see  Rev.  xiii.  16. 

FoRE.ST,  s.  of  city  or  kingdom  ;  tall  trees  the  rulers,  Isa.  x.  17-34  ;  xxxii. 
19 :  Jer.  xxi.  14     Ezek.  xx.  46. 

Fbogs,  s.  of  unclean,  impudent  enemies,  Rev.  xvi.  13. 

Garments,  s.  of  qualities  or  condition;  clean  garments,  s.  of  purity ; 
u'/iiie,  of  holine.'^,  Psa.  li.  7,  or  happiness,  Isa.  Iii.  1 :  Rev.  iii.  4: 
Zech.  iii.  3  ;  to  bestow  garments  was  a  mark  of  favor,  1  Sam.  xvii.  4. 

Gems,  s.  of  magnificence,  beauty,  variety :  see  table  of  gems. 

Geapes.  ripe,  s.  of  people  ready  for  punishment.  Rev.  xiv.  18  ;  gleaned, 
s.  of  a  people  carried  away,  Jer.  Hi.  28-32. 

Hanks,  s.  of  actions ;  pure  liands,  hands  full  of  blood,  etc.,  indicate 


SYMBOLIC    LANGUAGE.  351 

such  actions  respectively,  Psa.  xc.  17 :  Job  ix.  30 :  1  Tim.  ii.  8  :  Isa.  i. 
15.  To  wash  the  hands,  s.  of  expiation,  or  of  freedom  from  guilt, 
1  Cor.  vi.  11 :  1  Tim.  ii.  8 ;  s.  of  power:  the  ri  dit  hand  is  the  place 
of  favor,  Mark  xvi.  19  ;  to  give  the  hand  of  fellowship,  s.  of  commu- 
nication of  rights  and  blessings.  Gal.  ii.  9.  To  give  the  hand  is  to 
yield  to  another,  Psa  Ixviii.  31 :  2  Chron.  xxx.  8  (Heb.);  to  lift  up  the 
right  hand  was  a  sign  of  swearing.  Gen.  xiv.  22:  Dan.  xii.  7.  Mark, 
on  the  hand,  s.  of  servitude  and  of  idol  worship,  Zech.  xiii.  6 ;  hands 
put  on  another,  s.  of  transmission  of  blessing,  authority,  or  guilt. 
Gen.  xlviii.  14-20:  Dan.  x.  10;  hands  of  God  laid  on  a  prophet,  in- 
dicates spiritual  influence,  1  Kings  xviii.  46  :  Ezek.  i.  3  ;  iii.  22 ;  his 
finger,  less  influence ;  his  arm,  greater. 

Haep,  a  s.  of  praise  and  joy,  Psa.  xlix.  5;  xxxiii.  2;  used  especially 
after  victory,  2  Chron.  xx.  28:  Isa.  xxx.  32:  Rev.  xiv.  1,  2. 

Harvest,  s.  of  time  of  destruction,  Jer.  Ii.  33:  Isa.  xvii.  5:  Rev.  xiv. 
14-18  ;  sickle,  the  s.  of  the  instrument,  Joel  iii.  13  ;  s.  of  time  of  com- 
plete deliverance,  or  ingathering ;  so  (Horsley)  Hos.  vi.  11 ;  s.  of  the 
field  of  labor  for  the  church,  Matt.  ix.  26. 

Heaven  and  Earth,  used  in  a  threefold  'sense ;  the  invisible  and 
moral,  the  visible  and  literal,  and  the  political.  In  the  last  senses 
heaven  is  a  s.  of  rulers ;  earth,  of  the  people ;  heaven  and  earth,  of 
a  kingdom  or  polity,  Isa.  Ii.  15,  16;  Ixv.  17:  Jer.  iv.  23,  24:  Matt, 
xxiv.  29. 

To  fall  from  heaven,  is  to  lose  dignity  ;  heaven  opened,  is  a  new  phase 
in  the  political  world  ;  a  door  opened  in  heaven,  the  beginning  of  a 
new  government;  see  Hag.  ii.  6-22.  Sun,  moon,  stars,  are  s.  of  au- 
thorities, supreme  or  secondary,  Isa.  xxiv.  21,  23:  Joel  ii.  10:  Rev. 
xii.  1. 

Horn,  s.  of  power,  Amos  vi.  13  (Heb.):  Deut.  xxxiii.  17  (see  Josh.  xvii. 
14-18) :  1  Kings  xxii.  11 :  Mic.  iv.  13  ;  so  of  regal  dignity,  Jer.  xlviii. 
25;  Dan.  viii.  9:  Rev.  xiii.  1.  Horns  of  the  altar,  when  touched, 
formed  a  sanctuary,  Exod.  xxi.  14;  Amos  iii.  14;  Jer.  xvii.  1. 
Horns,  or  ray's,  were  part  of  the  glory  ascribed  to  God,  Deut.  xxxiii. 
2:  Hab.  iii.  4  (Heb.),  and  to  Moses. 

Incense,  a  s.  of  prayer,  Psa.  cxli.  2:  Rev.  viii.  4:  Mai.  i.  11 ;  it  was 
offered  with  fire  taken  from  the  burnt  offering. 

Key,  as.  of  authority;  a  commission  to  open  or  shut,  Isa.  xxii.  22: 
Rev.  i.  18;  iii.  7;  xx.  1. 

Lamp  (so  "candle"  sliould  be  translated),  a  s.  of  light,  joy,  truth,  and 
government.  Rev.  ii.  5;  see  Exod.  xxv.  31,  32:  1  Kings  xi.  36;  i.e. 
a  siccccssor  shall  never  fail,  Psa.  cxxxii.  17. 


352  SYSTEMATIC    THEOLOGY. 

Manna,  s.  of  Divine,  immortal  sustenance.  Rev.  ii.  17:  see  Exod.  xvL 

33,  84. 
Marriage,  s.  of  a  state  of  union  under  covenant,  and  so  of  perfection, 

Isa.  liv.  1-6:  Rev.  xix.  17. 
Measure,  to,  or  divide,  s.  of  conquest  and  possession,  Isa.  liii.  12: 

Zech.  ii,.  2  :  Amos  vii.  17,  where  re-measurement  implies  re-possession. 
Mother,  s.  of  the  producer  of  anything.  Rev.  xvii.  5;  s.  of  a  city, 

whose  inhabitants  are  her  children,  2  Sam.  xx.  19:  Isa.  xlix.  23;  of 

the  metropolis,  whose  daughters  are  dependent  cities,  Isa.  1.  1 :  Hos. 

ii.  2,  5;  of  the  New  Testament  church.  Gal.  iv.  26. 
Mountain,  s.  of  stability  and  greatness,  Isa.  ii.  2:  Dan.  ii.  35. 
Trees,  tall,  s.  of  rulers,  Ezek.  xxxi.  5-9 ;  low,  s.  of  common  men,  Rev. 

vii.  1 ;  viii.  7. 
Trumpet,    blown,   s.  of  the  warning  of  the   approach   of  important 

events. 
Vine,  s.  of  luxuriant  productiveness,  Jer.  ii.  21 :  Hos.  xiv.  7:  Rev.  xiv. 

18 ;  vintage,  of  the  destruction  of  such,  Rev.  xiv.  19. 
Virgins,  s.  of  faithful  servants,  uncorrupted  by  idolatry.  Rev.  xiv.  4. 
Wind,  agitating  the  air,  s.  of  commotions ;  restrained,  of  tranq^uility, 

Rev.  vii.  1. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON    THE    SYSTEMATIC   AND    INFERENTIAL    STUDY    OF    THE 

SCRIPTURES. 

"  Inferences  from  Scripture  that  appear  to  be  strictly  legitimate  must 
be  received  with  the  greatest  caution,  or,  rather,  decidedly  rejected, 
except  as  they  are  supported  by  explicit  Scripture  declarations." — 
Bridges  :   On  the  Christian  Ministry. 

"  No  science  is  more  strictly  inductive  than  theology.  .  .  The  Bible 
is  a  record  of  words  and  facts  .  .  .and  our  duty  is  to  analyze  tliem: 
reducing  them,  by  a  method  strictly  inductive,  into  a  proper  order,  and 
then  declucing"  (rather  gathering)  "  from  them  the  legitimate  general 
truth." — Bishop  of  Kentucky. 

"  A  Bible  Christian  insensibly  borrows  and  unites  what  is  excellent 
in  all  systems,  perhaps  without  knowing  how  far  he  agrees  with  them, 
because  he  finds  in  all  the  written  word." — Newton  :    Works,  vi.  418. 


systematic  theology.  ooo 

Sec.  1. — On  the  Study  of  the  Doctrines  of  Scripture. 

455.  It  is  obvious  that  truth  may  be  revealed  in  different 
forms;  either  authoritatively,  as  law;  or  historically,  by  way 
of  example;  in  promise,  or  in  doctrine.  The  truths  of  the 
Bible  are  revealed  in  all  these  forms,  and  each  often  involves 
the  other.  A  command  includes  a  doctrine  ;  a  doctrine,  a 
promise  ;  and  both  doctrine  and  promise,  correspondent  duty. 

456.  If  the  commands,  and  doctrines  and  promises  of  Scrip- 
ture were   respectively  placed    by   themselves,  we  „,..  , 
should  have  a  svstem  of  truth  on  one  principle  of   arranged 

■^  ^  according 

arrangement.     And  if  the  doctrines  and  precepts  to  the  forms 

.  ^      ^         oftnith. 

which  refer  to  each  truth  of  Scripture  were  placed 
together,  we  should  then  have  a  system  of  truth  on  a  diff'erent 
principle.     In  the  first  case,  Scripture  truth  would  be  classi- 
fied under  the  fonu  of  the  statement,  which  may  be  percep- 
tive, promissory,  or  doctrinal.     In  the  second,  the   qj. j^gpoj-^j. 
various  forms  of  Scripture  statement  would  be  clas-  i^^Jo  the 

i-  truths 

sified  under  the  truths  to  which  they  respectively  themselves, 
refer.  By  the  careful  student,  both  principles  of  arrangement 
are  combined.  That  view  of  the  wliole  which  puts  the  cor- 
rect meaning  upon  eveiy  part  of  the  Divine  word,  and  assigns 
to  every  truth  and  duty  such  a  place,  both  in  order  and  im- 
portance, as  properly  belongs  to  it,  each  truth  and  duty  honor- 
iny  the  rest,  and  itself  appearing  to  the  greatest  advantage, 
is  the  true  system  of  divinity. 

457.  Nor  is  the  necessity  of  such  arrangement  peculiar  to 
the  Bible.     Both  in  nature  and  in  providence  facts    . 

^  _  Arrange- 

and  obiects  are  scattered  m  endless  variety.     It  is  mentnot 

•'  _  ■'  pecuhar  to 

the  business  of  science  to  detect  amongst  them  all  Scripture, 
unity  and  order.  The  general  laws  that  regulate  the  universe 
therefore,  and  the  rules  of  conduct  by  which  men  govern 
their  lives,  are  alike  facts  reduced  to  system  by  intelligence 
and  care.  In  both  cases,  too,  we  employ  the  same  principle 
of  investigation — the  great  principle  of  the  inductive  philo- 
sophy. The  texts  of  Scripture  form  the  basis  of  theology,  as 
30* 


354         SYSTEMATIC   STUDY    OF   SCBirTURE   IMPORTANT. 

the  facts  of  nature  form  the  basis  of  natural  science,  or  as  the 
facts  of  consciousness  form  the  basis  of  mental  philosophy.  In 
the  Bible,  however,  we  have  this  advantage,  that  while  in 
nature  facts  are  the  only  data  from  which  we  gather  general 
laws,  in  Scripture  we  find  the  general  laws  of  truth  and  duty, 
as  well  as  particular  instances  in  which  those  laws  are  seen  to 
be  applied,  the  uses  of  life. 

458.  The  systematic  study  of  the  Bible  (it  must  be  observed) 
internreta-  ^^^^^^^  Very  materially  from  the  interpretation  of  it. 
tion  and       Interpretation  is  concerned  only  with  the  meaning 

S3'stematio  •■•  -'  " 

truth  differ,  of  individual  passages:  Systematic  Theology  con- 
siders them  in  their  relation  to  one  another  and  to  ourselves. 

459.  When  it  is  said  that  we  study  the  doctrines  of  Scrip- 

ture in  its  precepts,  we  embody  an  important  truth, 
involves        Between  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Christianity 

doctrine.  .  .  \  '' 

there  is  an  essential  connection.  Not  only  does  doc- 
trine contain  by  implication  a  command,  but  it  exhibits  such 
views  of  truth  as  are  adapted  by  God  to  excite  holy  affections, 
and  those  affections  are  the  immediate  principles  of  holy  con- 
duct. The  belief  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  and  obedi- 
ence, are  therefore  inseparable.  "  Morality  is  religion  in 
practice,  and  religion  is  morality  in  principle."  He  that  loves 
God  keeps  his  commandments,  and  he  that  keeps  the  command- 
ments loves  God.  Man  may  attempt  to  put  asunder  the 
things  which  God  has  thus  joined.  He  may  explain  truth  so 
as  to  destroy  morality,  making  "  void  the  law  through  faith," 
or  he  may  hold  "  the  truth  in  unrighteousness."  But  God's 
design  is  that  truth  should  always  promote  holiness,  as  it  is 
essential  to  it.  Holiness,  therefore,  is  never  found  without 
truth ;  and  if  ever  truth  be  found  without  holiness,  it  is  be- 
cause the  perverseness  of  human  nature  has  succeeded  in 
parting  them. 

460.  The  systematic  study  of  Scripture  has  been  singularly 
Importance  misrepresented.     Some  hold  that  there  can  be  no 

of  tne  sys-       ....  -  ,.  n   c^      ■  -i  •  i 

tematic  intelligent  knowledge  of  Scripture  without  it,  and 
Scripture,     others,  that  it  is  useless ;  a  remnant,   in  fact,  of 


RULES    FOR   FRAMING   A   SYSTEM.  355 

Bcholastic  habits,  which  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the  church 
to  destroy.  Both  these  views,  however,  are  wrpng.  The 
passages  of  the  Bible  which  contain  clear  summaries  of 
truth  are  so  numerous  (Tit.  ii.  11-14 :  Eph.  ii.  4-10),  that  a 
good  man  will  often  gather,  without  knowing  it,  a  compre- 
hensive and  sound  system.  On  the  other  hand,  to  repudiate 
system  compels  us  either  to  confine  ourselves  in  statements 
of  doctrine  to  Scripture  language  ;  or  it  exposes  us  to  the  risk 
of  misrepresenting  one  doctrine  in  enforcing  another ;  or, 
more  commonly  still,  it  tempts  us  to  overlook  the  due  pro- 
portion or  connection  of  doctrines,  and  so  lead  us  into  error, 
the  more  seductive  that  it  is  founded  partially  on  truth. 
"  General  principles  drawn  from  particulars,"  says  Locke, 
"  are  the  jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  store  in 
little  room :  but  these  are  therefore  to  be  used  with  the 
greater  care  and  caution,  lest,  if  we  take  counterfeit  for  true, 
our  loss  be  the  greater  when  our  stock  comes  to  a  severe 
scrutiny." 

461.  The  Bible  may  be  studied  systematically  for  a  double 
purpose  ;  either,  first,  to  ascertain  the  doctrines  of  'i^heoioev 
Scripture,  or  secondly,  to  determine  it&»- rules  of  anf^^^cti- 
morality  and  holiness.  The  system  of  doctrine  '^''^'• 
thus  framed  is  called  dogmatic,  or  doctrinal  theology ;  and  the 
system  of  duty,  moral,  or  'practical  theology ;  both,  however, 
being  most  closely  interwoven  in  Scripture  as  they  are  in 
human  experience. 

462.  In  gathering  doctrinal  truth  from  Scripture,  we  bring 
together  all  the  texts  that  refers  to  the  same  sub-        „ 

°  .  How 

ject,  whether  they  be  doctrines,  precepts,  promises,  framed, 
or  examples  ;  impartially  compare  them  ;  restrict  the  expres- 
sions of  one  text  by  those  of  another ;  and  explain  the  whole 
consistently.  When  the  proposition  which  we  derive  from 
the  passages  examined  embodies  all  they  contain,  and  no  more, 
it  may  then  be  regarded  as  a  general  Scriptural  truth. 

463.  The  following  rules  are  equally  obvious  and  import- 
ant. 


356  EULES    FOR    FRAMING   A    SYSTEM. 

Rules.  We  must  gatHer  our  views  of  Christian  doctrine 

New  Testa-*  primarily  from  the  New  Testament,  interpreting  its 
"^^"  ■  statements  consistently  with  one  another,  and  with 

the  facts  and  clear  revelations  of  the  Old. 

In  carrying  out  this  rule  it  is  necessary  to  explain  ambigu- 
ous and  figurative  passages  by  those  that  are  clear  and  literal; 
and  passages  in  which  a  subject  is  briefly  described 
classical.  with  those  in  which  it  is  largely  discussed ;  and 
general  assertions  by  others  (if  such  they  be)  which  treat  of 
the  same  truth  with  some  restriction  or  exceptions. 

Not  only  must  the  passages  which  speak  of  the  same  doc- 
trine be   explained  consistently  with  one  another, 

3.  All  held       ,      ,  in,-  .     i         i      i  i  •  ,i  •    i 

consist-         but  each  doctrine  must   be  held  consistently  with 
other  doctrines. 

The  Scriptures  teach,  for  example,  on  a  comparison  of  passages,  that 
repentance,  faith,  and  obedience,  are  the  gifts  of  God.*  Do  we  there- 
fore gather  that  men  are  guiltless  if  they  do  not  repent  and  believe, 
and  obey  the  gospel  ?  or  do  we  deem  it  needless  to  exhort  men  to  re- 
pentance, obedience  and  faith?  If  so,  our  views  are  unsound,  for  the 
guilt  of  impenitence  is  charged  entirely  upon  man.''  His  unbelief  is 
declared  to  be  his  great  sin  and  the  ground  of  his  condemnation  ;<^  and 
not  to  obey  God  is  everywhere  condemned.  Men  are  exhorted,  too,  to 
repent,''  and  believe,  and  obey.  So  Samuel  taught  the  Israelites,  and 
so  Peter  exhorted  Simon  Magus  and  the  murderers  of  our  Lord.* 


D 


Though  truths  may  be  revealed  in  Scripture  which  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  harmonize,  yet  one  truth  so  held  as  to  con- 
tradict another  is  not  held  as  the  Bible  reveals  it. 
4.  Truth  to  Employ  and  interpret  the  doctrines  of  Scripture 
practical"'^  with  Special  regard  to  the  practical  purposes  lor 
purposes,      which  the  Scripture  reveals  them. 

The  use  made  in  Scripture,  for  exmaple,  of  the  doctrine  of  election 
is  highly  instructive.  However  the  doctrine  itself  be  regarded,  all 
agree  in  admitting  that  it  can  involve  no  capricious  fondness  without 

»  John  XV.  5  :  Acts  vi.  31  :  Eph.  ii.  8 :  Phil,  i,  29  ;  ii.  13  :  1  Pet.  i.  2. 
•>  Matt.  xi.  20,  21 :  Rev.  ii.  20,  21.         <^  John  iii.  18 ;  xvi.  9. 
^  Mark  i.  15.  '  Acts  in.  19 ;  viii.  22. 


EULES    FOR    FRAMING   A    SYSTEM.  357 

reason  or  wisdom ;  nor  can  it  be  regarded  as  affection  founded  upon 
our  merit,  or  as  seeking  for  its  ultimate  end  our  happiness.  It  is  rather 
an  exhibition  of  the  character  of  God,  which  represents  him  as  acting 
in  pursuance  of  his  own  purpose,  and  while  securing  that  purpose,  as 
displaying  his  glory  and  promoting  the  general  good.  The  doctrine  is 
introduced  in  Scripture,  too,  only  for  such  objects  as  these;  to  declare 
the  source  of  salvation  to  be  the  undeserved  favor  of  God,  and  to  cut 
off  all  hope  of  acceptance  by  works,  as  in  Rom.  xi.  5,  6  ;  to  account  for 
the  unbelief  of  the  Jews  without  excusing  it,  as  in  Rom.  ix. ;  or  to 
show  the  certain  success  of  Christ's  kingdom  in  defiance  of  all  hostility, 
as  in  Matt.  xxi.  42:  John  vi.  37.  Considered  without  reference  to 
these  facts,  it  might  be  made  the  ground  of  a  charge  of  caprice,  or  it 
might  become  (as  among  the  Jews)  the  nourishment  of  self-conceit ;  or 
it  might  be  used  to  destroy  the  doctrine  of  human  responsibility  or 
the  duty  of  Christian  devotedness.  The  doctrine  systematically  con- 
sidered, viewed,  that  is,  in  connection  with  the  truths  among  which  it 
stands,  and  applied  for  the  purposes  for  which  the  inspired  teachers 
used  it,  has  a  humbling  and  sanctifying  tendency. 

The  doctrine  of  Satanic  influence,  again,  is  taught  in  Scripture ;  but 
only  to  give  us  a  clearer  perception  of  the  value  of  the  work  of  Christ, 
and  to  excite  us  to  greater  watchfulness  and  prayer,  2  Cor.  iv.  4 :  Eph. 
ii.  2;  vi.  12:  John  xiii.  27:  Luke  viii.  30:  Rev.  xii.  9:  1  John  iii.  8: 
Eph.  vi.  11-18,  etc. 

The  mysterious  connection  between  the  first  ofi"ence  and  the  fact  that 
all  are  under  condemnation  is  clearly  affirmed  in  the  5t.h  chapter  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  in  1  Cor.,  but  only  to  magnify  the  grace  of 
God  in  our  redemption  by  Christ. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  a  revelation  of  God  in  relation  to  man; 
and,  though  sometimes  introduced  as  an  article  of  faith  simply,  (as  in 
the  rite  of  baptism),  it  is  generally  in  connection  with  spiritual  bless- 
ings, and  especially  with  the  scheme  of  redemption,  2  Cor.  xiii.  14. 

It  must  be  remembered,  again,  that  deductions  drawn  by 
reason  from  propositions  founded  on  the  statements  5-  Deduc- 

,  ^  .  .  tions  from 

of  Scripture  are  not  to  be  deemed  inspired  unless  scripture 

.  \  not  necessa- 

those  deductions  are  themseives  revealed.  riiy  true. 

It  is  certain,  for  example,  that  distinct  acts  of  personal  agency,  which 
are  in  some  passages  ascribed  simply  to  God,  are  ascribed  elsewhere  to 
the  Father,  or  to  the  Son,  or  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that  worship  and 
adoration  are  claimed  for  each.  We  may  say,  therefore,  that  there  are 
three  Persons  in  the  Godhead,  and  but  one  God ;  or  that  there  is  a 


358         RELATIVE  IMPOBTANCE  OF  TRUTH. 

Trinity  in  Unity.  We  thus  express  Scripture  truth  in  a  conveni'^nt 
form.  But  if  we  attempt  to  explain  this  truth,  or  to  draw  from  the 
phraseology  employed  other  remote  conclusions,  we  may  either  darken 
counsel  by  words  without  knowledge,  or  gather  lessons  which  God  has 
not  taught. 

Or  again,  that  all  men  are  sinners,  and  that  the  holiest  acts  of  the 
best  men  come  short  of  the  requirements  of  the  Divine  law,  are  truths 
revealed  in  Scripture,  and  we  comprehend  them  both  in  the  general 
statement  that  men  are  totally  depraved  ;  but  if  from  this  statement  we 
gather  the  conclusion  that  all  men  are  sinners  in  the  same  degree,  the 
conclusion,  though  seemingly  involved  in  the  statement,  is  not  a  lesson 
of  Scripture,  but  an  inference  drawn  by  human  reason,  not  from  God'a 
word,  but  from  the  imperfect  language  of  man.  All  men  are  bound  to 
believe  Scripture,  and  he  that  believes  Scripture  believes  all  that  is  seen 
to  be  contained  therein.  But  "  no  man,"  says  Jeremy  Taylor,  "is  to  be 
pressed  with  consequences  drawn  from  thence,  unless  the  transcript  be 
drawn  by  the  same  hand  that  wrote  the  original.  For  we  are  sure  it 
came,  in  the  simplicity  of  it,  from  an  infallible  Spirit;  but  he  that  bids 
me  believe  his  deductions  bids  me  believe  that  he  is  an  unerring  logician : 
for  which  God  has  given  me  no  command,  and  himself  can  give  me  no 
security."* 

Concerning  all  doctrines,  indeed,  which  are  peculiar  to 
Scripture,  the  rule  of  the  martyr  Ridley  is  as  Chiistian  as  it 
is  philosophical.  "  In  these  matters,"  says  he,  "  I  am  so  fear- 
ful that  I  dare  not  speak  further ;  yea,  almost  none  otherwise 
than  the  text  doth,  as  it  were,  lead  me  by  the  hand." 

But  besides  ascertaining  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  it  is  not 
6  T  th  ■  ^^^^  important  in  framing  a  system  of  truth  to  as- 
it.=compara-  certain  their  relative  importance  ;  and  if  possible,  the 
portance.  order  in  which  Scripture  reveals  them.  With  this 
view,  notice : 

1.  What  things  are  omitted  in  one  book,  or  in  several,  or  in 

many,  and  then  gather  the  conclusion  that  what  are 

Com  para-  •'  '  ° 

tive  impor-    omitted  are  probably  not  as  important  as  those  that 

tance,  how  i  ./  j. 

ascertained,  are  included  in  all. 

2.  Mark  the  subjects  which  are  oftenest  recommended  to 
attention  by  our  Lord,  and  by  his  apostles. 

»  "  Dissuasives  against  Popery." 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES.  359 

If  it  be  asked,  for  example,  what  is  the  most  memorable  circumstance 
in  the  institution  of  the  last  supper,  the  reply  is.  its  commemorative 
character :  for  this  peculiarity  is  thrice  mentioned  in  the  words  of  the 
institution,  1  Cor.  xi.  24,  25,  26. 

A  rule  of  the  Divine  procedure  is  on  the  same  ground  of  obvious 
importance.  Thrice  is  it  intimated  by  our  Lord,  and  in  each  case  with 
much  emphasis,  that  gifts  habitually  exercised  are  increased,  while 
gifts  habitually  neglected  are  withdrawn,  Matt.  xiii.  12;  xxv.  29: 
Luke  xix.  26.  So  of  humility,  which  is  mentioned  with  peculiar  honor 
no  less  than  seven  times  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  Matt,  xviii.  4,  etc. 

3.  Observe  carefully  what  is  common  to  the  two  Jispensa- 
sations,  the  Christian  and  the  Jewish. 

In  both  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  his  power  and  truthful- 
ness, are  frequently  revealed.  So  among  our  first  duties  are  gratitude 
and  love.  The  numerous  injunctions  in  the  law,  respecting  sacrifices, 
and  the  prominence  given  to  the  truth,  that  Christ  was  "  once  offered  to 
bear  the  sins  of  many,"  illustrate  the  paramount  importance  both  of  the 
doctrine,  and  of  app^ropriate  feelings  in  reference  to  it,  Heb.  ix.  28. 

4.  Observe  the  value  ascribed  in  Scripture  itself,  to  any 
truth  or  precept  which  it  contains.*  Sometimes  a  quality  i.s 
set  forth  as  essential,  "  Without  faith  it  is  impossible  to  please 
God."  Sometimes  one  quality  is  preferred  to  another,  as  love 
to  both  faith  and  hope,  1  Cor.  xiii.  It  is  on  this  principle 
that  much  importance  is  attached  to  the  qualifications  which 
are  to  regulate  the  decisions  of  the  day  of  judgment.  Such 
as  faith,  and  the  right  government  of  our  thoughts,  words, 
feelings,  actions,  habits  and  dispositions.'' 

The  reader  may  apply  the  foregoing  rules  to  ascertain  the 
importance  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord,  and  the 
connection  of  both  with  justification  and  holiness,  e.  g. 

''See  "Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke,"  by  James  Thomson,  D.D., 
Introd. 

bJohn  iii.  15:  Matt.  xv.  18,  20;  xiii.  43,  49;  xvi.  27:  Rom.  ii.  6: 
Gal-,  vi.  8  :  Rev.  xiv.  13  :  1  John  iii.  23.  These  passages  all  prove  that 
the  design  of  the  Gospel  is  not  only  pardon  but  holiness,  and  that 
meelness  for  heaven  includes  both  title  and  character. 


360  APPARENT    CONTRADICTIONS. 

Gal.  ii.  20;  iii.  1;  iii.  13;  v.  24;  v.  11  ;  vi.  12,  14.  1  Cor.  i.  13,  17, 
18,  23  ;  ii.  2,  8 ;  v.  7 ;  viii.  11  ;  xi.  26  ;  xv.  3.  Rom.  iii.  24,  25 ;  iv.  24 
25  ;  V.  8,  19  ;  vi.  5-8,  10  ;  viii.  3,  32 ;  xiv.  15.  Eph.  i.  7 ;  ii.  16  ;  v.  2 : 
Col.  i.  14,  18-20,  etc. 

The  fact  of  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  our  Lord,  as 
an  evidence  of  the  completion  and  acceptance  of  his  v^^ork,  and 
as  a  pledge  of  the  resurrection  of  his  people,  is  mentioned  in 
the  Epistles  alone,  more  than  fifty  times.  Any  view  of  the 
Gospel,  therefore,  which  gives  to  these  doctrines  a  second  place, 
is  clearly  not  the  Gospel  of  Scripture. 

464.  One  or  two  general  principles  may  be  laid  down  to  aid 
Canons  on     ^"^  ^^^  application  of  these  rules, 
theaiuiiina-       \    Nothing  must  be  made  a  matter  of  faith  which 

tion  ot  ihe.se  o 

rules.  is  not  a  matter  of  revelation. 

2.  In  studying  the  Bible,  there  must  be  an  indifferent  judg- 
ment till  the  truth  itself  decides.  Allow  no  bias  but  what  is 
received  from  the  Scriptures  themselves,  otherwise  our  knowl- 
edge will  be  only  inclination  and  fancy. 

3.  The  same  prominence  should  be  given  to  each  doctrine, 
as  is  given  to  it  in  Scripture.  ^ 

4.  Where  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  is  important  and  neces- 
sary, the  Scripture  will  be  found  full  and  clear.  Where  Scrip- 
ture is  not  full  and  clear,  the  doctrine  is  either  in  itself  not 
important,  or  the  certain  knowledge  of  it  does  not  belong  to 
our  present  state. 

5.  The  Bible  being  inspired  cannot  really  contradict  itself. 
Of  apparent  contradictions,  some  are  merely  verbal,  and  the 
right  interpretation  of  the  words  will  remove  the  difficulty. 
Others,  which  originate  in  the  doctrines  themselves,  may  be 
solved  by  one  or  other  of  the  three  following  rules. 

(a.)  When  the  same  action  is  affirmed  of  different  persons, 
there  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  of  both. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  ten  times,  that  Pharaoh  hardened  his  heart, 
and  ten  times,  that  God  hardened  Pharaoh's  lieart;  and  both  statements 
are  in  a  sense  true.     What  the  sense  is  not,  may  be  gathered  from  Scrip- 


APPARENT    CONTRADICTIONS.  361 

ture  revelations  of  God's  cha-racter ;  what  the  sense  is,  may  be  told  us 
in  Scripture,  or  it  may  not.  If  it  is  not,  that  sense  is  one  of  the  secret 
things  which  "belong  unto  God."  If  it  is,  then  both  the  sense  which 
reconciles  the  statements,  and  the  statements  themselves  are  revealed. 

Instances  in  which  the  same  act  is  ascribed  in  Scripture-to  different 
persons. 

Exod.  xviii.  17-^6 :  Deut.  i.  9-13,  in  relation  to  the  appointment  of 
judges.  Numb.  xiii.  1-20:  Deut.  i.  22,  on  sending  the  spies.  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  1  :  1  Chron.  xxi.  1,  in  the  numbering  of  the  people  by  David. 

(b.)  When  apparently  contradictory  qualities  are  ascribed 
in  Scripture  to  the  same  person  or  object,  there  is  a  sense  in 
which  both  assertions  are  true. 

There  is  a  sense,  for  example,  in  which  all  men  are  sinners,  and  there 
is  a  sense  in  which  some  men  (those  born,  of  God),  do  not  commit  sin 
(1  John),  and  both  senses  are  Scriptural.  What  those  senses  are  must 
be  gathered  from  the  Bible,  if  they  be  revealed.  If  not  revealed,  we 
believe  the  statements  and  wait  for  further  light.  There  is  a  sense, 
also,  .in  which  God  visits  the  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children,  and 
there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  children  do  not  bear  the  sins  of  the  fathers, 
Exod.  XX.  5:  Ezek.  xviii.  20.  Either  the  effects  of  the  father's  sm  fall 
temporarily  upon  his  children,  though  each  man's  final  deistiny  is  the 
result  of  his  own  conduct,  or  the  first  passage  may  be  limited  to  those 
who  hate  him ;  in  their  case  there  is  an  accuniulation  of  punishment. 

(<?.)  When  one  thing  is  said  in  Scripture  to  secure  salva- 
tion, and  the  want  of  another  thing  is  said  to  exclude  from  it, 
the  existence  of  the  one  necessarily  implies  the  existence  of 
the  other. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  faith  saves  us,  and  yet  no  one  can  be 
saved  who  hates  his  brother.  Both  statements  are  true;  and,  in  I'acL, 
we  find  that  faith  and  love  are  never  disjoined. 

This  is  the  canon  that  reconciles  the  prerogatives  of  faith 
with  the  promises  made  to  character,  as  in  the  sermon  on  the 
Mount.  It  is  not  that  such  characters  having  faith,  are 
blessed,  for  the  promise  is  absolute;  but  it  is,  that  faith  forms 
such  characters,  and  so  brings  the  believer  within  the  range 
of  the  promise. 
31 


362  principles  of  morality. 

Sec.  2. — The  Precepts  of  Scripture. 

465.  The  study  of  Scripture  doctrine  has  been  placed  first 

in  this  chapter  for  a  double  reason.  Most  of  the 
sentiaito  rules  applicable  to  the  study  of  the  first,  are  appli- 
cable to  the  study  of  all.  It  wilt  be  found,  more- 
over, that  Scripture  doctrine  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  true 
morality.  The  Gospel  begins  its  message  with  the  "  story  of 
peace,"  unfolding  the  pardoning  mercy  of  God  through  the 
death  of  his  Son.  It  then  exhibits  its  truths  as  motives  to 
holiness  When  these  truths  have  taken  possession  of  the 
heart,  they  teach  us  to  perceive  in  Scripture  the  requirements 
of  a  high  and  spiritual  obedience  :  and  under  their  influence 
we  learn  to  serve  in  newness  of  spirit,  and  not  in  the  oldnesa 
of  the  letter.  This  is  the  order,  therefore,  of  human  expe- 
rience ;  knowledge  in  the  heart,  or  truth,  precedes  knowledge 
in  practice,  or  goodness :  or,  in  simple  Scripture  language, 
man  is  sanctified  by  faith,  through  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

466.  When  the  reader  of  the  Bible  has  examined  and  clas- 

sified its  precepts,  he  will  find  that  it  is  rather  a 

scripture       ii,.--ii  f    ^•  ■  atc- 

a  book  of  book  of  principles  than  oi  directions.  And  of  prin- 
ciples in  a  double  sense  :  Its  precepts  refer  rather 
to  vioiives  than  to  actions,  which  motives  are  called  the  prin- 
ciples, or  beginnings  of  action  :  and  moreover,  its'  precepts  are 
comprehensive  maxims,  and  are,  therefore,  rather  principles 
of  morality  than  specific  rules.  When  it  speaks  of  holiness, 
it  means  faith,  well-regulated  affection,  inward  purity,  and 
moral  rectitude  of  disposition,  and  these  it  represents,  not  as 
the  ground  of  our  salvation,  but  as  its  evidence  and  result. 
The  law  of  the  ten  commandments,  which  seems  at 

t.  e.,  of 

motives.  first  to  refer  to  practice  only,  is  summed  up  by  our 
Lord,  in  the  form  of  love  to  God  and  to  man  ;  humility  and 
evangelic  faith  towards  God,  and  all  holy  conduct  towards 
our  fellows  being  the  appropriate  utterance  of  these  inward 
feelings.     This  apparent  peculiarity  of  the  Gospel  scheme  was 


PRECEPTS,   MORAL   AND    POSITIVE.  363 

the  more  striking  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  from  the  fact  that 
Jewish  tradition  had  given  undue  importance  to  ritual  zeal 
and  punctuality :  and  it  accounts  for  much  of  the  opjjosition 
which  the  first  teachers  of  the  truth  encountered.  That  it  is 
a  peculiarity  also  of  the  law  is  plain,  both  from  the  nature  of 
its  precepts  and  from  the  teaching  of  our  Lord,  for  when  he 
impresses  upon  his  heai'ers  the  importance  of  inward  disposi- 
tions, he  never  speaks  of  the  law  as  faulty,  but  merely  frees 
it  from  the  glosses  of  the  Pharisees,  and  unfolds  its  spiritual 
meanins:.     See  also  Mark  xii.  32-34. 

O 

467.  Even  when  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel  are  given  in  a 
Bpecific  form,  they  are  often  intended  as  descriptive  ^ 
rather  of  character  than  of  specific  acts.     The  com-  fio  rules  in- 

■■■  _  volve  prin 

mand  of  our  Lord,  "  If  any  man  will  sue  thee  at  the  cipies. 
law  to  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him  have  thy  cloak  also," 
is  an  instance.  Matt.  v.  40.  A  specific  compliance  with  the 
precept  would  be  seldom  practicable.  To  wait  for  the  occa- 
sion when  it  can  be  applied,  or  even  to  apply  it  at  all,  might 
be  of  little  service ;  but  to  cherish  the  disposition  at  which  it 
aims  is  to  take  one  of  the  likeliest  means  of  promoting  our 
holiness. 

468.  It  is  another  peculiarity  of  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel 
that  they  are    generally  expressed  in  comprehen- 
sive terms,  and  that  the  application  of  them,  and       general 
the  distinctions  that  attend  it,  are  left  to  the  reason 

of  the  reader.  It  is  true  that  the  laws  are  so  plain  as  to 
leave  a  conscientious  and  teachable  mind  in  little  danger  of  mis- 
take. Still,  it  is  part  of  our  discipline  that  we  are  left  to  apply 
them.  There  is  such  clearness  in  the  command,  that  he  that 
runneth  may  read  ;  but  withal,  such  possibility  of  error  as 
proves  God  to  be  testing  "  what  is  in  our  hearts,  and  whether 
we  will  keep  his  commandments  or  not." 

469.  Applying  these  distinctions  to  the  moral  law,  whether 
given  in  the  Old  Testament  or  in  the  New,  it  may  The  moral 
be  observed —  ■  '*^^- 

1.  That  whatever  evil  it  prohibits  in  the  highest  degree  it 


o54    DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  MORAL  AND  POSITIVE  PRECEPTS. 

prohibits  in  the  lower.  Murder  and  the  malignant  passions 
in  every  stage,  adultery  and  the  sins  of  the  flesh,  fraud  and 
wrong,  false  accusation  in  private  intercourse  and  in  courts  of 
law,  theft,  and  covetous,  discontented  desires,  are  all  con- 
demned ;  and 

2.  That  when  sin  is  forbidden,  the  opposite  duty  is  enjoined, 
and  when  any  duty  is  enjoined,  the  opposite  sin  is  forbidden. 
It  forbids  the  use  of  images  of  invisible  things  for  purposes 
of  worship,  and  thus  enjoins  spiritual  service.  In  excluding 
every  other  object  of  religious  worship,  it  implies  that  God  is 
to  be  worshipped,  reverenced,  and  loved.  It  surrounds  the 
parental  relation  with  sanctity  and  honor,  and  thus  condemns 
the  difference  of  false  independence  which  are  too  often  in- 
dulged. This  apparent  extension  of  the  meaning  of  inspired 
precepts  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  general  truth  that 
the  Scriptures  are  a  book  of  principles,  checking  or  fostering 
dispositions,  and  speaking  in  the  language  of  comprehensive 
command. 

470.  Keeping  in  mind  that  the  precepts  of  Scripture  refer 
chiefly  to  the  dispositions  of  the  soul,  that  they  are  expressed 
for  the  most  part  in  general  terms,  and  that  the  application 
of  them  is  left  to  the  reader,  we  need  still  to  notice  an  im- 
portant distinction  between  these  precepts  themselves. 

Some  are  called  moral  and  others  positive,  and  the  distinc- 
„     ,  tion  is  founded  on  Scripture  itself.     Bishop  Taylor 

Moral  pre-  ^  l  j 

eepts  and      defines  raoTol  precepts  as  havina;  their  measure  in 

positive  de-  ■■■         _  ^    _  ° 

fined.  natural  reason,  while  in  positive  precepts  the  rea- 

sons and  measure  are  incidental,  economical,  or  political.  The 
reason  of  the  first  is  eternal,  the  reason  of  the  second  tem- 
porary. Bishop  Butler  and  Dr.  Doddridge,  again,  define  the 
first  as  precepts,  the  reasons  for  which  we  see  ;  and  the  second 
as  precepts,  the  reasons  for  which  we  do  not  see.  By  com- 
bining these  definitions,  we  may,  perhaps,  obtain  one  sounder 
than  either.  Positive  precepts  refer  only  to  outward  acts,  and 
to  such  outward  acts  as  do  not  naturally  flow  from  an  obedient 
heart ;  moral  precepts,  on  the  other  hand,  have  reference  to 


RELATIVE   CLAIMS   OF   EACH,  365 

inward  holiness,  or  to  acts  as  the  natural  expression  of  holy- 
feeling.  Both  are,  within  certain  limits,  obligatory,  and  the 
neglect  of  either  has  its  peculiar  aggravations.  To  violate 
moral  laws  is  to  disobey  our  reason  and  God.  To  violate 
positive  laws  is  to  sin  where  temptation  is  commonly  feeblest, 
and  where  disobedience  involves  a  direct  denial  of  Divine 
authority. 

Some  precepts  (it  is  obvious)  are  mixed  in  their  nature, 
being  partly  moral  and  partly  positive.  Such  is 
the  law  of  the  Sabbath.  That  creatures,  framed  as 
man  is,  should  present  some  united  worship  is  a  moral  duty ; 
but  whether  that  worship  be  presented  on  the  seventh  or  the 
first  day  of  the  week  must  be  decided  by  positive  law.  It  is 
obvious,  too,  that  in  the  use  of  the  words  of  this  distinction 
we  are  liable  to  mistake.  Moral  duties  are  positive,  in  the 
sense  of  being  expressly  commanded ;  and  positive  duties  are 
moral,  in  the  sense  of  requiring  holy  motive  in  fulfilling  them ; 
guilt,  too,  is  incurred,  if  they  be  regarded  with  indifi'erence  or 
contempt. 

471.  Positive  laws  however  difter  widely  from  those  which 
are  strictly  moral.  _■  ^-    .• 

•'  Distinction 

between 

In  their  nature.     The  moral  are  intrinsically  holy  and   them, 
immutable ;  the  positive  are  the  indifferent  till  the  precept  is  given. 
Under  the  law,  for  example,  to  look  at  the  brazen  serpent,  to  sprinkle 
the  door  posts  with  blood,  were  acts  of  no  obligation  till  God  had 
commanded  them,  and  both  were  temporary  in  their  duration. 

In  their  evidence.  The  moral  precept  is  written,  though  often  nearly 
effaced,  m  the  heart ;  but  the  positive  precept  in  the  Bible  only.  The 
latter,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of  pure  revelation,  and  differences  among 
Christians  in  reference  to  them  are  more  easy  and  (may  we  not  say?) 
less  inexcusable. 

In  their  ground.  Moral  precepts  are  founded  in  the  nature  of  God 
and  of  man,  and  in  the  relation  that  subsists  between  them;  positive 
precepts  in  God's  will  alone.  That  will  is  doubtless  guided  by  wisdom, 
and  the  general  design  of  many  positive  precepts  are  even  obvious. 
Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  Sabbath,  for  example,  are  all 
adapted  to  a  specific  end ;  but  why  these  ordinances  only,  and  not 
others,  is  not  revealed. 
31* 


866  RELATIVE   CLAIMS    TO   EACH. 

In  the  extent  of  their  obligation,  moral  precepts  are  universally 
binding.  There  is  no  state  conceivable  to  which  God's  moral  dominion 
does  not  extend.  Positive  precepts,  on  the  other  hand,  are  particular. 
The  ceremonial  law  included  the  Jews,  but  not  the  Gentiles.  Worship- 
ping in  groves  was  allowed  to  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xxi.  23),  but  was 
forbidden  to  the  children  of  Israel  (Deut.  xvi.  21).  Under  the  Gospel 
it  is  different  (John  iv.  21).  Other  observances  were  binding  on  the 
priests  but  not  on  the  people.  So,  under  the  Gospel,  those  only  must 
partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper  on  whom  that  ordinance  is  enjoined. 

They  differ,  further,  in  their  observance.  Moral  precepts,  inculcating 
principles,  are  obeyed  by  a  thousand  different  actions.  Positive  pre- 
cepts, controlling  conduct  only,  are  uniform,  and  are  to  be  observed 
according  to  the  prescription  and  letter  of  the  law. 

And  lastly,  in  their  connection.  Moral  precepts  are  necessarily  con- 
nected. Positive  precepts  may  be  so  by  authority,  but  are  not  so  in 
nature.  Faith  is  followed  by  hope,  and  joy,  and  love.  Love  to  God 
strengthens  our  sorrow  for  offending  and  our  fear  to  offend ;  and  love 
to  man,  fidelity  and  beneficence.  But  circumcision  did  not  imply 
holiness  or  ceremonial  purity.  Institutions  may  be  observed  apart, 
"but  virtues  go  ever,"  says  Bishop  Hall,  "  in  troops." 

472.  In  reference  to  the  application  of  these  laws,  moral 
and  positive,  it  must  be  remembered — 

Rules  for  '^ 

applying  1.   That  moral  precepts  never  really  contradict 

one  another.     If  there  be  apparent  contradiction, 

we  have  misinterpreted  the  meaning  or  the  limits  of  the  law. 

2.  Positive  institutions,  being  founded  exclusively  on  the 
law  of  God,  admit  of  no  additions  in  number  to  those  it 
reveals.  Institutions  professedly  of  Divine  original  must  not 
only  not'be  forbidden  in  Scripture,  they  must  be  expressly 
commanded.  To  increase  the  number  of  such  institutions,  says 
Dr.  Whichcote,  "  lessens  the  number  of  things  lawful,  brings 
the  consciences  of  men  into  bondage,  multiplies  sin  in  the 
world,  makes  the  way  narrower  than  God  has  made  it,  and 
his  church." 

3.  When  positive  precepts  interfere  with  the  observance  of 
the  moral  law,  they  must  yield  the  outward  rite  to  the  expres- 
sion of  holy  feeling,  the  offering  of  sacrifice  to  the  dictates  of 
mercy,  the  keeping  of  a  Sabbath  to  the  law  of  love. 


PROMISES    UNIVERSAL    AND    PECULIAR.  367 

4.  God  rejects  his  own  positive  institutions  when  naen  make 
them  final,  or  put  them  in  competition  with  holiness,  or  sub- 
stitute them  for  it,  Isa.  i.  11-17 ;  Ixvi.  3 :  Mic.  vi.  7,  8 :  Jer. 
vii.  4,  5 :  Amos  v.  21. 

Sec.  3 — The  Promises  of  Scripture. 

473.  Faith  in  the  promise  of  the  Gospel  is,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  great  medium  of  man's  renewal 
and  holiness.  When  born  again,  that  is,  restored  to  the  con- 
dition'and  character  of  children,  it  is,  under  the  operation  of 
the  same  Holy  Spirit,  by  the  incorruptible  seed  of  the  Divine 
word,  received  into  the  heart.  When  justified,  it  is  by  faith ; 
and  by  faith  they  are  made  holy :  faith  is  our  "  shield,"  our 
"  work,"  our  "  victory,"  our  "  life." 

In  studying  and  applying  the  promises  of  the  Bible,  it  is 
important  that  we  remember  the  following  particulars. 

474.  The  general  promises  of  the  Bible  are  the  expression 
of  God's  immutable  counsel.     Men  have  often  at-  „ 

Promises 

tached  this  idea  of  counsel  to  the  secret  purposes  the  counsel 

,f       ,    ,  .      of  God. 

of  God  only,  as  if  those  purposes  contradicted  his 
word,  or  were  intended  to  nullify  and  frustate  his  statements. 
But  in  Scripture  the  promises  are  always  spoken  of  as  the 
revelation  of  his  purpose,  and  the  violation  of  his  promise  as 
the  denial,  not  of  his  word  only,  but  of  himself.  He  had  pro- 
mised "  before  the  world  began,"  Titus  i.  2;  and  the  promises 
are  quoted  in  proof  of  his  immutability,  Heb.  vi.  17,  18. 

475.  Some  of  the  promises  are  universal,  and  others  pecu- 
liar and  temporary ;  aJid  it  is  important  to  distin- 

Universal 

guish  between  them.  There  are  promises  made  to  and  pecu- 
Noah,  to  Moses,  to  David,  to  Peter,  which  cannot 
apply  to  us.  The  promise  to  the  Israelites,  of  outward  pros- 
perity, was  temporary,  being  suited  to  their  dispensation,  and 
adapted  (in  a  state  where  eternal  things  were  less  clearly  re- 
vealed) to  secure  obedience.  So  the  gift  of  miracles,  and  of 
infallibility  for  writing  or  confirming  the  Scriptures,  were  pro- 
mised to  the  first  age  of  the  church  only,  but  is  now  with- 


368  PROMISES,    ABSOLUTE   AND   CONDITIONAL. 

(!r;i\vn.  The  Gospel  is  the  universal  promise,  and  the  only 
one.  It  is,  therefore,  the  ground  and  measure  of  our  faith. 
Many  promises,  however,  made  to  individual  believers  are 
branches  of  the  universal  promise,  and  are,  as  such,  to  be 
applied  to  believers  still.  Paul,  for  example,  applies  to  the 
Hebrew  Christians  the  promise  of  God  to  Joshua,  "  I  will  never 
leave  thee  ;"  and  Nehemiah  prayed  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  given  to  Moses,  Josh.  i.  5 :  Heb.  xiii.  5 :  Neh.  i.  5-11. 
To  this  class  belong  the  promises  that  refer  to  the  present 
life,  especially  those  that  are  contained  in  the  Old 
temporal  Testament.  When  applied  to  a  consistent  Christian 
e.sr-ing.  ^^^^  embody  a  general  truth,  namely,  that  religion, 
by  making  men  honest,  and  sober,  and  industrious,  has  a  con- 
stant tendency  to  secure  temporal  blessing.  The  hand  of  the 
diligent  maketh  rich,  and  diligence  is  enforced  by  the  Gospel. 
But  then  the  constancy  of  this  law  is  corrected  by  three  con- 
siderations. 1.  Persecution  and  suffering  are  expressly  fore- 
told of  the  church,  and  for  Christ's  sake ;  and  such  suffering 
is  itself  the  theme  of  a  promise.  2.  The  temjporal  promises 
of  the  Old  Testament  have  a  limit  in  the  veiy  character  of  the 
later  dispensation.  It  is  one  of  faith  rather  than  of  sight. 
3.  And  besides,  temporal  mercies  are  now  employed  to  pro- 
mote the  Christian's  spiritual  welfare,  and  are  given  or  with- 
held, as  may  prove  most  for  his  highest  good.  Under  the 
law,  the  rod  of  the  wicked  less  frequently  rested  upon  the  lot 
of  the  righteous,  because  the  lessons  of  Providence  were  among 
the  grand  teachers  both  of  the  church  and  of  the  world.  Now, 
however,  the  Bible  is  complete ;  and  God  is  free  (so  to  apeak) 
to  adapt  his  discipline  to  the  wante  of  each  of  his  children. 
In  asking,  therefore,  for  the  fulfilment  of  temporal  promises, 
even  when  universal,  we  must  remember  that  prosperity  has 
ceased  to  be  the  universal  expression  of  Divine  favor,  and  that 
providence  is  now  administered  in  subservience  to  the  spiritual 
discipline  of  the  church. 

476.  Some  of  the  promises  are  absolute,  and  others  are 
conditional. 


PEOMISES  NOT  THE  RULE  OF  DUTY.         369 

The  promises  of  the  comina;  of  the  Messiah  and  Absolute 

^  o  and  con- 

of  the  call  of  the  Gentiles  were  absolute.     The  pro-  ditionai. 
mise  of  pardon  and  of  blessings  essential  to  salvation  is  sus- 
pended upon  our  faith.     The  Christian's  progress,  again,  in 
holiness,  and  his  freedom  fi'om  chastisement,  are  dependent 
upon  his  diligence,  and  obedience,  and  prayer. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  every  promise  of  spiritual 
blessing  to  individual  Christians  is  given  to  character,  and  on 
conditions.  So  Nehemiah  believed,  and  therefore  his  prayer 
ended  with  the  acknowledgment  that  the  promise  was  made 
to  such  only  as  turn  to  God  and  keep  his  commandments  to 
do  them.  See  also  1  Chron.  xxviii.  9, 19  :  Ezek.  xxxiii.  13-15  : 
Jas.  i.  5-7  :  1  Sam.  ii.  30  :  Rom.  iv.  3-12 :  Heb.  iv.  1.  These' 
promises  are  made  to  character ;  sincerity  and  faith  are  alwaya 
required.  Do  we  seek  Abraham's  blessing,  we  must  walk  in 
Abraham's  steps.  Do  we  wish  for  special  tokens  of  Divine 
regard,  we  must  cherish  the  poor  and  contrite  spirit  with 
which  God  is  pleased  to  dwell.  And  they  are  made  on  condi- 
tions. Further  light  and  richer  gifts  are  ever  bestowed  in 
proportion  to  our  industry,  and  fervor,  and  fidelity,  and 
prayer. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  any  promise  of  Scripture  is  common, 
and  we  fulfil  its  conditions,  we  may  apply  it  to  ourselves  as 
boldly  as  if  our  name  were  there.  If  even  it  be  a  particular 
promise  given  to  one  saint,  but  a  branch  of  the  universal 
promise  of  the  Gospel,  and  we  do  as  he  did  to  whom  it  was 
originally  given,  it  becomes  our  own. 

477.  This  connection  of  the  promises  of  Scripture  and  the 
conditions   attached   to   them  is   often  overlooked. 
Men  apply  the  promises  as  if  they  were  made  to  ne'ction  ' 

1  •   ,  T      I-     J.  ...  overlooked. 

sorrow  or  distress,  in  tact,  no  promise  is  given  to 
mere  distress,  but  only  to  distress  crying  for  relief,  and  seek- 
ing it  in  the  way  of  Divine  appointment:  "  Call  ■upon  me  in 
the  day  of  trouble,  and  I  will  deliver  thee,  and  thou  shalt 
glorify  me,"  is  the  uniform  language  of  Scripture,  Psa.  1.  15. 
In  this  respect  its  joromises  differ  from  its  invitations.     The 


•370  PROMISES    NOT    THE    RULE    OF    DUTY. 

latter  are  commands  addressed  to  all,  even  to  the  impenitent 
and  the  unbelieving  (Mark  i.  15)  ;  the  former  to  the  penitent 
and  believing  only,  or  to  the  impenitent,  on  the  supposition 
that  they  turn  and  believe. 

478.  God  often  promises  a  blessing  without  fixing  the  time 

when  it  is  to   be  bestowed.     God  will  deliveir  the 

Time  of  . 

fulfilment,     righteous  out  of  his  troubles,  but  the  time  is  not  told 

not  fixed.  ^ 

US  (Psa.  xxxvii).  Christ  is  to  come  again,  and  to 
take  US  to  himself  (John  xiv.  1-3);  but  "of  that  day  and 
hour  knoweth  no  man."  To  trust  in  the  promise,  therefore, 
includes  both  patience  and  faith.  He  that  believes  will  not 
make  haste,  Isa.  xxviii.  16 :  Rom.  i.  7 :  2  Thess.  iii.  5. 

479.  Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them, 
Piomises  ^°^  indeed  as  the  ground  or  measure  of  duty,  but 
wlen^made  ^^^  ^^  nitjti\co  to  exertion  and  prayer. 

motives  to 

prayer.  q^^  j^^g  promised  to  deliver  his  church  and  to  destroy  her 

adversaries  ;  but  these  promises  are  not  our  guide.  Paul  had  received 
a  promise  that  he  should  see  Rome,  and  yet,  when  the  conspiracy  was 
framed  to  assassinate  him,  he  immediately  took  steps  to  protect  his  life, 
as  if  no  promise  had  been  given  (Acts  xxiii.  11-17).  In  every  case,  the 
precept  is  our  rule,  though  the  promise  may  influence  our  motives  and 
encourage  our  prayers. 

God  promised  David  to  establish  his  house,  and  David  therefore 
pleaded  the  more  earnestly  with  God  to  fulfill  his  promise,  2  Sam.  vii. 
16-25. 

God  had  promised,  in  the  days  of  Elijah,  to  "send  rain  upon  the 
earth,"  1  Kings  xviii.  1,  and  yet  Elijah  prays  with  the  greater  earnest- 
ness and  perseverance,  1  Kings  xviii.  42-41. 

Daniel  knew  that  the  seventy  years'  captivity  was  expiring  when  he 
net  his  face  by  prayer  to  seek  its  accomplishment,  Dan.  ix.  2,  3. 

When  our  Lord  had  promised  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  disci- 
])leK  continued  in  prayer  till  the  promise  was  fulfilled,  Acts  i   14 

480.  Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them  to 
.    ,    ,         promote  our  holiness.      They  were  given  that  we 

And  when       ^  ... 

they  pro-       micht  be  partakers  of  a  Divine  nature.     Nor  is  the 

unite  ho-  -  J- 

linesf?.  design  of  God  answered,  unless  they  deepen  our 

thankfulness,  and  bind  us  to  a  life  of  holy  and  devoted  obedi- 
ence, 2  Pet.  i.  4 :  2  Cor.  vii.  1. 


scriptuke  examples.  371 

Sec.  4. — The  Examples  of  Scripture. 

481.  In  considering  and  applying  the  examples  of  Scrip- 
ture,  there  are  several  points  to    which  attention  ,     .  j  ■ 

'  -t^  In  studying 

needs  to  be  directed.  Sci-ipture 

examples 

1.  Many  things  are  recorded  in  Scripture  with  remember- 
censure.  There  are  examples  of  injustice  and  idolatry  which 
are  either  discountenanced  by  the  law,  or  were  at  the  time 
expressly  condemned.  The  record  of  them  is  not  intended 
to  hallow  the  facts,  or  to  justify  us  in  copying  them,  but  to 
illustrate  the  wickedness  of  human  nature  and  the  justice  of 
God,  or  to  serve  some  holy  and  important  end. 

2.  The  actions  of  a  good  man  which  were  nevertheless  wrong, 
or  which  are  not,  on  other  grounds,  intended  for  our  imitation, 
are  sometimes  recorded  without  censure.  To  this  class  belong 
the  equivocation  of  Abraham  before  Pharaoh  ;  the  falsehood  of 
Eebecca  and  Jacob  ;  the  dissembled  madness  of  David,  1  Sam. 
xxi.  13 ;  and  the  massacre  at  Jabesh  Gilead.  To  this  class, 
also,  belong  such  actions  as  were  allowed  under  the  law,  but 
are  forbidden  under  the  Gospel.  Polygamy,  for  example,  was 
only  permitted  to  the  Jews  "because  of  the  hardness  of  their 
hearts;"  never  enjoined.  The  reasoning  of  our  Lord  con- 
demns it  (Mark  x.  6),  nor  must  we,  from  the  pattern  of  chil- 
dren learn  the  measures  of  duty  in  men. 

3.  Many  acts  under  the  old  dispensation  were  done  by  ex- 
press command.  Abraham  offered  up  his  son  ;  Joshua  destroyed 
the  Canaanites ;  the  Levites  put  to  death  the  idolaters  in  the 
camp  ;  Jehu  rebelled  against  the  house  of  Ahab,  2  Kings  ix.  : 
but  each  of  these  acts  was  performed  under  the  authority  of 
a  peculiar  and  positive  precept.  The  fact  that  God  expressly 
commanded  them  takes  them  out  of  the  list  of  imitable  actions. 
To  make  similar  actions  commendable  we  must  have  similar 
authority. 

It  may  be  observed  that  when  a  peculiar  command  was 
given,  the  reason  is  generally  appended,  showing  the  command 
to  be  but  temporary.     Abraham  was  commanded  to  offer  up 


372  SCKIPTURE    EXAMPLES. 

his  son  to  test  his  faith  ;  Joshma  destroyed  the  Canaanites  be- 
cause the  time,  of  their  probation  was  past,  and  they  had  proved 
irretrievably  idolatrous  ;  idolaters  in  Judaea  were  put  to  death 
because,  there,  idolatry  was  treason  against  the  suprenae  author- 
ity of  the  invisible  King. 

4.  In  judging  of  Old  Testament  examples  we  must  ascertain 
the  piinciple  on  which  the  actions  were  performed.  This  is 
the  rule  suggested  by  the  11th  chapter  of  the  Hebrews,  where 
some  acts  are  recorded  as  imitable  only  in  the  principle  of 
faith  froni  which  they  sprang.  Without  this  rule  Scripture 
may  be  made  to  sanction  the  most  contradictory  acts.  In 
Gen.  xxi.  9,  for  example,  Ishmael  mocked  Isaac,  and  from 
Galatians  iv.  29,  we  learn  that  this  mockery  was  the  expres- 
sion of  a  spirit  of  persecution,  and  of  contempt  of  God's  pro- 
mises. Elijah,  on  the  other  hand,  mocked  the  priests  of  Baal 
to  prove  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  idolatry.  Elijah's  con- 
duct, in  calling  fire  from  heaven  (2  Kings),  was  not  the  result 
of  angry  feeling,  but  of  a  desire  to  convince  a  wicked  prince 
and  an  idolatrous  people;  when  James  and  John  wished  to 
exercise  the  same  power,  however,  our  Lord  rebuked  them ; 
partly  because  his  kingdom  forbade  such  agency,  and  partly 
because  the  temper  in  which  they  spoke  was  passionate  and 
revengeful. 

482.  All  these  considerations  may  be  expressed  in  the  form 
of  rules :  and  it  follows  that  we  are  not  to  copy  the  practices 
which  Scripture  records  and  condemns  ;  nor  practices  which 
Rule  of  it  records  without  censure,  unless  those  practices 
an!frn7e*of  Were  holy  as  well  as  lawful;  nor  what  was  done 
imitation.  under  specific  and  temporary  command;  nor  what 
was  done  in  consequence  of  inferior  knowledge ;  nor  must  \v<^ 
copy  or  judge  the  good  acts  of  even  a  good  man,  without  con- 
sidering their  motives  and  end. 

Or  the  whole  may  be  summed  up  in  one  principle.  \\\ 
relation  to  Old  Testament  examples,  the  rule  of  judgment  is, 
that  we  estimate  each  act  as  the  individual  who  performed  it 
was  bound  to  estimate  it  bv  the  law,  under  which  .he  lived, 


NOT   OUR   RULE.  373 

and  tlie  negative  rule  of  imitation  is,  that  we  are  not  to  copy 
it,  if  it  be  inconsistent  with  the  precepts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    The  positive  rule  of  imitation  will  be  found  below. 

483.   Of  what  use  then  are  the  examples  of  Scriptures,  and 
how  are  we  to  employ  them?     They  are  of  great 

use.  example. 

In  interpreting  the  rules  of  Scripture  where  the  sense  ia 
questioned.  If  the  example  be  set  by  men  who  ,  j  •  . 
were  at  the  time  inspired,  and  that  example  is  in  pretation. 
obedience  to  the  rule  in  question,  we  have  then  an  inspired 
interpretation  of  its  meaning.  The  conduct  of  Paul  in  op- 
posing Peter  on  the  question  of  circumcision,  and  the  practice 
of  the  apostles  generally,  decides  the  signification  of  many 
passages  of  Scripture.  In  such  cases  we  copy  the  example, 
not  because  good  men  have  left  it,  but  because,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, it  proves  to  us  what  is  in  the  mind  of  Christ. 

We  may  thus  often  find  an  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  Scripture, 
in  the  examples  which  inspired  men  have  left  us.  "  Swear  not  at  all," 
for  instance,  is  one  of  the  commands  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  v.  33-37.  In 
the  same  chapter  he  tells  us  that  he  came  not  to  destroy  the  law  (ver. 
17,  18),  and  as  the  law  permitted  oaths,  it  may  be  presumed  that  all 
oaths  for  all  purposes,  are  not  forbidden  in  this  prohibition.  On  refer- 
ring to  2  Gor.  xi.  31-33 :  Rom.  i.  9,  it  becomes  plain  that  the  precept 
refers  to  our  ordinary  communications,  which  should  be  yea,  yea,  nay, 
nay.  The  vice  which  is  thus  condemned  was  very  common  among  the 
Jews.  "  Resist  not  evil,"  in  the  same  chapter,  will  be  found  by  the 
same  reasoning  to  mean,  "cherish  not  a  spirit  of  retaliation  and 
revenge."  Our  Lord  did  not  complain  of  the  law  in  the  hands  of  the 
magistrate,  nor  did  he  forbid  his  disciples  appealing  to  it  where  public 
justice  was  concerned.  He  himself  remonstrated  against  unjust  smit- 
ing, John  xviii.  23;  and  Paul  so  far  resisted  evil,  as  to  protest  against 
cruel  indignities  offered  him,  and,  on  another  occasion,  to  appeal  to 
Caesar,  Acts  xxv.  11.  The  meaning  of  the  precept  therefore  is,  rather 
suffer  injury  than  revenge  yourselves. 

They  are  of  use  again — 

In  teaching  us  to  apply  the  rules  of  Scripture  to  particular 
32 


374  SCRIPTURE    EXAMPLES. 

„  ^    ,     ,     cases.     The  New  Testament,  is  in  a  great  degree,  a 

2.  In  teaoh-  Y  .  . 

iiig  to  apply  book  of  principles,   and  not  of  specific  directions, 

Scripture  -"^  r        '  j- 

ruies.  and  it  requires  great  wisdom  to  ap];)ly  them. 

If,  for  instance,  it  be  asked  whether  it  is  the  duty  of  all  Christians  to 
Bpeak  of  the  true  God,  or  of  his  Son,  and  to  exhort  others  to  believe 
in  Him,  we  appeal  to  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel,  precepts  addressed  to 
all  saints,  and  we  illustrate  and  learn  to  apply  the  precepts  from  Scrip- 
ture example.  Abraham,  Gen.  xviii.  19.  The  Captive  Maid,  2  Kings 
V.  3.  The  restored  Demoniac,  Mark  v.  20.  Anna,  Luke  ii.  38.  An- 
drew and  Philip,  John  i.  41,  46.  Thewoman  of  Samaria,  John  iv.  29. 
Persecuted  Christians,  Acts  viii.  4.  Apollos,  Acts  xviii.  25.  Aquila 
and  Priscilla,  Acts  xviii.  26.  Phoebe  and  others  at  Pome,  Rom.  xvi. 
12.     Philemon,  ver.  6. 

The  value  for  examples  for  this  purpose,  may  he  well  illustrated  by 
comparing  the  moral  principles  laid  down  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
with  the  application  of  them  in  the  different  characters  mentioned  ia 
Scripture.  It  is  said  for  example,  "  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich, 
and  yet  hath  nothing,  and  there  is  that  maketh  himself  poor  and  yet 
hath  great  riches.''  Of  the  first  principle  we  have  illustrations,  in 
Ahab,  1  Kings  xxi.  4,  16,  22:  in  Haman,  Esther  v.  11-13:  the  self- 
righteous  Pharisee,  Luke  xviii.  11-14:  in  the  self-conceited  Corinthians, 
1  Cor.  iv.  8 :  in  the  false  teachers  alluded  to  by  Peter,  2  Pet.  ii.  18,  19: 
and  of  the  second,  in  Matthew,  Luke  v.  27,  28 :  Zaccheus,  Luke  xix. 
8,  9:  Paul,  2  Cor.  vi.  10:  Phil.  iii.  8.  The  Ephesian  converts.  Acts 
xix.  19:  Eph.  ii. :  and  in  the  church  of  Smyrna,  Pv,ev.  ii.  9:  compared 
with  the  church  at  Laodicea,  Rev.  iii.  17. 

The  great  use  of  Scripture  examples,  however,  is  not  for 
purposes  of  interpretation,  but  for  increase  of  our 
mot'inff  Mir  holiness.  They  illustrate  Divine  truth  and  human 
holiness.  ^j^^y — ^j^gy  show  the  possibility  of  obedience- -they 
rebuke  our  imperfections,  and  by  exhibiting  the  sins  of  good 
men,  excite  our  watchfulness  and  charity. 

Does  the  Christian  ask,  for  instance,  whether  it  is  possible  for  him  to 
serve  God  in  the  business  of  the  world,  as  well  as  in  retirement,  or  in 
the  public  service  of  religion  ?  let  him  remember  that  Enoch,  who 
walked  with  God,  had  sons  and  daughters,  that  Abraham  had  great 
possessions,  that  Joseph  was  governor  of  Egyj't,  that  Moses  was  king 
in  Jeshurun  (Deut.  xxxiii.  5j,  that  Jeremiah  dwelt  in  royal  courts,  that 


THEIR    UTILITY.  375 

Daniel  was  third  ruler  in  the  kingdom  of  Babylon,  and  that  our  blessed 
Lord  himself,  was  not  less  holy  as  the  carpenter  than  when  engaged  in 
his  public  ministry,  or  when  offering  the  great  sacrifice  of  the  cross. 

Do  we  wish  to  test  our  repentance,  and  ascertain  whether  it  is  worldly 
or  spiritual  ?  we  may  examine  its  fruits,  or  we  may  compare  it  with 
Scripture  examples.  We  have  true  repentance  in  David,  2  Sam.  xii. 
13,  and  Psa.  li :  in  Manasseh,  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13:  in  Job  xlii.  6: 
in  Nineveh,  Jonah  iii.  5,  8 :  in  Peter,  Matt.  xxvi.  75 :  and  in  the  Pub- 
lican, Luke  xviii.  We  have  worldly  repentance  in  Pharaoh  :  in  Saul, 
1  Sam.  XV.  24:  in  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxi.  27:  in  Johanan,  Jer.  xiii.  12, 
20:  and  in  Judas,  Matt,  xxvii.  3,  5. 

Do  we  watch  with  most  care  against  our  easily  besetting  sins,  and 
feel  secure  against  others  to  which  we  are  less  prone.  We  may,  with 
advantage,  remember  that  Abraham  the  father  of  the  faithful  distrusted 
the  providence  of  God ;  that  Moses  the  meekest  of  men,  spoke  unadvisedly 
with  his  lips;  that  Job  murmured  (Job  vi.  8,  etc.);  for  that  the  boldest 
of  the  disciples  of  the  Lord  swore,  through  fear,  that  he  never  knew 
him. 

The  impressiveness  of  these  examples  may  be  increased  by 
our  selecting   such  as  resemble  more   closely  our       ^„  ,  ^ 

"  .         .  •'  Effect  of 

own  case,  or  by  placing  in  contrast  the  conduct  of  contrast. 
different  persons  under  similar  circumstances. 

We  may  compare  the  humility  of  the  true  teacher,  John  the  Baptist, 
with  the  self-conceit  of  Simon  Magus,  the  false  teacher,  who  gave  out 
that  he  himself  was  some  great  one,  John  i.  19-27,  and  Acts  viii.  9;  the 
anger  of  Jeroboam  and  Uzziah  when  reproved,  with  the  submission  and 
diligence  of  Jehoshaphat,  1  Kings  xiii.  4:  2  Chron.  xxvi.  19:  2  Chron. 
xix.  24,  etc. 

484.  Nor  ought  we  lightly  to  esteem  the  value  of  such 
examples.  "All  that  philosophy,  wise  men,  and  „.  ... 
general  reason  can  teach,"  says  Luther,  "that  is  portance. 
profitable  for  good  life,  history  presents  by  examples  and 
cases.  And  when  we  look  at  it  deeply,  we  find  that  thence 
have  flowed,  almost  all  rights,  art,  good  counsel,  warning, 
threatening,  terror,  consolation,  strengthening,  instruction, 
and  produce,  as  out  of  a  living  .spring."  Examples  thus  become 
morality  taught  in  facts,  "  Chi irt  and  his  Gospel  preached 


376  EXAMPLES    HOW    FAR    TO    BE    COPIED. 

from  tlie  annals  of  his  own  kingdom,"*  and  the  experience  of 
his  church. 

485.  It  may  be  remarked,  generally,  that  if  the  matter  to 

which  the  example  refers,  is  of  a  moral  nature,  we 
principle  of  are  to  copy  the  example  of  inspired  men,  so  far  as 

the  reason  of  the  practice  is  the  same  in  their  case 
and  in  ours.  If  the  cases  are  not  similar,  we  then  obey  the 
command  by  cherishing  the  spirit  which  their  example  em- 
bodied, without  copying  the  example  itself.  It  is  a  principle, 
for  instance,  that  Christians  are  "  by  love  to  serve  one-  an- 
other," and  if  the  churches  of  one  district  have  abundance, 
and  those  of  another  district  are  suffering  from  poverty,  the 
churches  in  the  former  case  are  to  obey  the  command  by  col- 
lecting for  their  poorer  brethren,  as  the  early  churches  did, 
Acts  xi.  28-30 :  1  Oor.  xvi.  1.  They  apply  the  rule  in  the 
same  way.  But  if  it  be  said  to  follow  from  this  principle 
that  we  should  copy  the  examples  of  the  early  Christians,  and 
wash  one  another's  feet,  we  then  apply  the  exceptive  principle 
just  named.  That  custom  was  in  eastern  countries  a  common 
and  necessary  refreshment ;  but  to  observe  it  here  would 
defeat  the  design  of  the  observance.  A  kiss  was  the  common 
form  of  eastern  salutation,  and  was  designed  to  express  affec- 
tionate regard;  the  principle  of  that  practice  (the  exercise 
and  expression  of  affectionate  feeling),  is  still  binding,  but  we 
cease  to  copy  the  example,  or  to  express  the  principle  in  that 
form,  because  the  custom  has  ceased.  The  primitive  church, 
it  is  evident  from  the  New  Testament,  had  its  love  feasts ;  we 
have  no  record  of  their  being  a  Divine  appointment,  but  they 
were  probably  the  spontaneous  expression  of  mutual  affection. 
Hence,  when  they  were  abused,  the  apostles  condemned  them. 
"These  are  spots,"  said  Jude,  "in  your  feasts  of  charity." 
In  the  case  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  abuse  was  condemned 
also,  but  the  ordinance  was  re-inculcated.  The  observance 
of  such  feasts,  therefore,  is  allowable,  if  they  tend  to  deepen 

»  Neander. 


EXAMPLES    HOW    FAR    TO    BE    USED.  377 

the  feelings  tliey  are  designed  to  express,  but  tlie  example  is 
plainly  not  of  binding  authority. 

486.  If  the  matter  to  which  the  example  refers  is  a  positive 
institution,  the  precedent  is  of  no  force  in  regard  to  its  merely 
accidental  circumstances.  In  relation,  for  example,  to  the 
Lord's  Supper,  it  was  celebrated  in  an  upper  room,  with  un- 
leavened bread,  the  guests  reclining  at  the  table,  on  the  fifth 
day  of  the  week,  and  in  the  evening  of  the  day.  Three  of 
these  facts  are  expressly  mentioned,  and  the  others  are  un- 
doubted; yet  none  is  deemed  essential  to  the  due  observance 
of  the  ordinance. 

Most  of  the  meetings  of  believers  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  were  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (Acts  xx. 
7 :  1  Cor.  xi.  20).  Most  of  the  preaching  to  the  Jews  and 
others  who  worshipped  with  them,  was  on  the  seventh  day 
(Acts  xiii.  42 ;  xviii.  4 ;  xvi.  13).  To  frame  our  example  in 
this  case  after  apostolic  example,  without  considering  the  rea^ 
son  of  their  conduct,  is  plainly  to  confound  the  essential  and. 
accidental  characteristics  of  their  obedience.  They  exhorted 
Christians  principally  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  because 
on  that  day  Christians  only  attended  their  service.  They 
preached  on  the  Saturday,  because  then  the  people  generally 
were  accessible. 

487.  It  is  important  to  observe,  that  in  all  those  cases 
(both  those  that  refer  to  moral  precepts,  and  those 

that  refer  to  positive  institutions),  the  duty  of  obe-  our  law  in' 
dience  is  founded  on  the  command,  the  apjilication 
and  extent  of  the  command  being  fixed  by  the  phraseology 
employed,  and  by  the  example  of  inspired  men,  subject  only 
to  the  rules  just  given. 


J78  SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PRINCIPLES  AND  RULES  OF  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS  ILLUS- 
TRATED IN  THE  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  FROM 
THE  OLD,  AND  APPLIED  TO  THE  SOLUTION  OF  SCRIPTURE  DIF- 
FICULTIES. 

488.  Nearly  all  introductions  to  Scripture  treat  of  Scripture 

difficulties  as  a  distinct  branch  of  inquiry.  There 
difficulties  are  obvious  objections  to  this  order,  but  it  is  on  the 
arate'inves-  whole  Convenient  to  adhere  to  it.  So  far  as  diffi- 
iga  10  .  cYilties  illustrate  any  rule  of  interpretation,  or  are 
explained  by  it,  they  belong  to  interpretation ;  but  as  many 
of  them  admit  several  solutions,  and  might,  if  placed  under 
rules,  bring  the  rules  themselves  into  question,  it  is  better  to 
discuss  them  apart.  The  very  existence  of  difficulties,  more- 
over, raises  a  point  which  it  is  important  to  examine,  and  this 
can  be  done  with  advantage  only  in  a  separate  chapter. 

Studied  in  their  right  place,  with  as  much  attention  as  their 
importance  demands  and  no  more,  the  difficulties  of  Scripture 
will  do  no  mischief  to  a  humble,  prayerful  reader.  They  will 
even  stimulate  inquiry  and  strengthen  trust.  Those  that  be- 
long t?o  interpretation  will  supply  decisive  evidences  of  the 
genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Bible,  and  those  that  be- 
long to  doctrine  will  teach  humility  and  faith.  There  is  true 
harmony,  though  it  lie  deep :  there  is  really  a  central  point 
whence  all  truth  appears  in  order ;  God  means  us  to  reach 
it  ultimately,  and  in  the  meantime  to  make  the  attempt.  That 
attempt,  independently  even  of  its  ultimate  issues,  will  bring 
with  it  a  present  reward. 

Sec  1. — Quotations  Classified  and  Examined  with 
Reference  to  the  State  of  the  Text,  the  Truths  and 
Evidences  of  Scripture,  and  Principles  of  Inter- 
pretation. 

489.  The  quotations  made  in  the  New  Testament  from  the 


NUMBER   OF   QUOTATIONS — THEIR   NATURE. 


379 


Old  form  a  subject  of  much,  interest.     They  illus-  NewTesta- 

>i  ..,  ,-..  ment  quota- 

trate  the  state  oi  the  original  text,  and  the  eviden-  tions  from 

i-    a      ■  mi  T     •  •  ,  .        the  Old  im- 

3es  01  bcripture.      ihey  explain  ancient  types,  his-  portant. 
tory  and  predictions.     They  exemplify  sound  prin- 
ciples of  interpretation ;  and  as  these  explanations  and  illus- 
trations have  received  the  sanction  of  inspired  men,  they  are 
clearly  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  quotations  of  Scripture  may  be  studied  for  a  double 
purpose  ;  either  to  ascertain  the  verbal  variations  ,,     , 

I       -^  May  be  stu- 

between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  and  the  ^ied  for  va- 

I  11-  1  -1  rious  pur- 

lessons  taught  by  it,  or  to  determine  the  spiritual  poses. 

truths  and  principles  of  interpretation  which  these  quotations 
involve.  To  this  twofold  division  we  shall  adhere  in  the  fol- 
lowing remarks. 

These  quotations  are  very  numerous,  in  all  263  ;  references 
lees  direct  amount  to  376,  or  together,  639.    Of  these  ^,     ,.      , 

'  o  '  Number  of 

there  are  in —  '  quotetions. 


Quota- 

Refer- 

Quota- 

Refer- 

iuota- 

Refer- 

tions. 

ences. 

Gal..     .    . 

tions. 

ences. 

Jas.    .    . 

tions. 

ences. 

Matt.     .    . 

37 

43 

9 

5 

5 

10 

Mark 

17 

10 

Eph.     .    . 

4 

3 

1  Pet. .     . 

m 

9 

Luke 

19 

31 

Phil.     .    . 

— 

2 

2  Pet..    . 

1 

9 

John 

15 

19 

Col..    .     . 



2 

1  John   . 

4 

Acts  . 

31 

21 

2Thess.   . 



2 

Jude  .     . 



4 

Rom. 

52 

15 

1  Tim. .    . 

1 

4 

Rev.  .    . 

1 

115 

1  Cor. 

18 

17 

2  Tim. .    . 

1 

1 

2  Cor. 

9 

6 

Heb.     .     . 

33 

44 

Quotations  from  the  Pentateuch  amount  to  90,  and  referen- 
ces to  it  to  upwards  of  100;  from  the  Psalms,  71,  references 
30 ;  from  Isaiah,  56,  references  48 ;  from  the  minor  prophets 
about  30. 

Quotations  are  either  prophetic,  demonstrative,  explana- 
tory, or  illustrative  :  prophetic,  including  those  that 
refer  to  Christ  and  the  Gospel  immediately,  as  Matt. 
iv.  15,  16,  or  typically,  i.  e.,  tliey  indicate  primarily  some 
typical  event  or  person,  and  then  some  other  event  or  person 
under   the  Gospel,  as  John  xix.   36 :  demonstrative,  proving 


Purpose  of. 


380  THEIR   UTILITY    FOR   CRITICISM. 

some  statement,  as  Jolin  vi.  45 :  explanatory^  explaining  some 
statement  or  fact,  as  Heb.  xii.  20 ;  and  illustrative,  when  ex- 
pressions are  taken  from  the  Old  Testament  with  a  new  mean- 
ing, as  Rom.  x.  18.  These  last  are  very  few.  Some,  of  course, 
are  both  demonstrative  and  explanatory,  i.  e.,  they  explain 
and  prove  by  examples  some  general  truth,  as  Gal.  iii.  11. 
frojjhetio  quotations,  referring  to  our  Lord  or  his  church, 
amount  to  about  120. 

The  references  to  the  Old  Testament  can  be  fully  appre- 
ciated only  by  examining  the  LXX,  as  the  identity  of  expres- 
sion does  not  always  appear  in  the  English  version. 

The  quotations  are  generally  made  from  the  LXX ;  some- 
times from  the  Hebrew,  in  opposition  to  the  LXX; 

How  made.  i        -n  ^  i        i  i 

and  still  more  trequentiy  they  express  the  general 
sense  of  both.  Sometimes  they  are  strict  and  verbal ;  some- 
times widely  paraphrastic  or  greatly  abbreviated ;  but  even 
in  these  instances  no  violence  is  done  to  the  general  meaning 
of  the  original. 

490.  Looking  first  to  the  phraskology  of  these  quotations, 
it  may  be  observed  : 

1.  To  a  certain  extent  the  quotations  from  the  LXX  now 

found  in  the  New  Testament  may  be  applied  to  cor- 
this  study.  j;ect  the  text  of  that  version.  This  rule  applies 
because  the  New  Testament  text  has  been  more  carefully 
guarded  than  the  text  of  the  LXX.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  of  extensive  application,  from  the  fact  that  the  New  Tes- 
tament writers  do  not  care  to  copy  verbally,  and  often  leave 
the  text  of  the  LXX  altogether  for  the  Hebrew. 

2.  Very  occasionally  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament 
may  be  applied  to  correct  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old. 

In  Hab.  i.  5,  for  example,  for  "among  the  heathen,"  read  "ye  de- 
Bpisers,"  as  in  Acts  xiii.  41,  i.  e.  not  u'^iaa  B'goim,  but  Q-ita  B'stim.  So 
Isa.  xx'ix.  13,  and  Matt.  xv.  8,  9:  Gen.  xlvii.  31:  Heb.  xi.  21:  Paa. 
xl.  6:  Heb.  X.5,  7:  Amos  ix.  11,  12,  and  Acta  xv.  16:  Psa.  xvi.  10: 
Heb.  and  Acts  ii.  27:  Hos.  xiii.  14,  and  1  Cor.  xv.  55  (for  "1  will  be," 
read  "where"). 


THEIR   VARIATIONS.  381 

3.  As  we  have  seen,  several  passages  in  the  Heorew  may  be 
translated  in  the  same  way  as  the  quotations  in  the  New 
Testament.  As  a  rule,  the  LXX  takes,  in  these  instances,  the 
secondary  meaning  of  the  words  of  the  original,  the  English 
version  the  primary. 

In  Psa.  xix.  4,  for  example,  the  English  version  translates  "line:" 
the  LXX,  "sound,"  and  so  in  Rom.  x.  18.  The  word  means  a  "string 
or  chord,"  and  thence  a  musical  or  other  sound.  So  in  Isa.  xxviii.  16, 
and  1  Pet.  ii.  6:  Isa.  xxxi.  31-4,  and  Heb.  viii.  9. 

After  all  these  corrections  h^ve  been  made,  however,  a  large 
number  of  passages  remain  which  do  not  agree  with  Quotj^tjong 
the  exact  words  either  of  the  LXX  or  of  the  He-  ^.'^^  i"«-*her 

the  sense 

brew.     About  one-half  of  the  quotations,  in  fact,  *''>'"  the 

T-  '  '    words :  01- 

give  rather  the  sense  than  the  words.     In  all  fit  t«n-  howev- 

0  ^        er.  the  very 

may  be  added)  the  sense  is  given,  even  when  the  words, 
expressions  are  not  exact:   see  in  Eom.  xv.  12:  (Isa.  xi.  10): 

1  Cor.  ii.  9  :  (Isa.  Ixiv.  3)  :  1  Cor.  i.  31 :  (Jer.  ix.  24).  Some- 
times, on  the  other  hand,  the  whole  argument  is  made  to  turn 
on  the  very  terms  employed,  as  in  Heb.  iii.  7-10 :  Gal.  iii.  16  : 
1  Cor.  XV.  45. 

491.  The  principle  on  which  these  quotations  are  made 
seems  to  be  the  same  as  a  competent  scholar  would  adopt  in 
quoting  the  present  English  version.  Wherever  the  Septua- 
gint  represents  the  meaning  of  the  original  Avith  sufficient 
accuracy,  the  inspired  writers  use  it,  but  in  particular  passages 
they  translate  directly  from  the  Hebrew. 

Matthew,  for  example,  frequently  uses  the  LXX,  but  in 
passages  which  refer  to  the  Messiah  he  pays  special  attention 
to  the  original,  which  he  very  closely  follows.  Paul,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Hebrews,  quotes  nearly  always  from  the 
LXX,  and  generally  verbatim. 

492.  While  most  of  the  variations  between  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Old  are  explained  on  the  principle    „ 

■■■  r  I  Re.ison  for 

that  it  is  rather  the  sense  than  the  words  that  are    variations. 
quoted,  there  is  sometimes  an  obvious  purpose  in  the  variation. 


382  THEIR   UTILITY    IN   DOCTRINE. 

To  fit  a  quotation  to  the  context,  the  number,  or  the  person,  or  the 
tense,  or  the  voice  is  changed,  Luke  iv.  12 :  (Deut.  vi.  16) :  Luke  viii. 
10:  (Isa.  vi.  9):  John  xix.  36:  (Exod.  xii.  46). 

To  suit  the  argument,  or  to  suggest  an  additional  lesson,  the  meaning 
of  the  Heb.  is  narrowed  in  the  quotation,  the  larger  meaning  including 
the  less :  thus, 

In  Acts  iii.  25,  Peter  in  quoting  Gen.  xxii.  18,  uses  "  kindreds"  instead 
of  "  nations,"  suggesting  to  his  Jewish  hearers  that  the  Gentiles  were 
their  brethren : 

So  in  Heb.  v.  10,  Paul  translates  a  word  ('^ni,  cohen),  which  in  the 
5th  verse  he  had  translated  "  priest,"  following  the  LXX  by  a  word 
equally  accurate,  but  better  suited  to  his  argument,  ''high  priest" 

In  Heb.  i.  6  we  have  angels  instead  of  "  gods,"  as  in  Psa.  xcvii.  7, 
The  original  means  "mighty  ones,"  and  is  applied  to  God,  false  gods, 
angels,  and  generally  to  those  high  in  authority.  The  apostle  takes 
the  narrower  meaning  and  omits  the  rest: 

In  Rom.  xi.  26,  27,  the  word  "Deliverer"  is  used  instead  of  "Re- 
deemer." After  Christ  had  appeared  the  latter  term  in  this  passage 
would  have  been  ambiguous  : 

So  in  1  Cor.  iii.  20,  quoted  from  Psa.  xciv.  11 ;  for  "  men"  the  apostle 
reads  "wise,"  and  in  Matt.  iv.  20,  our  Lord  says  "worship"  instead  of 
"fear."     So.  Rom.  xiv.  11. 

493.  Sometimes,  again,  parts  of  a  prediction  are  omitted 
J,  J.  because  not  required  by  the  argument,  or  because 
omissions,  likely  to  raise  a  question  wbich  the  inspired  writer 
did  not  at  the  time  intend  to  discuss. 

In  quoting  Zech.  ix.  9,  for  example,  Matthew  omits  "  bringing  salva- 
tion," as  that  fact  was  not  at  the  time  apparent. 

So  in  quoting  Jer.  xxxi.  34,  Paul  omits  a  clause  which  contained  a 
promise  at  that  time  unfulfilled,  Heb.  x.  16.  So  Rom.  x.  15,  and  2  Cor. 
vi.  17. 

494.  Sometimes,  again,  the  New  Testament  quotation    is 

more  clearly  expressed  than  the  LXX,  and  some- 

Sometimes  •'         -c 

the  varia-     times  it  brings  out  the  idea  more  fully  even  than 

tion  brings  ... 

out  the         the  original  itself, 

8en.se  more  .      ..,  .  ,,       t -^t-tt  •  i-  t   \ 

completely.       Compare,  in  illustration,  the  LXX  version  ot  Job 
V.  13  with  the  apostle's  quotation,  1  Cor.  iii.  19 ;  and  also  the 


TRUTHS   TAUGHT    IN    QUOTATIONS.  383 

Heb.  LXX  and  English  version  of  Isa.  xxix.  14  with  1  Coi-. 
i.  19. 

While,  therefore,  the  general  principle  seems  to  be  that  the 
inspired  writers  preserve  rather  the  thoughts  than  the  words 
of  the  original,  we  must  not  hastily  conclude  that  verbal 
variations  are  without  meaning  ;  still  less  that  such  variations 
are  inaccurate.  Nowhere  is  there  a  difierence  of  sense,  and 
the  verbal  variation  is  often  itself  suggestive  of  instructive 
lessons. 

495.  The  quotations  in  the  book  of  Revelation,  which  are 
generally  indirect,  are  of  great  interest.  They  connect  the 
predictions  of  the  two  economies,  and  throw  light  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  symbolical  language  of  the  sacred  volume. 

496.  The  chief  instruction,  however,  to  be  gathered  from 
New  Testament  quotations  refers  to  the  truths  taught  by 
them.  They  illustrate  the  doctrines  and  ethics  of  the  ancient 
Scriptures,  and  of  both  dispensations;  they  supply  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  and  they  suggest  important  rules  nf 
Biblical  interpretation. 

1.  Life  by  faith,  salvation  through  Christ,  and  the  duty  of 
holiness  are  all  taught  to  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  ,,  ,    .. 

o  _  Salvation 

church  from  the  ancient  Scriptures.  |?,y  ''?'t,h- 

deity,  and 
Salvation  by  faith,  and  through  Christ  proved  by  quota-  mans  ini- 

tions  in  Rom.  i.  17:  Gal.  iii.  6-9,  14,  16:  Rom.  iv.  10,  11 :  taught m 

1  Pet.  ii.  6,  7:  John  viii.  56.     Faith,  from  its  relation  to  Anient,  af" 

something  which  is  righteousness,  is  counted  as  righteous-  shown  by 

-r,-r.r,Tir  1  11  111-/"    quotations, 

ness,  Rom.  iv.  3-8.     Men  are  condemned  through  unbeiiei, 

Ileb.  iii.  7-10.     See  also  Heb.  viii.  9,  10. 

Election  of  grace,  and  the  promise  as  wide  as  the  fall,  Rom.  xi.  5 ; 
X.  10. 

Holiness  essential,  consists  in  love,  and  is  enforced  by  Divine  ex- 
ample, 2  Cor.  vi.  16 :  Matt.  xxii.  37-39  :   1  Pet.  i.  16  ;  Matt,  xxiii.  23. 

Grace  given  to  the  humble,  and  in  largest  measure  to  those  who  use 
it  best,  Jas.  iv.  6. 

Present  temporal  blessings  connected  with  obedience  even  under  the 
Gospel,  Eph.  vi.  2,  3:  1  Pet.  iii.  10,  11. 

The  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  to  which  we  have  re- 


384  RULES   OF   INTERPRETATION. 

ferred  as  implying  the  Divinity  of  the  Messiah  and  the  agency 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  with  the 
same  view.     Read  chap.  iii.  sec.  3,  and  mark  the  following : — 

The  stone  of  stumbling  on  which  Israel  fell  is  said  in  Isaiah  to  be 
Jehovah  himself,  Isa.  viii.  13,  14 :  Rom.  x.  9,  11 ;  ix.  32,  33.  So  in 
Isa.  xlv.  21-25,  the  speaker  is  called  Jehovah,  and  to  iiim  every  knee 
is  to  bow.  His  language  is  quoted  by  Paul,  Rom.  xiv.  11,  to  prove  that 
all  must  submit  to  Christ. 

The  vision  described  in  Isa.  vi.  3-10,  is  spoken  of  by  John  as  a  sight 
of  Christ's  glory,  John  xii.  41;  and  the  "voice  of  the  Lord"  which 
spake  to  the  prophet  is  called  by  Paul,  the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  xxviii.  25. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (i.  6,  8,  10),  the  apostle  applies  to 
Christ,  Psa.  xcvii.  7  ;  xlv.  6,  7 :  cii.  25-27 ;  in  all  of  which  passages  the 
person  spoken  of  is  described  as  the  ruler  of  the  world,  the  unchange- 
able Creator. 

That  the  ancient  church  believed  in  immortality,  in  the 
resurrection,  and  in  a  future  judgment  may  be  gathered  from 
Matt.  xxii.  32 :  Heb.  xi.  5,  13,  14  :  1  Cor.  xv.  55  (see  Jude 
xiv.  15)  ;  and  the  various  passages  in  which  the  great  day  of 
the  Lord  is  named,  1  Thess.  v.  2 :  Rev.  vi.  17 :  Joel  ii.  31 : 
Mai.  iv.  5  :  Psa.  xvii.  15 :  Job  xix.  26 ;  xxi.  10 :  Dan.  xii.  2 : 
Hos.  xiii.  14. 

497.  After  all,  however,  particular  quotations  give  a  very 

imperfect  idea  of  the  identitv  of  the  principles  of 

The  whole       ^  J  r  r 

Go.spei         the  two  covenants. 

in  the  Old  "The  entire  religious  system  of  the  Jews,  is  in 
the  most  appropriate  sense  of  prophecy  ;  and  tlie 
individual  passages  of  their  sacred  books  are  merely  tlie 
strongest  expressions  of  that  spirit  which  enlivens  the  whole 
mass."     Davison. 

498.  2.  For  the  prophetic  evidence  supplied  by  the  quota- 

tions see  §  182.  They  refer  in  part  to  the  person 
supViy'pro-  of  our  Lord,  and  in  part  to  the  progress  of  his 
Senceof"'  church.  The  immediate  and  undoubted  prophecies 
Scripture.''^  are  upwards  of  70 ;  and  the  typical,  with  such  as 

are  either  typical  or  immediate,  amount  to  upwards 
of  50  more. 


EULES    OF   INTEKPRETATION.  385 

499.  3.  The  rules  of  Biblical  interpretation  suggested  by 
these  quotations  are  highly  important.  Rules  of 

^  o     ^  1  interpreta- 

tion sug- 

1.  The  whole  Gospel,  in  its  precepts  and  truths,  may  be    gested  by 

illustrated  and  proved  from  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  Human  nature,  being  the  same  in  all  ages,  is  set  forth  in  the  his- 
tory and  descriptions  of  the  Old  Testament. 

See  human  wickedness  described  in  passages  taken  from  Isaiah  and 
the  Psalms,  Rom.  iii.  13-18. 

The  unbelief  of  Noah's  time,  and  of  Lot's,  repeated  under  the  Gospel, 
Luke  xvii.  27-29 :  Matt.  xxiv.  37. 

3.  The  principle  involved  in  Old  Testament  precepts  or  statements 
may  be  applied  inferentially  to  support  Gospel  truths. 

See  John  x.  34.  If  magistrates  are  addressed  by  a  name  descriptive 
of  Divine  authority  (gods),  how  much  more  is  the  Son  of  God  entitled 
to  that  name. 

So,  from  Deut.  xxv.  4,  the  apostles  show  that  the  laborer  is  worthy 
of  his  hire,  and  that  they  who  preach  the  Gospel  may  live  of  the  Gos- 
pel, 1  Tim.  V.  18:  1  Cor.  ix.  9. 

So  from  Isa.  Iv.  3,  "  I  will  give  you  the  sure  mercies  of  (i.  e.,  the 
favor  pledged  to)  David,"  viz.,  that  his  seed  should  sit  upon  his  throne 
for  ever,  the  apostle  concludes  that  C^irist,  to  whom  it  refers,  must  have 
risen  from  the  dead.  See  also,  2  Cor.  viii.  15,  Acts  xiii.  34,  and,  gene- 
rally, Rom.  chaps,  ix.  to  xv. 

4.  The  principles  involved  in  Old  Testament  history  may  be  applied 
in  the  same  way  to  the  experience  of  the  church  under  the  Gospel : 
whether  that  history  illustrate  human  character,  or  God's  dispensa- 
tions, Rom.  ix.  7,  9:  Gal.  iv.  22-31:  1  Cor.  x.  4:  Rom.  viii.  36:  1  Cor. 
X.  1-11 :  Heb.  iii.  7-10 ;  x.  26-30. 

From  these  quotations,  it  cannot  justly  be  affirmed,  of  course,  that 
the  persons  referred  to  in  the  original  passages,  are  types  of  those  to 
whom  the  quotation  is  applied :  still  less  can  it  be  said  that  in  these 
quotations,  we  must  understand  by  the  persons  named,  the  persons 
intended  by  the  New  Testament  writer.  The  case  quoted,  is  simply  a 
case  in  point,  proving  and  illustrating  by  example  a  particular  principle. 
In  the  9th  of  Romans,  for  example,  the  apostle  is  proving  that  in  all 
ages  there  has  been  (what  his  readers  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  Gos- 
pel), an  election,  even  of  Jews,  according  to  grace  :  and  he  establishes 
this  conclusion,  bj^  showing  that  not  all  tlie  descendants  of  Abraham 
were  chosen,  but  only  his  descendant  by  Sarah:  nor  all  the  descendants 
of  Isaac,  but  only  his  descendants  through  Jacob. 

5.  Passages  in  the  proi:>hets  wliicli  contain  general  promises,  or  are 


386  RULES   OF    INTERPRETATION. 

descriptive  of  classes,  are,  of  course,  repeatedly  fulfilled.  They  are,  in 
fact,  general  principles.  See  the  quotations  of  Isa.  vi.  9,  10 :  see  Matt. 
XV.  8,  9:  Acts  xiii.  41.  See  also  Isa.  liv.  13:  Hab.  ii.  4:  Heb.  xiii.  5 
(from  Joshua  i.  5). 

6.  Predictions,  properly  so  called,  may  have  a  double  fulfilment;  a 
fact,  of  which  various  explanations  have  been  given. 

Sometimes,  for  example,  the  persons  or  things  are  types,  one  of  the 
other;*  sometimes  they  are  in  certain  aspects,  identical,'*  and  sometimes 
the  events  referred  to,  are  so  closely  blended,  as  to  be  scarcely  distin- 
guishable.' 

500.  If  it  be  said  that  this  double  fulfilment  (whatever  the 

^^^j_    explanation)  weakens  the  evidence  of  prophecy,  it 

fiiment  con-  should  be  remembered  in  reply,  that  the  facts  on 

solatoryand  i     i        i  ■      i  '      e 

instructive,  which  it  is  founded — the  typical  nature,  tor  example, 
of  the  two  economies,  or  the  complete  identity  of  Christ's 
interests,  and  those  of  his  church — themselves  supply  both 

»  The  promise  to  Abraham,  for  example,  that  he  should  be  the  father 
of  a  numerous  seed,  is  applied  literally  by  Moses,  Deut.  i.  10:  by  Paul 
it  is  applied  to  those  who  are  partakers  of  his  faith,  Rom.  iv.  18. 

•>  In  another  epistle,  he  says  expressly,  that  the  seed  in  whom  the 
nations  are  to  be  blessed,  is  Christ,  and  then,  that  all  who  are  Christ's, 
are  the  seed  and  heirs  of  the  promise.  Gal.  iii.  xvi.  29.  To  Class 
(o),  belong  such  passages  as  Exod.  xii.  46  (the  paschal  lamb,  John 
xix.  36),  and  the  promise  concerning  Solomon,  2  Sam.  vii.  14;  and  the 
corresponding  Psalms,  as  cxxxii.  11.  To  (a)  or  (6),  belong  Psa.  viii. 
2-6,  applicable  first  to  man  as  the  chief  of  God's  creatures,  and  thence 
to  our  Lord,  who  is  in  this  respect  identified  with  us,  or  (it  may  be 
said),  our  antitype:  Psa.  xci.  11,  12,  applicable  first  to  all  who  "say 
of  the  Lord  '  He  is  my  refuge' "  (ver.  1),  and  peculiarly,  therefore,  to 
Christ:  and  various  Psalms,  which,  originally  descriptive  of  the  afflic- 
tions of  individual  believers,  have  their  fullest  accomplishment  in  our 
Lord,  Psa.  Ixix.  9,  21,  25;  cix.  8;  xli.  9;  cxviii.  19,  20,  25,  26. 

<=  Such  are  the  predictions  in  Isa.  xl.  3-5,  where  the  coming  of  our 
Lord  in  the  flesh,  and  the  final  extension  of  his  truth,  are  blended ;  in 
Mai.  iii.  1-3,  where  we  have  the  same  double  reference,  and  in  Joel  ii. 
28-32.  Compare  the  New  Testament  quotations.  Of  the  same  charac- 
ter are  the  predictions  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  as  given  in 
Matt,  xxiv.,  XXV.,  where  are  represented  also  some  of  the  awful  trans- 
actions of  the  last  judgment. 


SCRIPTUKE    DIFFICULTIES.  387 

evidencp  and  consolation ;  while  many  of  tlie  Psalms,*  and 
most  of  tlie  predictions  of  our  Lord,  taken  from  the  prophets, 
apply  exclusively  to  Him. 

Sec.  2. — Scripture  Difficulties. 

•In  divinity  many  things  must  be  left  abrupt  and  concluded  with 
this: — Oh  the  depth  !  ....  For  the  inditer  of  Scripture  did  know  four 
things  which  no  man  attains  to  know, — the  mysteries  of  the  kingdom 
of  glory,  the  perfection  of  the  laws  of  nahire,  the  secrets  of  the  Iieart 
of  man,  and  the  future  succession  of  all  ages." — Bacon. 

501.  The  Bible  was  written  "for  our  learning,"  and  by 
"  inspiration  of  God,"  and  yet  it  is  confessed  that  its  ^    .  , 

■L  .  Scriptures 

e^eneral  clearness  is  obscured  by  "  things  hard  to  be  inspired 

°  .     .  •'  °  and  intend- 

understood."      Christians    are    often    harassed    by  ed  for  our 

!•■  T     T  T      f  ^  -I  learning 

obiections    deduced    from    them,    and    unbelievers  andyetdif- 

11  „  .       .  1  1       .  ficult. 

make  them  an  excuse  for  rejecting  the  authority  of 

revelation.     What,  it  may   be  asked,   is  their   origin,   their 

solution,  their  use,  and  how  far  are  they  consistent  with  the 

character  and  aim  of  the  Bible  as  an  inspired  and  instructive 

book? 

502.  Their  origin,  it  may  be  answered,  is  sufficiently  plain. 
The  languages  in  which  the  Bible  was  composed 

are  disused  ;  they  are  distinct  from  each  other,  and    Scripture 

T  rr  1     r  ,i  •  •  ditfioulties. 

different  from  our  own ;  the  expressions,  images, 
and  thoughts  it  contains  belong  to  different  ages,  countries, 
and  persons ;  the  manners  and  customs  it  describes  have 
passed  away  ;  its  topics  are  the  most  various  and  comprehen- 
sive, including  the  history,  in  part,  of  all  nations  and  of  all 
times;  the  system  of  truth  it  reveals  is  to  influence  both 
worlds ;  and  it  contains  precepts  and  disclosures  which  refer 
to  both,  expressed  necessarily  in  terms  taken  from  one  only ; 
and  the  whole  revelation  is  included  in  a  brief  volume.  Let 
these  and  kindred  facts  be  remembered,  and  it  will  be  seen  at 
once  that,  to  give  within  so  narrow  a  range,  and  even  to  give 

»  Psalms  ii.,  xxii.,  xlv.,  ex.;  and  probably,  xl.,  xvi.,  andlxxii.:  Psalms 
xvi.,  xxii.,  xl.,  embody  the  experience  of  the  suffering  Messiah;  ii.,  xlv., 
Ixxii.,  and  ex.,  describe  his  victories  and  glory. 


388  THEIR    ORIGIN. 

at  all,  to  a  mortal,  finite  mind,  amidst  the  changes  incident  to 
eve^Tthing  human,  a  revelation  that  shall  be  free  from  diffi- 
culty is  impossible.  Difficulties  there  must  be,  such  as  need  a 
larger  amount  of  inquiry  than  any  one  man  can  give,  and 
such  as  will  leave,  after  the  utmost  inquiry,  much  to  be  here- 
after explained.  Either  Scripture  must  have  been  written 
without  reference  to  history  or  common  experience  ;  without 
reference,  moreover,  to  anything  not  familiar  to  every  man 
of  every  age,  or  difficulties  must  abound :  in  some  respects 
they  do  abound ;  but  it  is  the  darkness  of  the  readers,  not  of 
the  writers,  which  creates  and  continues  them. 

503.  Comparing  the  sections  of  chap.  iv.  :  chap.  i.  sec.  5. 
Difficulties  and  the  Introductions  of  Part  ii.,  it  will  be  seen 
c  assi  e  .  ^-^^^  Scripture  difficulties  are  such  as  are  entailed 
upon  us,  (1st)  by  the  uncertainties  of  the  text;  (2dly),  by 
the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases,  the  connection  of  argu- 
ments, the  scope  and  author.ship  of  particular  books ;  (3dly), 
by  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  age  and  coimtry  in  which 
inspired  authors  wrote;  (4thly),  by  the  chronology,  geography, 
and  history  of  the  sacred  volume ;  (5thly),  by  the  apparent 
contradiction  of  the  precepts  or  truths  of  revelation,  regard- 
ing them  as  matters  of  interpretation  only  ;  and,  lastly,  by  the 
objects  with  which  revelation  is  conversant ;  the  last  descrip- 
tion including  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  whole  range  of 
spiritual  and  moral  truth  as  revealed  in  the  sacred  volume. 

Let  us  briefly  illustrate  each  class : 

504.  1.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  the  reading  of 
_.^    ,,,       the  inspired  text. 

Difficulties  ^ 

in  the  read- 

'"^^'  Gen.  xlix.  6,  "digged  a  wall"  ('^ti'^,  shur),  but  there  is  no 

such  circumstance  mentioned  in  the  history,  and  it  would  have  been 

comparatively  innocent,  see  xxxiv.  25.     Some  read  {'y\a,  shor),  an  ox ; 

"  the  houghed  the  oxen,"  but  this  is  not  true,  xxxiv.  29;  more  probably 

•lii;,  sar,  a  prince  :  in  their  wrath  or  self-will,  "  they  slew  a  prince." 

So  the  Syriac  version. 

505.  2.  After  the  text  has  been  fixed  there  are  difficulties 


DIFFICULTIES    IN    PHRASES.  389 

in  the  explauation  of  words  and  phrases,*  the  con-  J"*]l®„„„ 
nection  of  arguments,''  the  scope  and  authorship  of   iieption,and 

o  '  i  1  scope. 

particular  books,"  or  in  two  or  more  combined.*^ 

Many  of  the  illustrations  in  chap.  iv.  sec.  6,  once  belonged 
to  this  class  ;  they  were  Scripture  difiiculties,  and  the  solution 
of  them  is  the  result  of  modern  incjuiry. 

(■■')  John  i.  16,  "grace  for  grace,"  has  created  difficulty.  "For  the 
benefits  of  the  law  we  have  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel,"  Chrys.,  Beza., 
Erasmus  :  "  additional  grace  for  grace  properly  used,"  Le  Clerc :  "grace 
on  account  of  the  grace  of  Christ,"  Grot.:  "grace  upon  grace,"  t.  <?., 
abundance,  so  Dodd,  Wesley,  Olshausen :  probably  correct,  though 
dvTi  (for),  has  not  tliis  meaning  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament.  It 
may  be  a  Hebraism  for  ^5  al,  upo>i,  and  there  are  instances  of  this 
meaning  in  classic  authors. 

Heb.  xii.  17,  "though  he  sought  ii  carefully  with  tears;"  Hit  refers 
to  the  nearest  antecedent,  it  means  "repentance,"  either  his  own  or 
his  father's,  Dodd.  ;  it  may,  however,  refer  to  the  remoter  antecedent, 
his  fatlier's  blessing  iuxoytM,  and  this  agrees  with  the  history.  Gen. 
xxvii.  34. 

Heb.  ix.  16,  "where  a  testament  is  {fiAdiiicn)  there  must  also  of  neces- 
sity be  the  death  of  the  testator,"  i.  e.,  either  where  there  is  a  will  the 
testator  must  die  before  it  can  be  proved  or  take  effect ;  so  the  English 
version,  Guyse,  Stuart:  or  where  there  is  a  covenant  the  victim  whose 
death  is  to  ratify  it  must  be  slain,  Mich.,  Mack.,  Dodd.,  Bloomfield. 

1  Cor.  xi.  10,  "  For  this  cause  ought  the  woman  (1)  to  have  power, 
(2)  on  her  head,  (3)  because  of  the  angels."  "  To  have  power  on,"  that 
is,  say  some,  to  have  a  veil-covering,  but  the  word  never  has  this  mean- 
ing elsewhere.  Others  understand  it  literally,  and  then  (2)  by  "  head" 
they  understand  her  husband,  and  translate,  "  for  this  cause  should  she 
have  power  in  or  through  the  man,"  1  Tim.  ii.  11-13,  (3)  "because  of 
the  angels,"  i.  e.  either  evil  angels  who  will  be  gratified  by  indecency, 
or  good  angels  who  observe  her  conduct.  Ecc.  v.  6 ;  or,  the  teacher  of 
the  churches.  Rev.  iii. ;  or  spies  sent  by  the  pagans.  "  One  of  the  very 
few  passages  of  Scripture  wholly  inexplicable."     Barnes. 

When  the  language  is  figurative  the  difBculty  is  often  in- 
creased. 

Psa.  civ.  1-3,  for  example,  is  figurative,  and  the  expressions  may 
be  taken  from  nature,  or  they  may  be  taken  from  the  tabernacle;  light 
referring  to  t^e  Shekinah,  the  curtain  referring  to  the  veil,  the  beams 
33* 


390  DIFFICULTIES    IN   CONNECTION. 

of  his  chamber  to  t,he  pieces  of  which  the  tabernacle  was  composed, 
the  clouds  his  chariot  to  the  moving  of  the  Shekinah,  and  cloud  when 
the  ark  moved ;  the  latter  verses  of  the  Psalm,  however,  refer  to 
nature.        ^ 

In  Ezekiel's  descriptions,  some  are  clear,  some  purposely  ambiguous. 

C")  2.  Pet.  i.  19.  "a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy,"  than  what? 
"Surer  than  fables,"  verse  16,  Chandler;  others,  than  the  transfigura- 
tion, Sherlock;  but  better,  "the  word  of  prophecy  confirmed"  either 
by  the  transfiguration  or  rather  by  New  Testament  fulfilments.  Pro- 
phecy was  as  a  lamp  in  a  dark  place,  the  fulfilment  in  Christ  is  as  the 
dawn. 

(<=)  Of  the  difficulties  of  scope  and  authorship  the  Book  of  Job 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration.  Some  reckon  it  very  ancient,  as  early 
as  Moses  or  earlier,  Michael.,  Schult.,  Lowth ;  others  modern,  during 
or  after  the  Kings,  Heath,  Warburton :  written  by  Job  or  Elihu,  or 
some  contemporary,  so  Dupin,  Lowth,  Schult.,  Lightfoot;  translated 
by  Moses,  so  Patrick,  Grey ;  or  written  by  him,  Michael.,  Lowth ;  or 
by  Solomon  or  some  contemporary,  Dupin,  Spanheim ;  or  by  Ezra, 
Warburton :  some  regard  it  as  real  history,  Lowth,  Schult. ;  others  aa 
an  allegory,  Michael.,  Warburton :  its  scope  is  to  give  an  example 
of  patience,  Schult.,  Grey ;  to  show  that  affliction  is  consistent  with 
piety,  Lowth;  to  illustrate  God's  sovereignty,  or  contradict  the 
Manichsean  doctrine  of  the  existence  of  a  power  of  evil  equal  to 
God,  Sherl. ;  to  comfort  the  Israelite  in  Egypt,  Michaelis ;  or  dur- 
ing the  captivity,  Heath ;  or  to  explain  the  change  in  God's  provi- 
dential government  after  the  captivity,  viz.,  the  substitution  of  a  more 
spiritual  system  for  the  system  of  earthly  rewards  which  had  previ- 
ously prevailed,  Warburton.  It  may  be  added  that  many  of  the  fore- 
going ends  are  answered  by  this  Book,  and  that  comparatively  recent 
investigation  has  thrown  much  light  upon  its  meaning. 

(*)  Sometimes  there  are  difficulties  both  in  the  words  and  in 
the  connection. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  words  of  Scripture  is  the  particle  n*. 
The  question  involved  in  it  is  whether  it  means  only  in  order  that,  or 
also,  with  the  result  that.  If  the  former  be  its  only  meaning,  then  it 
always  expresses  the  purpose  or  view  with  which  a  thing  is  done.  If 
the  latter  be  one  meaning,  then  it  may  express  the  consequence  of  an 
act,  without  implying  intention  upon  the  part  of  the  agent.  The  first 
is  called  its  telic  (TfAoc)  meaning,  and  the  second  its  ecbatic  («x-/2ot('va). 
Authorities  are  divided.  Tittman,  Stuart,  Robinson,  Burton,  all  main- 
tain that  it  is  used  in  both  senses  ;  Winer,  De  Wette,  Olshausen,  that 


DIFFICULTIES    IN    CONNECTION.  391 

it  IB  used  m  the  first  sense  only.  The  telic  sense  is  no  doubt  most  con- 
sistent with  classic  usage,  and  so  the  word  is  generally  used  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  some  think  the  ecbatic  sense  preferable  in  the  following  passages, 
John  ix.  2:  Luke  xi.  50:  Rom.  xi.  11;  others  maintain  a  telic  sense 
even  here. 

It  is  sometimes  used  also  to  express  not  the  chief  end  of  an  act,  but 
a  subordinate  one,  as  in  Eom.  v.  20:  Rom.  xi.  32:  John  v.  20;  i.  7; 
XV.  6. 

This  looser  usage  is  probably  owing  to  the  employment  of  the  word 
by  the  LXX  in  passages  where  there  is  nothing,  either  in  the  Hebrew 
or  in  the  context,  to  indicate  a  telic  sense,  but  the  contrary,  Gen.  xxii. 
14:   (LXX). 

(*)  Sometimes  there  are  difficulties  both  in  the  reading  and 
the  sense. 

Isa.  liii.  has  been  altered  by  transcribers  and  its  meaning  observed. 
Mic.  V.  1-5,  quoted  in  Matt.  ii.  6,  and  many  of  the  quotations  in  the 
New  Testament.  Isa.  iii.  6,  7;  vi.  10;  viii.  12-18;  xvi.  1-7;  xlviiu 
16,  on  which  see  Lowth. 

506.  (3.)  When  the  meaning  of  words  has  been  fixed,  it  is 
sometimes  difficult   to   understand   the   custom  to 

which  they  refer  and  the  reasons  for  it. 

Ecc.  xi.  1 :  "  Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters  :  for  thou  shalt  find  it 
after  many  days:"  "Give  bread  to  those  in  affliction,"  Gill.  "Sow 
thy  corn  without  hope  of  harvest;"  that  is,  be  disinterested  in  your 
liberality,  Jebb.  "  Be  liberal  while  you  can,"  Boothroyd.  Rather, 
exercise  a  large  faith  in  God  ;  act  in  your  gifts  and  effects  as  the  hus- 
bandman, who  casts  his  rice  upon  the  waters  and  waits  for  the  crop ; 
the  rice  ground  being  inundated  from  seed-time  till  nearly  harvest, 
Dr.  Clarke. 

Various  customs  are  mentioned  in  the  following  passages  in  Isaiah 
and  create  difficulty ;  all  of  them,  however,  are  explained  by  Lowth, 
in  his  notes,  Isa.  iii.  16,  etc.;  xlix.  16,  23;  1.  1,  6;  li.  23;  Iii.  2;  Ivii. 
6-9;  Ixv.  3,  4. 

507.  (4.)  Difficulties  in  chronology  and  history 

are  various.  logy  and 

history. 

In  Gen.  iv.  17,  the  early  building  of  a  city  by  Cain  has  created  diffi- 
culty, and  it  has  been  asked — who  inhabited  it?     A  little  calculation, 


392  DIFFICULTIES   IN   HISTORY. 

however,  will  show  that,  500  years  after  the  creation,  the  descendants 
of  our  first  parents  must  have  amounted  to  many  hundred  thousand  in 
all.     Dr.  A.  Clarke. 

Difficulties  in  chronology  and  in  numbers  generally  have  often 
arisen,  as  we  have  seen,  from  false  readings,  the  similarity  between 
different  numeral  letters,  and  from  the  use  of  different  modes  of  reckon- 
ing. 

So  among  profane  authors.  Cyrus  reigned  thirty  years,  Cicero  de 
Div.,  i.  e.,  from  his  joining  Cyaxares ;  nine  years,  Ptol.  Canon,  i.  e., 
from  his  taking  Babylon ;  seven  years,  Xen.,  i.  e.,  from  his  becoming 
sole  monarch.  This  last  is  perhaps  Ezra's  reckoning,  Ez.  i.  i.  Shuck- 
ford. 

508.  Historical  difficulties  are  of  two  kinds  :  such  as  arise 
on  comparison  of  different  parts  of  Scripture,  and  such  as 
arise  from  the  comparison  of  Scripture  with  profane  records. 

Sometimes  difficulties  arise  from  the  proper  names  of  Scrip- 
ture, some  of  which  are  spelt  differently,"  or  the  referring  to 
the  same  person  or  place  are  entirely  different.** 

»  Eliam.,  Sam.,  Amiel.,  Chron.,  Nebuchad  =  nezzar,  =  rezzar.  Cor- 
rect such  from  parallel  passages,  ancient  versions,  and  Josephus. 

•>  For  comparison  of  the  discrepancies  between  2  Sam.  v.  23,  and 
Chron.  xi.,  see  Kennicott's  First  Dissertation. 

509.  (1.)  Comparing  parallel  and  apparently  contradictory 
historical  passages  of  Scripture,  the  following  solutions  are 
important: — 

(a.)  Facts  that  seem  contradictory  are  often  really  different. 

In  Matt.  i.  1,  we  have  our  Lord's  genealogy  through  Joseph  ;  in 
Luke  iii.  23,  through  Mary.     See  Introd.  to  Gospels. 

(h.)  In  giving  the  same  narrative  different  historians  relate 
different  circumstances,  some  giving  more,  some  fewer  than 
the  rest ;  the  fuller  account  includes  the  shorter,  and  the 
shorter  does  not  contradict  the  fuller. 

Compare  Luke  ii.  39,  with  Matt.  ii.  22,  23,  where  they  agree:  in  all 
the  preceding  verses  they  differ,  though  without  contradiction. 

Compare,  on  the  call  of  the  apostles,  Luke  v.  1-11  :  Matt.  iv.  18-22: 


DIFFICULTIES    IK    HISTORY.  303 

Mark  i.  16-20.     Some  (as  Greswell)  place  the  passage  in  Luke  later ; 
others  (as  Robinson)  deem  the  whole,  as  they  stand,  reconcilable. 

Compare,  on  the  two  demoniacs,  Mark  v.  1-21 :  Matt.  viii.  28-9,  1 : 
Luke  viii.  26-40. 

(c.)  The  same  remark  aj^plies  to  the  narrative  of  what  was 
said  on  some  particular  occasion,  one  historian  giving  the 
very  words  and  another  the  sense,  or  each  a  different  part  of 
what  was  said,  or  varying  the  order  for  a  particular  reason. 

The  words  of  the  Supper;  the  titles  on  the  cross,  Matt.  xis.  3-12: 
Mark  x.  2-12. 

(c?.)  Things  said  to  be  done  by  one  man  are  elsewhere  said 
to  be  done  by  another,  who,  however,  acted  on  his  behalf,*  and 
sometimes  the  plural  is  used  when  the  remark  is  applicable  to 
one  only.**     Here  there  is  no  contradiction. 

»  Matt.  viii.  5,  6:  Luke  vii.  2,  3.     Mark  x.  35,  and  Matt.  xx.  20. 
^  Matt.  xxvi.  8,  and  John  xii.  4.     Matt,  xxvii.  44,  and  Luke  xxiii. 
39-42. 

(e.)  Narrative  of  what  was  spoken  or  done  may  create  diffi- 
culty from  the  fact  that  general  expressions  are  to  be  limited 
by  particular  ones,  obscure  expressions  to  be  explained  by 
those  that  are  plain. 

Matt.  X.  10 :  Mark  vi.  8 :  Luke  ix,  3. 

(/.)  The  narratives  of  Scripture  are  compiled  on  different 
principles  and  for  different  purposes.  Some  are  written 
chronologically  on  the  whole  or  particular  passages,  or  give 
incidents  in  groups.  The  principle  of  arrangement  must  be 
studied,  and  the  whole  harmonized  in  accordance  with  it. 

The  order  of  Mark  and  Luke  is  generally  chronological.  Matthew 
gives  facts  and  parables  in  groups:  see  Har.  of  the  Goc^pels,  Part  ii. 
Sometimes,  however,  Matthew  gives  the  true  order,  and  indicates  the 
fact  by  the  terms  employed.  In  the  history  of  the  temptation,  for 
example  (Chap,  iv.^  he  affirms  the  order,  "then:"  again  Luke  iv.  gives 
a  ditierent  order,  but  the  order  is  not  affirmed,  "  and" — 

In  Gen.  i.  27,  the  creation  of  man  is  mentioned  briefly,  at  greater 
length  in  chap.  ii.  7,  21,  and  so  as  to  create  an  apparent  contradiction. 


394  DIFFICULTIES    IN    HISTORY. 

The  order  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  betrayal  of  Judas  is  given 
by  John,  Matthew,  and  Mark;  between  Matthew  xxvi.  25,  and  26: 
John  xiii.  26-35,  must  be  inserted,  and  Luke's  order  will  be,  Luke 
xxii.  21-33  ;  xix.  20. 

So  the  true  order  of  Isa.  xxxviii.  21,  22,  may  be  gathered  from 
2  Kings  XX.  V,  8. 

These  difficulties  are  augmented  by  the  present  arrangement  of  the 
Psalms  and  prophecies.  See  chronological  arrangement  of  the  whole, 
Part  ii. 

(g.)  Sometimes  there  is  an  apparent  discrepancy  between 
an  original  narrative  and  the  reference  made  to  it  elsewhere, 
and  in  that  case  there  is  generally  a  false  reading,  or  some- 
times another  explanation. 

Mark  ii.  25,  26,  "  in  the  days  of  Abiathar,"  see  1  Sam.  xxi.  1,  2 ; 
Ahimelech  was  the  priest :  not  a  false  reading;  not  about  the  time  of; 
rather  in  the  days  of  Abiathar,  afterwards  so  well  known  as  high 
priest,  and  who  was  present  at  the  time,  1  Sam.  xxii.  22. 

Matt,  xxiii.  35,  Zachariah,  the  son  of  Barachiah,  see  2  Chron.  xxiv. 
21,  where  his  father  is  called  Jehoiada;  the  names  have  in  Hebrew 
substantially  the  same  meaning  (whom  Jehovah  cares  for  or  blesses) : 
as  Uzziah  (the  strength  of  Jehovah),  is  called  also  Azariah  (whom 
Jehovah  helps),  2  Chron.  xxvi.  1 :  2  Kings  xiv.  21. 

Acts  vii.  16,  "  which  Abraham  bought," — but  Jacob  bought  it.  Gen. 
xxiii.  19:  Josh.  xxiv.  32;  and  Jacob,  moreover,  was  buried  in  Hebron, 
not  in  Sychem,  Gen.  1.  13.  Read,  probably,  our  father,  i.  e.,  Jacob, 
and  omit  Abraham. 

(A.)  Sometimes  the  reference  contains  more  than  the  origi- 
nal narrative,  and  the  difficulty  is  removed  by  remembering 
that  the  earlier  inspired  historians  do  not  relate  all  that  hap- 
pened. 

Joseph  fettered,  Psa.  cv.  18:  the  saying  of  our  Lord,  Acts  xx.  35: 
an  appearance  of  Christ  to  James,  1  Cor.  xv.  7 :  the  marriage  of  Salmon 
and  Rahab,  Matt.  i.  5,  is  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament.  So  Jude 
ix.  14:  Rev.  ii.  14. 

510.  (2.)  Comparing  the  narratives  of  Scripture  with  pro- 
fane records,  there  are  several  difficulties,  most  of  which, 
however,  have  long  since  yielded  additional  evidence  of  its 
truth. 


DIFFICULTIES    IN   HISTORY.  395 

In  Luke  ii.  2,  it  is  said,  that  a  taxing  was  first  made  when  Cyrenius 
■was  governor  of  Syria.  Greswell  and  Thoiuck  translate,  this  enrolment 
took  place  hcforr.  Tyrenius  was  governor ;  Burton  and  others,  the  en- 
rolment (which  was  ordered  twelve  years  before),  first  took  effect,  i.  e. 
money  due  in  consequence  of  it  was  first  paid,  when  Cyrenius  was 
governor.  The  fact  is,  that  the  census  or  enrolment  was  ordered  by 
Augustus,  three  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  but  the  tax  was  not 
paid  till  twelve  years  afterwards,  when  Cyrenius  was  president  of 
Syria. 

See  others  in  Paley's  Evidences,  Part  ii.  Chap,  vi..  Religious  Tract 
Society,  p.  260.  The  works  of  Lardner  give  the  completest  view  of  the 
accordance  of  sacred  and  profane  records. 

Many  similar  difficulties  have  arisen  and  been  explained  by 
further  inquiry. 

Daniel  mentions  four  kings  of  Babylon  and  Persia — Nebuchadnezzar, 
Belshazzar,  Darius  the  Mede,  and  Cyrus.  The  first  is  well  known,  the 
second  is  mentioned,  though  by  other  names;  Labynetus,  by  Herod; 
Nabonadius,  by  Berosus ;  the  third  was  no  more  than  nominal  king, 
and  is  not  mentioned  by  any,  but  he  is  Cyaxares  II.  of  Xen.,  Prid. 
Con.,  Book  2.  Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  Cambyses ;  he  by  Smerdis,  and  he 
by  Darius  Hystaspes,  Ezra  vi.  1.  His  successor  was  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  the  Artaxerxes  of  Nehemiah ;  another  Artaxerxes,  and  two 
other  kings  by  the  name  of  Darius  filled  the  throne  before  the  empire 
was  subdued  by  Alexander,  B.  C.  331.  The  identity  of  the  names  and 
the  confusion  of  all  Persian  and  Assyrian  chronology,  combine  to 
create  several  difiiculties :  but  careful  study  reconciles  most. 

See  additional  examples  in  Home  ii.  618,  in  Newton  on  the  Pro- 
phecies, and  in  the  connections  of  Prideaux,  Shuckford  and  Russell. 

511.   (5.)  There  are  apparent  contradictions  in  the  truths 
and  precepts  of  Scripture,  regarding  them  as  mat- 
ter of  interpretation   only.     Between  a  literal  ex-    '*"'^  P^e- 

^  _       •'  ,  _  eepts  a.'^ 

pression  and  a  figurative  one  there  is  sometimes  an    mutters  of 

, .      .  ,  .    ,      .  -,     ,  interpretfl,- 

apparent  contradiction   which   is  removed    by   ex-  tion. 
plaining  the  two  harmoniously. 

(a.)  Sometimes  the  words  of  one  passage  must  be  ^  .. 

explained  figuratively.  kinds  cias- 

■^  °  •'  sihed. 

"Ye  will  not  come,"  John  v.,  Ix.;  "no  man  cwt  come  except  the 
Father  draw  him,"  Jolin  vi.  44.     The  first  implies,  when  compared  with 


396  APPARENT    CONTPvADICTIONS. 

other  passages,  that  to  have  eternal  life,  we  must  believe  that  every 
one  who  hears  the  Gospel  is  bound  to  believe  it;  that  men  are  so  depraved 
that  they  will  not  believe,  and  that  therefore  they  are  condemned. 
The  second  affirms  that  men  cannot  come.  What,  then,  does  this 
mean  ?  Is  it  want  of  power,  which  is  the  proper  sense  if'  they  cannot, 
or  is  it  want  of  will,  which  is  the  figurative  sense?  Both  senses  are 
found  in  Scripture.  "Ahijah  could  not  see,  by  reason  of  age."  So, 
Jonah  i.  13.  "  Joseph's  brethren  could  not  speak  peaceably  to  him." 
"  How  can  ye,  being  evil,  speak  good  things  ?"  where  the  dominion  of 
a  strong  propensity  is  implied.  It  is  to  this  latter  our  Lord  refers : 
nothing  less  than  special  Divine  agency  will  subdue  this  propensity; 
and,  being  in  the  vjill,  it  is  our  sin. 

So  in  all  the  passages  which  speak  of  God  in  expressions  accommo- 
dated to  the  weakness  of  human  conceptions. 

Compare  also  Matt.  xi.  14,  with  John  i.  21. 

Or  the  words  of  both  passages  need  to  be  explained  figura- 
tively.    See  §  262. 

{h.)  Sometimes  general  assertions  in  one  text  are  to  be 
restricted  by  others. 

In  Luke  xvi.  18:  Mark  x.  11,  12,  divorce  is  forbidden  absolutely; 
but  in  Matt.  v.  32 :  xix.  9,  it  is  allowed,  though  for  adultery  only ; 
while  in  1  Cor.  vii.  15,  the  believing  party  is  said  to  be  free  to  leave 
the  unbelieving  husband  or  wife  who  is  determined  to  separate. 

Restrict  and  explain  in  the  same  way  Gen.  xiii.  17;  xxiii.  17,  18: 
Acts  vii.  5. 

(c.)  Sometimes  the  same  terms  are  used  in  different  senses 
in  different  texts,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  to  restrict 
them  in  each. 

In  Matt,  xviii.  21,  22,  foi-giveness  is  enjoined  absolutely:  in  Luke 
xvii.  3,  4,  on  repentance ;  in  the  latter,  the  word  is  used  in  a  different 
sense  (Gerard),  or  the  condition  of  repentance  is  presupposed  in  Matt., 
or  the  phrase  in  Luke  means,  as  often  as  one  seeks  forgiveness  give  it. 

A  man  is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  tlie  law,  Eom.  iii. 
28 :  "  by  works  a  man  is  justified,  and  not  by  faith  only,"  James  ii.  24. 
Paul  speaks  of  the  justification  of  the  imgodly  in  relation  to  their 
acceptance  by  God ;  James  of  the  justification  of  the  godly  in  relation 
to  their  approval  by  God  :  Fuller.  Or  Paul  of  justification  in  the 
sight  of  God ;  James  in  the  sight  of  man :  Hoadley  and  Taylor.  Or 
Paul  speaks  of  faith  with  its  effects,  James  of  mere  assent :  Grot.  Mac- 


DIFFICULTIES    IN    TRUTHS    EEVEALED.  397 

knight.  Various  writers  restrict  various  words  of  each  verse,  but  all 
agree  that  some  restriction  is  necessary. 

So  in  1  Cor.  x.  33:  Gal.  i.  10:  Prov.  xxvi.  4,  5. 

Ex.  XX.  5  :  Ezek.  xviii.  20,  "visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon 
the  children  ;"  "  the  son  shall  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  father." 
Either  God's  plan  towards  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  was 
changed  :  at  first  the  fathers  were  spared,  but  at  last  fathers  and  sons, 
and  not  sons  only,  were  to  suffer :  Fuller.  Or  the  first  description 
applies  only  to  those  "  who  hate  him."  If  Judah,  therefore,  in  the 
days  of  Ezekiel  had  been  righteous,  they  would  not  have  gone  into 
captivity  for  the  sins  of  Manasseh.  In  both  passages  men  are  spoken 
of,  not  as  individuals,  but  as  naembers  of  society,  and  both  refer  only 
to  this  life. 

{d.)  Sometimes  the  same  action  is  ascribed  to  different 
agents,  and  sometimes  different  and  apparently  inconsistent 
descriptions  are  given  of  the  same  object,  in  which  case  either 
the  action  is  described  in  terms  which  are  used  in  different 
senses,  or  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  terms  are  true ;  but  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  which  is  the  correct  solution. 
See  pp.  316,  317. 

Christ  intercedes,  Rom.  viii.  34:  Heb.  vii.  25,  as  does  the  Spirit, 
Rom.  viii.  26,  27,  the  one  in  heaven  and  the  other  in  our  hearts.  Christ 
is  called  the  Comforter  (or  Advocate)  1  John  ii.  1,  as  is  the  Spirit,  John 
xvi.  7.     The  one  is  within,  and  the  otiier  above. 

The  teaching  of  Scripture  on  the  coming  of  our  Lord  in- 
volves nearly  all  the  difficulties  of  interpretation  to  which  we 
have  referred. 

512.  (6.)  After  all  these  difficulties  of  interpretation  have 
been   solved,  there   are  others  which   apiilv  to  the      ,     , 

.  .  .In  the 

things  revealed  or  coviynanded  in  Scripture,  and  it     things  re- 

...  1  IT .  rr-  ■  1  vealed. 

is  in  objections  founded  upon  those  difficulties  that 
men  most  indulge. 

(a.)  Many  passages  have  been  placed  under  this  head  which 
properly  involve  questions  of  interpretation  only. 

The  creation  of  the  rainbow  after  the  deluge,  and  of  the  sun  and 
stars  on  the  fourth  day,  are  probably  difficulties  of  interpretation  only. 
Most  Hebrew  scholars  affirm  that  the  original  means  simply  that  the 
34 


398  DIFFICULTIES    EKIMERATED. 

stin  and  stars  were  made  or  constituted  on  the  fourth  day,  to  rule  the 
day  and  the  night,  and  that  the  rainbow  was  made  or  became  after 
the  deluge  the  sign  of  the  covenant;  both  were  created  by  God, 
but  had  existed  before,  and  were  only  then  employed  for  these  pur- 
poses. 

Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29,  has  been  quoted  as  authorizing  human  sacrifices, 
as  has  Jephthah's  treatment  of  his  daughter.  Judges  xi.  34 ;  but  human 
sacrifices  were  expressly  forbidden,  Deut.  xii.  30,  31:  Ps.  Ixvi.  3:  Pa. 
evi.  37,  38.  All  who  even  touched  a  dead  body  were  unclean ;  and, 
moreover,  no  devoted  thing  could  be  sacrificed.  Jepththah  probably 
devoted  his  daughter  to  perpetual  virginity ;  and,  at  all  events,  the 
act  is  not  commended. 

Predictions  are  sometimes  stated,  through  a  similar  error,  to  be  false, 
2  Kings  viii.  10.  Elisha's  answer  to  Hazael  (i^  not  j^^  lo).  The  pro- 
mise to  Josiah,  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  28  ;  xxxv.  23.  The  history  of  Jonah. 
Some  assertions  that  the  last  day  was  near,  1  Cor.  x.  11,  etc. 

Expressions  in  the  Old  Testament  seem  to  imply  vindictive  feeling: 
but  some  of  the  expressions  are  figurative,  Ps.  x.  15 ;  some  are  pre- 
dictions, only  the  tenses  being  indicative  future  rather  than  impera- 
tive ;  and  othefs  are  the  denunciations  of  Divine  justice  against  trans- 
gressors, Deut.  xxviii. 

Some  actions  alleged  to  be  done  by  prophets  are  said  to  be  ridiculous 
or  immoral;  but  they  were  either  symbolical,  or  were  represented  in 
vision  only,  or  were  merely  related  by  the  prophet.  Isa.  xx.  3,  naked; 
i.  e.  without  his  upper  garment,  Lowth  ;  or  in  vision,  Rosenm.  Jer. 
xiii.  4,  6,  a  vision  (Lowth);  Ezek.  iv. :  Hos.  i.  2. 

Precepts  and  statements  are  interpreted  without  the  necessary  restric- 
tion or  explanation  :  John  vi.  51-58,  eating  Christ's  flesh  :  Matt.  xii.  36, 
"  idle  Avords,"  pernicious,  calumnious :  Matt.  xix.  23,  "  rich  man,"  "  one 
who  trusts  in  riches  :"  Mark  x.  24.  Matt.  v.  30,  cut  off  a  right  hand: 
V.  39,  '  Whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on  the  right  cheek,  turn  to  him 
the  other  also  ;"  both  spoken  comparatively,  rather  do  this  than  commit 

evil. 

All  these  passages  involve  important  truths  and  some  difficulty,  but 
the  difficulty  refers  to  interpretation  only. 

(b.)  Of  difficulties  in  the  sense  of  Scripture  the  following 
may  be  taken  as  a  sample, 
cii'uiesenu-        1.   There   are   alleged   contrarieties   between  the 
mera  e  .       ^^^   Testament   and   the   New,  and   between   the 
teaching  of  our  Lord  and  the  teaching  of  his  apostles. 


CLEARNESS   OF   SCRIPTURE   STATEMENTS.  399 

2.  There  is  said  to  be  much  that  is  impossible  in  the  his- 
tory of  creation,  and  in  the  attempt  to  trace  all  mankind  to  a 
common  origin. 

3.  Some  of  the  miracles — the  history  of  the  fall,  of  Balaam, 
the  demoniacal  possessions  in  the  New  Testament,  for  exam- 
ple— are  said  to  be  incredible. 

4.  Much  was  wrong  in  the  applauded  characters  of  Old 
Testament  saints. 

5.  Extraordinary  commands  were  given  to  them,  as  to 
Abraham,  and  to  the  Israelites. 

6.  The  punishment  of  idolatry  with  death  seems  to  sanction 
persecution,  and  many  of  the  institutions  of  the  law  are  unac- 
countable. 

7.  Passages  from  the  Old  Testament  are  quoted  in  the  New 
in  altogether  unnatural  senses. 

8.  Some  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  doctrines  of  the  Gospel 
as  a  remedial  system  are  mysterious. 

9.  Above  all,  the  existence  of  difficulties  in  the  Bible  is  in- 
consistent with  its  object  as  a  universal  revelation. 

518.  The  last  of  these  objections  we  proceed  to  examine 
first.    There  are,  confessedly,  difficulties  in  the  Bible  :     ^^.^  ^^j^^ 
are  thev  inconsistent  with  its  inspiration  and  authen-     consistent 

^  _  vntli  inspi- 

ticity,  and  do  they  hinder  its  usefulness  for  doctrine     ration. 
or  teaching,  and  for  instruction  in  righteousness? 

514.  Noticing  the  latter  part  of  this  question  first,  it  is 
quite  clear  that  the  Bible  reveals  in  passages  innu- 
merable and  unmistakable,  the  essential  principles  ness  of 
of  truth  and  duty.     We  have  but  to  open  the  New    '^"^  "^^' 
Testament  in  almost  any  of  its  pages,  to  draw  forth  a  scheme 
of  holiness.     The  spirituality  of  the  Divine  nature,  and  of  all 
acceptable  worship  (John  iv.  24) ;  repentance  and  remission 
of  sins  in  Christ's  name  (Luke  xxiv.  47)  ;   salvation  through 
no  other  (Acts  iv.  12) ;  the  duty  of  all  men  everywhere  to 
repent  and  believe  (Acts  xvii.  30 :   Mark  i.  15)  ;   eternal  life 
through  the  Son  ;  eternal  death  as  the  consequence  of  unbe- 
lief (John  iii.);  the  necessity  of  holiness  (Matt.  vii.  21);   the 


400  DIFFICULTIES — THEIR    OBJECT. 

assurance  of  the  help  of  the  Spirit  to  control  our  corruption 
and  to  aid  our  infirmities.  All  these  truths  are  written  as  with 
a  sunbeam  ;  that  "  he  may  run  that  readeth."  In  every  age, 
moreover,  the  great  end  of  the  Bible  as  a  religiously  instruc- 
tive book,  the  repository  of  saving  truth,  has  been  answered. 
Contrast  the  creed  of  the  meanest  Jew,  in  relation  to  God  and 
law,  with  the  errors  4ind  uncertainty  of  the  wise.st  of  the 
heathen ;  the  first  Tusculan  disputation  of  Cicero  with  the 
commonest  Christian  treatise  on  immortality  and  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  difference  will  at  once  appear.  The  heathen 
philosopher  falters  at  every  step,  and  dreads  the  very  conclu- 
sions to  which  his  reasonings  lead  him ;  while  the  opinion  of 
the  Christian  is  already  formed ;  his  only  difficulty,  being  to 
impress  his  own  heart  and  the  hearts  of  others  with  the  truth. 
By  the  leading  and  undoubted  precepts  of  Scripture,  the 
guiltiest  may  be  "thoroughly  furnished  for  every  good  work," 
and  by  its  doctrines  all  men  may  be  made  "  wise  unto  sal- 
vation." 

515.  But  do  not  these  difficulties  affect  the  authority  of 
the  Bible,  and  weaken  the  evidence  of  its  inspiration  ?  Can 
a  revelation  be  of  universal  authority  which  all  do  not  un- 
derstand ;  and  is  it  really  a  revelation  where  so  much  is  con- 
cealed ? 

In  answering  this  question  it  might  be  said,  that  whatever 
we  know  of  the  works  of  God  in  nature  is  liable  to  the  same 
objection.     Bishop  Butler  has  shown  most  conclusively  that 
natural  religion,  revealed  religion,  and  the  providence  of  God, 
together  with  every  known  law  of  human  duty,  are  all  exposed 
to  the  same  difficulties.     There  is  in  all  an  ob.«curity  of  mean- 
ing and  deficiency  of  evidence,  a  mysteriousness  of 
cuitie-sinaii  arrangement  and  treatment  that  bespeak  our  state 
'  to  be  one  of  incessant  discipline.     In  truth  these  ob- 
jections  apply  much  less  forcibly  to  Scripture  than  to  our 
daily  practice  ;  and  the  reasoning  which  seeks  to  set  aside  the 
Bible  would,  if  true,  rob  God  of  all  his  authority,  and  man  of 
all  motives  to  virtue.  ...  It  might  be  said  further,  that  so 


DIFFICULTIES — THEIR   OBJECT.  401 

long  as  customs  and  language  change,  revelation  un-  ^^^  ^^^ 
less  given  to  each  nation  and  to  each  age,  cannot  be  voidable. 
free  from  difficulty.  Customs  and  terms  are  now  obsolete 
which  were  once  familiar ;  facts  once  known  are  now  forgot- 
ten ;  the  connection,  therefore,  between  them  and  other  facts 
is  lost.  The  result  is  a  degree  of  ignorance  which  admits  of 
no  conceivable  remedy,  except  what  all  would  feel  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  our  present  condition. 

516.  But  we  go  further.     The  very  difficulties  of  Scripture, 
philological    and  historical,   afford  cogent  internal 
proof  of  the  genuineness   and    authenticity  of  the  proof  of  the 

fl  °  .  "^  Divine  ori- 

Bible.  No  one  can  now  doubt  that  it  was  revealed  gin  of 
to  successive  generations,  and  in  ancient  tongues. 
The  solution  of  its  difficulties,  too,  has  been  gradual,  and  that 
for  the  best  reasons.  Each  age  has  its  own  temptations  to 
infidelity,  and  each  has  its  peculiar  evidence.  Let  any  one 
read  the  Credibility  of  Lardner,  a  work  which  could  not  have 
been  written  in  the  age  of  the  apostles,  for  the  facts  on  which 
it  is  founded  were  later  than  their  times;  or  the  Horse  Paulinse 
of  Paley,  or  the  Horas  Apostolicae  and  Horse  Evangelic©  of 
Birks,  on  the  apparent  discrepancies  and  real  agreement  be- 
tween the  statements  of  profane  and  sacred  history,  between 
the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  or  between  the  dif- 
ferent Gospels,  and  he  will  at  once  perceive  that  the  difficulties 
of  Scripture  create  an  internal  evidence  even  more  decisive 
than  the  external :  it  is  throughout — the  apparent  discrepancv 
between  the  writers  themselves,  and  profane  records,  and 
their  obvious  independence  of  one  another  and  of  everything 
but  truth  that  forms  the  argument.  We  can  dispense  with 
nothing,  not  even  difficulties.  Every  element  (the  apparent 
discrepancy  among  the  rest)  is  essential  to  the  force  of  the 
whole. 

And  if  it  be  said  that  these  difficulties  are  too  numerous,  or 
that  the  solution  of  them  has  been  too  slow,  it  may  be  an- 
swered that  this  gradual  solution  is  necessary  in  order  to  sup- 
ply to  each  age  fresh  evidence,  ajid  to  excite  continued  interest 
34* 


402  DOCTKINAL   DIFFICULTIES. 

in  Scripture,  while  the  fact  proves  that  the  evidence  of  the 
Bible,  like  its  doctrine,  is  for  all  time. 

617.  From  the  study  of  philological  and  historical  difficulties 
we  proceed  to   investigate  the  doctrinal — the  great 

Their  natu-  -"^  m-  ,     .     .        .  ,        °         , 

rainess  and  mysteries  of  godlmess  and  iniquity,  "  the  hard 
other  re-  things"  connected  with  salvation,  and  the  veiled  or 
dimly  disclosed  future.  How  obvious  are  such  re- 
marks as  thase  ;  men  are  fallen ;  our  nature  is  depraved ;  our 
intellect  is  darkened.  A  revelation  just  such  as  our  moral 
taste  approved  could  not  fail  to  have  marks  of  an  origin  much 
lower  than  heaven.  We  are  finite  :  what  more  natural  than 
that  an  omniscient  being,  when  he  speaks  on  matters  which 
refer  to  eternal  interests,  should  speak  occasionally  what  we 
but  partially  comprehend :  certainly,  the  absence  of  difficulty 
(the  thing  pleaded  for)  in  a  communication  from  what  pro- 
fessed to  be  infinite  wisdom,  would  have  had  thrown  upon  it, 
by  that  circumstance,  a  strong  if  not  unanswerable  suspicion. 
See  objection  8. 

Let  it  be  added  that  these  difficulties  have  dignified  every 
kind  of  human  learning,  by  rendering  all  eligible  to  the  service 
of  religion.  Historically,  the  study  of  classical  literature  in 
modern  times  began  with  the  study  of  the  Bible ;  and  ever 
since,  sound  religion  and  true  learning  have  been  linked  in 
inseparable  bonds.  All  knowledge  is  thus  sanctified ;  and 
however  individual  Christians  may  have  exposed  themselves 
to  the  charge  of  being  enemies  of  mental  improvement,  it 
becomes  impossible  to  include  the  Christian  religion  itself  in 
this  rebuke. 

No  doubt  it  may  be  affirmed  in  reply  to  these  reasonings, 
that  the  existence  of  Scripture  difficulties  is  attended  with 
one  inconvenience :  they  are  liable  to  excite  distrust  in  the 
minds  even  of  Christians ;  that  is,  they  try  our  faith.  But  is 
not  this  again  an  evidence  in  their  favor  ?  What  are  all  the 
dispensations  of  God  but  our  discipline  ?  What  is  life  but  a 
walking  by  faith ;  that  is,  by  habitual  reliance  on  Him  whose 
ways  we  cannot  understand,  and  in  circumstances  that  require 


HOW   SOLVED    OR   ANSWERED,  403 

sucli  a  trust.  Perhaps  inspiration  might  have  removed  all 
difficulties  from  Scripture,  though  we  cannot  tell  how ;  but 
certainly  we  should  have  lost  much  and  gained  little  by  the 
change. 

Instead  of  answering  these  obiections  in  detail     „  , 

_  o  J  _  Rules  for 

let  the  following  rules  be  marked  and  applied.  pou-ing 

o  .  .  .  tliem. 

518.  (1.)  We  must  interpret  Scripture,   its   an- 
nouncements, and  disclosures,  in  accordance  with   ,  ,        ... 

'  '  Interpret  it 

what  it  professes  to  be; — an  inspired  volume  de-  aswrirrenin 

■■■  •'•  _  human  lan- 

signed  to  set  forth  the  scheme  of  salvation  by  Christ,  s>'ase-  but 

°  _  /  by  a  Divine 

and  to  bring  men  unto  God.  So  far  as  it  is  like  author, 
other  books  written  in  the  language  of  man,  it  must  be  inter- 
preted by  the  same  laws  as  other  books ;  we  must  ever  look 
at  the  words,  the  context,  the  speaker  and  the  customs  and 
history  of  his  age ;  but  so  far  as  it  differs  from  other  books — 
being  inspired  and  intended  for  all  time,  every  part  of  it  fore- 
shadowing or  plainly  exhibiting  the  cross,  we  must  give  to  its 
phrases  and  intimations  a  plenary  and  spiritual  significance. 
The  sacrificial  enactments  of  the  law,  for  example,  considered 
in  themselves  alone,  were  sanguinary.  They  certainly  con- 
tain no  intimation  that  they  prefigured  the  death  of  our 
Lord.  Their  ultimate  purpose,  however,  is  unquestioned ; 
and  in  the  meantime  they  taught  the  great  doctrine  of  sub- 
stitution, to  some  probably  most  plainly ;  and  they  impressed 
the  hearts  of  men  with  some  of  the  same  sentiments  as  are 
now  awakened  by  the  cross.  The  promise  to  Abraham, 
again,  has  no  such  terms  as  point  exclusively  and  cleai'ly  to 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah ;  and  such  a  promise  found  in 
Virgil  or  in  Homer  could  not  fairly  be  interpreted  as  having 
such  a  reference.  But  the  Christian  cannot  doubt  its  mean- 
ing. If  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures  did  not  foresee  all  the 
truths  which  might  be  drawn  from  their  words,  God  the  Holy 
Spirit  foresaw  them ;  and  the  business  of  interpretation  is,  to 
learn  his  purpose  and  end  in  what  was  revealed.  To  explain, 
therefore,  the  inspired  Scriptures  in  all  respects  as  if  they  were 
human  compositions,  with  no  wider  range,  and  no  spiritual 


404  HOW   SOLVED    OR   ANSWERED. 


I 


rule,  is,  as  Loid  Bacon  has  expressed  it,  to  "dishonor  the 
Scriptures  and  injure  the  church."     See  Objection  7. 

519.  (2.)  As  doctrines  are  to  be  interpreted  in  accordance 
,    .       with    the    comprehensiveness    of   Scripture,   so    no 

Ko  solution  •'-  .■'■  _ 

incoiisist-      solution   of  a  difficulty  must  be  admitted  which  is 

ent  wiLh  111-  / 

spiration  to  j^ot  in   accordance  with  the  great  fact  of  inspira- 

be  admit-  ,°  ^ 

ted.  tion.     ]\Iaiiy  compare  the  miracles  of  Moses-  with 

the  prodigies  of  Livy,  or  the  writings  of  Ezekiel  with  those 
of  ^Eschylus,  or  tlie  doctrines  of  our  Lord  with  the  philoso- 
phizings  of  Plato,  and  the  difficulties  in  each  case  may  be 
removed  in  the  same  way.  If  it  be  said  that  the  miracles 
are  incredible,  and  the  imagery  is  extravagant,  and  the  moral 
reasoning  is  fallacious  or  forced ;  in  that  case  the  difficulties 
are  removed  on  }iriiii-iples  which  set  aside  the  authority  of 
Scripture.  If  we  deny  inspiration  it  becomes  us  to  examine 
th-e  evidence,  and  to  attend  to  the  moral  and  spiritual  truths 
of  the  Bible  ;  but  if  we  admit  its  inspiration,  our  solution  of 
its  difficulties  must  leave  that  glorious  characteristic  of  it  un- 
touched. Most,  therefore,  of  the  expressions  employed  in  the 
preceding  objections  (2,  3,  9)  must  be  rejected,  because  incon- 
sistent with  the  spirit  of  a  devout  humble  inquirer. 

520.  (3.)  Scripture   must  be  regaxdpd   as  a  system  from 

beginning  to  end  ;  and  the  different  books  and  sen- 
Bible  a  fo  &  _' 

whole:  tences  must  be  int-erpreted  as  the  component  a,nd 
connected  parts  of  a  great  whole.  All  the  light  which  the 
first  page  throws  upon  the  last,  or  the  last  upon  the  first,  may 
be  freely  used  for  purposes  of  illustration  and  defence ;  not 
of  course  to  prove  that  every  passage  has  the  same  meaning, 
but  to  prove  that  all  have  the  same  end. 

This  rule,  it  will  be  observed,  dops  for  facts  and  truths 
what  the  kindred  rule  on  the  analogy  of  faith  or  on  parallel 
passages  does  for  the  interpretation  of  the  words.  "  From 
him  that  hath  not,  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he 
hath,"  for  example,  is  the  sentence  of  our  Lord.  Separate 
the^e  words  from  the  context,  from  the  parallel  passage  in 
another  Gospel,  from  the  principle  of  the  Divine  government 


HOW  SOLVED  OR  answerp:d.  405 

whicli  they  illustrate,  and  we  miss  their  sense  ;  explain  them 
connectedly  and  the  whole  is  clear.  So  of  Bible  truths.  The 
sacrifice  and  the  death  of  Abel,  viewed  in  themselves,  seem 
not  more  significant  than  the  good  deed  and  untimely  end  of 
any  good  man ;  biit  view  his  death  as  the  first  fruit  of  sin, 
and  his  sacrifice  as  an  evidence  of  the  true  nature  of  every 
acceptable  ofifering;  as  a  proof,  moreover,  how  conscious 
demerit  expressed  itself  in  the  first  age,  and  how  deeply  it  felt 
the  need  of  vicarious  suffering,  and  the  whole  narrative 
assumes  an  aspect  of  importance  and  dignity.  Explain  in 
the  same  way  the  ordinances  of  the  law,  the  personal  history 
of  many  ancient  saints,  and  incidents  in  themselves  trivial 
become  fresh  marks  of  internal  credibility,  and  even  lessons 
for  the  instruction  of  the  church  throughout  every  age. 

621.  (4.)  As  it  is  important  to  study  Scripture  connectedly, 
it  is  even  more  important  to  study  it  in  its  true  con-       .   _, 

■■■  •'  And  coiir 

nection,  and  in  that  alone.     A  false  system  may  be      nected. 
more  mischievous  than  no  system  at  all. 

The  plagues  of  Egypt,  for  example,  may  be  regarded  as 
inflicted  only  for  the  deliverance  of  a  nation  from  slavery  ;  in 
that  light  they  may  seem  excessive,  and  some  of  them  even 
ahsurd.  Regarded  as  manifestations  of  Divine  power,  as  fore- 
shadowings  of  the  destiny  of  the  finally  impenitent,  or  of  the 
spoiling  of  principalities  and  powers  by  him  who  so  signally 
triumphed  over  them  in  his  cross,  as  public  rebukes  of  idolatry, 
every  plague  being  inflicted  upon  an  idol  god,  as  confirma- 
tions of  the  faith  of  the  Israelites,  long  remembered,  their 
significance  is  plain. 

If  idolatry  again  be  regarded  as  mental  error  merely,  or  if 
tJie  Jews  be  regarded  as  an  ordinary  community,  the  punish- 
ment of  that  sin  with  death  may  seem  severe.  Really  it  was 
a  penalty  inflicted  only  on  the  apostate  Israelite,  who  had 
repeatedly  accepted  Jehovah  as  his  chosen  king.  In  a  tJico- 
cracy  it  was  civil  treason ;  and  the  great  purpose,  moreover, 
of  the  whole  institution  was  to  redeem  our  race  from  the 
depraved  and  wretched  condition  which  that  sin  involved. 


406  HOW    SOLVED    OR   ANSWERED. 

In  the  same  way  the  truths  of  Scripture  on  the  person  of 
our  Lord  derive  much  of  their  significance,  and  all  their  con- 
sistency, from  the  union  in  him  of  our  human  nature  with  the 
Divine.  Explain  them  on  the  supposition  that  he  was  man 
only  or  God  only,  and  they  appear  contradictory  ;  combine 
both  views,  and  the  whole  is  harmonious  and  highly  consola- 
tory. 

To  find  fault  with  the  acts  of  ancient  saints,  and  to  con- 
clude that  the  record  of  their  faults  is  as  inconsistent  with 
the  Divine  origin  of  the  Bible  as  the  acts  themselves  were 
derogatory  to  true  religion,  implies  a  false  theory.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  the  object  of  the  Bible  be — the  revelation 
of  God  and  the  improvement  of  man,  and  the  objections 
cease. 

Take,  as  an  instance,  the  deception  of  Jacob,  Gen.  xxvii. 
33-35,  and  mark  its  lessons  in  relation  to  God  and  to  our- 
selves. His  superiority  over  his  brother  and  his  inheritance 
of  the  promise  had  been  foretold  at  his  birth.  Isaac,  Rebecca, 
and  Jacob  himself  all  probably  knew  of  this  prediction.  In 
spite  of  this  knowledge,  however,  Isaac  made  a  favorite  of 
the  elder  brother,  who  had  connected  himself  with  a  heathen 
family :  Jacob  had  so  little  faith,  moreover,  in  the  Divine 
promise,  that  he  needlessly  removed  the  difficulty  of  his 
brother's  priority  by  purchase  :  Rebecca,  with  no  more  faith, 
induced  her  son  to  practise  the  deception  which  obtained  him 
the  blessing.  The  guilt  and  folly  of  this  whole  transaction 
soon  bore  their  appropriate  fruits.  The  weakness  of  Isaac 
was  punished  by  the  alienation  and  dispersion  of  his  children. 
The  recklessness  and  profanity  of  Esau  cost  him  the  blessing; 
Rebecca's  unbelief  ended  in  her  becoming  dependent  upon 
the  son  she  had  wronged :  her  favorite  son  she  never  again 
saw.  Jacob  was  driven  from  his  home — was  himself  robbed 
and  defrauded  by  Laban ;  the  wife  he  despised  became  the 
mother  of  the  chosen  tribe,  and  in  the  decej^tion  of  his  own 
children  he  learned  the  grievousness  of  his  sin.  Above  all, 
though  the  promise  was  ultimately  fulfilled,  Jacob  himb'felf 


HOW    SOLVELi    or.    ANSWERED.  407 

received  no  blessing  from  it.  Instead  of  his  mother's  son 
bowing  down  before  him,  he,  in  his  own  person,  bowed  down 
before  his  mother's  son,  and  at  the  close  of  his  life  he  was 
dependent  upon  his  children.  The  punishment,  in  fact,  was 
complete  :  nor  less  so  is  the  lesson.  It  may  be  said  that, 
nevertheless,  he  inherited  the  blessing ;  and  this  is  true :  for 
the  gifts  of  God  are  without  repentance,  and  his  choice  of  his 
servants  is  founded  upon  no  personal  merit,  but  on  reasons, 
which,  in  most  cases,  as  in  this,  he  has  seen  it  right  to  conceal. 
It  may  be  said  also,  that  the  blessing  was  secured  by  means 
which  no  ingenuous  mind  can  commend ;  and  this  is  true ; 
but  the  objection  applies  to  providential  dealings  generally  as 
much  as  to  Scripture.  Man's  sin  is  constantly  overruled  for 
God's  glory ;  and  neither  the  responsibility  of  man  nor  the 
holiness  of  God  is  affected  by  the  arrangement :  a  revelation, 
in  fact,  without  such  incidents,  would  be  neither  just  to  God 
nor  true  to  man. 

522.  (5.)  It  becomes  us  to  distrust  the  conclusions  of  human 
wisdom  and  of  logical  reasoning,  whenever  applied  „     ,    . 

°  o'  .  -    Conclusions 

to  subjects  beyond  the  reach  of  our  experience,  and  of  human 

.  .  -,.     .  .  _,  .       wisdoin  to 

especially  in  matters  of  religious  truth.     Even  m  be  dis- 

trusted. 

science  we  know  really  little  beyond  what  we  have 
observed.  "  What  is  light  ?"  and  "  What  is  power  ?"  are  ques- 
tions which  philosophy  has  not  yet  answered.  We  speak  of 
the  laws  of  gravitation,  and  affirm  that  they  keep  the  planets 
■  in  their  orbits  ;  but  gravitation  (it  is  allowed)  is  itself  nothing 
but  the  expression  of  a  uniform  fact.  The  origin  of  disease, 
independently  of  second  causes  and  symjitoms,  is  entirely  un- 
known ;  nor  can  any  one  tell  how  contagion  or  infection  acts 
upon  the  frame.  The  most  probable  conclusion  to  which  even 
philosophy  is  pointing  is,  that  the  great  forces  in  this  universe 
are  put  forth  immediately  by  God.  Miracles  and  mysteries 
everywhere  abound,  and  it  is  only  their  regularity  and  fre- 
quency that  destroy  our  surprise.  Combine  with  this  fact  the 
fallen  condition  and  inherent  littleness  of  man,  and  the  pro- 
priety of  the  principle  of  Lord  Bacon,  when  he  bids  us  rev- 


408  HOW    SOLVED    OR   ANSWERED. 

erently  q\iestion  nature,  and  not  dogmatize  on  her  processes, 
will  appear  doubly  just  when  applied  to  the  Bible. 

523.  (6.)  Let  no  man  attempt  or  expect  the  explanation  of 
Fx  lect  not  ^^^^^Y  difficulty.  "  Of  the  dark  parts  of  Scripture," 
*'^.'"  r,'-^'"£'"'  says  Warburton,  "  there  are  two   sorts,  one  which 

ot  all  dith-  ■'  '  ... 

cuities.  may  be  cleared  up  by  the  studious  application  of 
well  employed  talents,  the  other  which  will  always  recede 
within  the  shadow  of  God's  throne,  where  it  would  be  impiety 
to  intrude."  "  The  last  step  of  reason,"  says  Pascal,  "  is  to 
know  that  there  is  an  infinitude  of  things  which  surpass  it." 
After  all  difficulties  have  been  solved  and  every  word  of  the 
Bible  explained,  the  weightiest  difficulties  of  all  will  remain. 
The  origin  of  evil,  the  mystery  of  Divine  foreknowledge  and 
free-agency,  and  much  of  the  scheme  of  redemption  will  still 
exercise  our  faith.  We  shall  say  even  then,  as  it  is  our  wis- 
dom to  say  now,  "  Oh,  the  depth  of  the  riches,  both  of  the 
wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God !  how  unsearchable  are  his 
judgments,  and  his  ways  past  finding  out !" 

On  the  whole  of  thi.s  Section,  see  Home,  "  On  the  Apparent  Contra- 
dictions of  Scripture,"  Davidson's  " Hermeneiitics,"  Gerard's  "Biblical 
Criticism,"  and,  on  the  latter  part  especially,  Benson's  "Hulsean  Lec- 
tures." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON    THE   INFERENTIAL    AND    PRACTICAL    READING    OF    THE 

BIBLE. 

"All  Scripture  is  practical,  and  intended  to  minister  to  our  improve- 
ment rather  than  to  our  curiosity." — Arnold  :  Sermons  (p.  239). 

"  I  know  not  a  better  rule  of  reading  the  Scripture  than  to  read  it 
through  from  beginning  to  end;  and  when  we  have  finished  it  once,  to 
begin  it  again.  We  shall  meet  with  many  passages  which  we  can  make 
little  improvement  of;  but  not  so  many  in  the  second  reading  as  in  the 
first ;  and  fewer  in  the  third  than  in  the  second." — John  Newton — 
(vi.  41S). 


LESSONS    FROM   WORDS,  ETC.  409 

524.  As  tlie  great  use  of  philosophy  is  the  "  endowment  of 
man's  life  with  commodities,"  so  the  great  use  of  ^pj^^  ^^^^^ 
Scripture  is  the  increase  of  our  wisdom  and  holi-  "^^re*is^to'^ 
ness.  To  gather  the  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  apply  it. 
sum  up  its  doctrines,  is  to  accomplish  but  part  of  the  purpose 
for  which  Scripture  was  given.  Every  precept  and  promise 
must  be  applied.  Even  from  every  verse  we  may  gain  some 
accession  to  our  knowledge,  some  quickened  impulse  to  our 
feelings,  or  some  encouragement  or  guide  in  duty.  Medita- 
tion on  truth  will  reveal  its  fulness ;  and  the  practical  appli- 
cability of  it  on  all  sides  will  at  once  surprise  and  reward  our 
inquiries. 

525.  By  the  practical  and  inferential  reading  of  the  Bible 
is  meant  that  study  of  the  sacred  page  which  de-  -v^jjat meant 
duces   and   applies   to    ourselves,  or   to   the    great  by  the  prac- 

^  '^  '  _  "  tieal  and  m- 

Questions  of  religious  character  and  experience,  the  ferentiai 

■'■  .  .  .  .      .  .  reading  of 

truths  it  contains.  It  is  not  distinct  from  interpre-  Scripture, 
tation,  it  is  rather  the  continuance  and  end  of  it.  Interpre- 
tation answers  the  question,  "What  is  the  meaning  of  the  words 
of  a  particular  passage  ?  Systematic  theology  decides  the 
connection  between  that  meaning  and  the  whole  system  of 
truth.  The  inferential  and  practical  study  of  Scripture  an- 
swers the  question,  What  do  these  words  imply,  and  what 
truth  or  duty  do  they  illustrate  or  suggest  in  relation  to  the 
Divine  life,  and  my  personal  history  ?  The  foundation  of  such 
study  is  the  perpetual  harmony  of  Divine  truth,  and  the  prac- 
ticalness of  the  whole.  Its  pre-requisite  is  a  general  know- 
ledge of  the  teaching  of  Scripture,  and  a  spirit  imbued  with 
"  the  form  of  sound  words  in  faith  and  love  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus"  (2  Tim.  i.  13).  "With  these  pre-requisites  it  will  be 
easy  (so  closely  is  one  truth  connected  with  another)  for  a 
Christian  to  "  diffuse  himself,"  as  Francke  expressed  it,  "  from 
one  word  over  the  whole  Scripture." 

526.  In  drawing  such  inferences  from  Scripture  we  need 
35 


410  LESSONS    FROM    WORDS,  ETC. 

Inferences    \}^q  game  rules  wliich  we  have  already  laid  down  for 

may  be  .  -  •' 

dniun  from  Scripture  interpretation. 

various  ■'■  ^  -,.,.,.. 

sources.  The  words — the  words  m  their  place  m  the  sen- 

tence— the  words  in  connection  with  the  scope  of  the  writer — 
the  words  in  connection  with  other  parts  of  Scripture — is  the 
division  which  includes  all  the  inferences  that  can  be  legiti- 
mately drawn  from  the  teachings  of  Divine  truth. 

527.  (1.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  words  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

In  Rom.  xiv.  17,  we  have  a  description  of  the  "  kingdom  of  God :" 
such  is  the  Gospel :  it  is  God's  reign  ;  it  originates  in  his  grace ;  it  ia 
founded  upon  his  power  ;  it  will  illustrate  his  government. 

In  Heb.  iii.  1,  Christ  is  called  the  "High  Priest  and  the  Apostle  of 
our  profession."  Each  word  is  significant ;  he  was  fir.st  selected  and 
ordained  of  God  ;  he  was  commissioned  and  sent  by  him.  The  guilt  of 
rejecting  him  is  proportioned  to  his  dignity.  The  efficacy  of  his  salva- 
tion is  secured  by  Divine  appointment.  He  is  High  Priest  under  the 
Gospel ;  therefore,  though  it  is  a  dispensation  of  mercy,  we  need  sacri- 
fice and  acceptance,  and  are  dependent  for  both  upon  him. 

528.  (2.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  %oords  in  their 
place  in  the  sentence. 

In  1  Pet.  V.  5,  we  are  commanded  to  be  clothed  with  humility,  for 
God  resisteth  the  proud.  Clearly  (1)  humility,  though  despised  by  the 
heathen,  is  a  Christian  grace.  (2.)  Our  truest  ornament  (for  this  the 
Greek  word  for  "  be  clothed"  involves)  is  a  just,  that  is,  an  humble  esti- 
mate of  ourselves,  and  that  ornament  must  be  so  closely  connected  with 
us  that  none  shall  be  able  to  tear  it  away  (so  the  Greek  implies). 
(3.)  Every  duty  may  be  enforced  by  a  reference  to  God's  character. 
(4.)  Pride  is  a  public  conspicuous  sin  (so  the  Greek  implies).  (5.)  It 
braves  God,  and  he  sets  himself  in  array  against  it. 

So  in  Rom.  xiv.  17,  the  kingdom  of  God  is  desjf  ribed  as  righteousness, 
peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred  (1)  that 
peace  is  through  righteousness  only,  (2)  and  joy  is  the  fruit  of  right- 
eousness and  peace ;  (3)  that  a  righteousness  which  brings  with  it 
neither  peace  nor  joy  is  not  the  righteousness  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

529.  (3.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  words  in  connection 
•with  the  context. 


LESSONS    FROM    SCOPE,  ETC.  411 

Thus  in  Matt,  xxvii.  52,  we  read  that  many  bodies  of  the  saints  which 
slept  arose,  but  (ver.  53)  it  was  after  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord  ;  he 
therefore  was  tlie  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept,  and  whatever  his  saints 
received  they  owed  to  him. 

Contrast  1  Tim.  i.  15  with  ver.  4,  and  we  shall  gather  that  the  legends 
of  the  Jews  and  the  stories  of  the  Gentiles  are  compared  to  fables ;  the 
Gospel  to  undoubted  truth. 

530.  (4.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  scope  either  of 
the  book  or  of  the  particular  passage. 

Compare,  for  example,  John  viii.  51,  "  If  a  man  keep  my  sayings  he 
Bhall  never  see  death,"  with  John  xx.  31,  "These  are  written  that  ye 
might  believe  .  .  .  and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life  through  his 
name,"  and  it  follows  that  faith  in  Christ  is  shown  by  obedience  to  his 
words;  that  faith  receives  not  only  his  sacrifice  but  his  teaching;  that 
whoever  has  life  through  his  name  shall  never  see  death.  Comparing 
this  passage  with  the  immediate  object  of  our  Lord  (which  was  to  prove 
that  he  was  not  possessed  of  an  evil  spirit),  it  follows  that  a  doctrine 
which  secures  eternal  life  is  not  likely  to  be  false ;  that  saving  truth  is 
to  be  set  forth,  even  before  those  who  calumniate  it;  and  that  though 
Christ's  teaching  is  foolishness  with  men,  it  must  be  received  and  obeyed. 

531.  (5.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  parallel  passages. 
Instead,  however,  of  multiplying  examples,  let  us 

take  a  passage  and  apply  the  rules  now  given  to      passages, 
illustrate  and  expound  it. 

532.  In  2  Tim.  i.  8,  we  read,  "Be  not  thou,  therefore, 
ashamed  of  the  testimony  of  our  Lord,  nor  .of  me, 

his  prisoner :   hut  be  thou  partaker  of  the  afflictions 
of  the  Gospel."     The  meaning  of  the  verse  having  been  ascer- 
tained, i-akQ  first  the  words: 

1.  The  Gospel  is  called  a  testimony.  It  is  therefore  not  an  unsup- 
ported assertion. 

2.  Of  this  Gospel  the  Christian  is  not  to  be  ashamed.  Boldness 
in  giving  witness  for  Christ  is  often  required,  especially  in  times  of 
persecution. 

3.  This  boldness  is  not  unfounded  presumption,  but  a  rational  assu- 
rance :  "  Be  not  thou  therefore  ashamed." 

4.  The  Gospel  is  the  testimony  of  our  Lord ;  its  end  is  "to  bear  wit- 


412  INFEKENTIAL    EEADING    OF    THE    BILLE. 

ness  of  Christ,  who  is  our  Lord."  Paul  and  Timothy  were  fellow-ser- 
vants (Phil.  i.  1),  and  therefore  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  Christ 
their  Lord,  whom  therefore  they  were  bound  to  obey. 

5.  Paul  was  His  prisoner ;  men  had  confined  him,  but  he  was  not  in 
their  power,  nor  did  he  suffer  as  an  evil  doer. 

Secondly.  Take  each  word  in  connection  with  the  other 
words  of  the  sentence,  and  we  gather  such  inferences  as  these. 

1.  Not  to  partake  of  the  afflictions  of  the  Gospel  when  called  upon 
to  share  them,  is  to  be  ashamed  of  the  testimony  of  our  Lord. 

2.  He  who  is  ashamed  of  suffering  Christians,  who  suffer  as  Chris- 
tians, is  ashamed  of  Christ  himself. 

3.  Our  testimony  to  Christ  must  be  borne,  not  only  in  seasons  of 
prosperity,  but  in  seasons  of  affliction. 

4.  Even  in  his  bonds  Paul  preached  the  Gospel. 

5.  Paul  bore  a  consistent  testimony  to  the  truth,  and  yet  he  required 
the  te.stimony  of  Timothy.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  testimony 
of  God's  servants  should  be  multiplied. 

6.  A  timid  and  distrustful  heart  is  not  fit  to  bear  testimony  for  Christ, 
nor  to  endure  affliction  for  his  cause. 

Thirdly.  Take  the  words  in  connection  with  the  context. 
The  general  object  of  the  apostle,  in  this  part  of  the  chapter 
is,  to  exhort  Timothy  to  undergo  affliction  for  the  cause  of 
Christ,  and  he  enforces  this  exhortation  by  cogent  arguments. 

Comparing  the  passage  with  the  fourth  verse,  we  conclude  that  the 
godly,  though  surrounded  by  calamity,  can  rejoice,  and  have  delight- 
ful communion  with  one  another. 

With  the  third  verse,  that  those  who  are  about  to  suffer  for  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  need  our  prayers  "  night  and  day." 

With  the  fijth  verse,  that  the  remembrance  of  a  pious  ancestry  may 
happily  increase  our  boldness  and  fidelity  in  seasons  of  persecution. 

With  the  sixth  verse,  that  the  gift  which  the  minister  has  received 
from  God  is  to  be  stirred  up,  in  order  not  only  to  teach,  but  to  suffer. 

With  the  seventh  verse,  that  the  gifts  of  power  and  of  love  (to  Christ 
and  the  souls  of  men),  and  of  a  sound  mind,  in  the  discharge  of  arduous 
duties,  all  bind  the  Christian  to  fidelity  in  suffering. 

With  the'  ninth  verse,  that  the  remembrance  of  our  salvation,  and  of 
the  grace  and  purpose  of  God  towards  us,  will  dispel  the  fear  of  tem- 
poral affliction. 


INFERENTIAL    READING   OF    THE   BIBLE.  413 

With  the  tenth  verse,  that  the  superiority  of  the  Gospel  dispensation, 
and  the  confirmation  of  our  faith  by  the  appearance  and  resurreclion 
of  Christ,  should  make  us  the  more  willing  to  suii'er ;  our  sufferings  are 
not  for  a  cunningly-devised  fable,  but  for  the  truth  of  God. 

Comparing  the  words  of  the  verse  with  the  words  of  the  preceding 
verses,  we  gather  other  lessons.  The  fear  of  persecution  is  one  frequent 
cause  of  apostasy.  Men  are  ashamed  of  the  testimony  of  Christ, 
because  not  willing  to  be  partakers  of  the  afilictions  of  the  Gospel.  A 
sound  mind,  or  real  wisdom,  is  seen  in  willingness  to  endure  affliction 
rather  than  deny  Christ.  Mere  worldly  prudence  is  tested  and  dis- 
covered by  affliction.  The  spirit  of  fear  is  injurious  to  our  steadfast- 
ness, and  is  not  God's  gift.  True  power  is  seen  in  endurance  and 
fidelity.  Love  has  such  influence  over  the  soul  that,  were  we  exposed 
to  the  severest  calamities,  or  even  to  death,  it  will  keep  us  unmoved. 
Apostasy  implies  feebleness,  coldness,  folly;  for  steadfastness  is  the 
fruit  of  power,  prudence,  and  love. 

Fourthly.  If  we  look  to  the  scope  of  the  Epistle,  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  writer,  we  learn  other  lessons  equally- 
important.  The  general  scope  of  the  Epistle  is,  that  Paul, 
now  the  prisoner  of  the  Lord,  asks  Timothy  to  come  to  him, 
and  endeavors,  previously,  to  prepare  and  fortify  his  mind 
against  the  afflictions  which  at  that  period  threatened  the 
churches  at  Ephesus  and  in  Rome. 

Look  at  Paul's  circumstances,  we  learn  that  one  who  is  imprisoned 
for  Christ  may  still,  by  letter,  incite  others  to  serve  him  ;  and  that,  so 
far  from  a  Christian  losing  his  consolation  through  imprisonment,  he 
may  even  exhort  others  to  suffer,  and  to  gather  encouragement  from 
himself:  that  in  affliction  we  should  take  special  care  lest  others  be 
discouraged  by  our  sufferings :  that  we  may  ask  others  to  share  our 
sufferings  if  it  be  for  the  furtherance  of  the  Gospel,  but  that  we  must 
first  fortify  their  minds  for  what  they  may  have  to  bear:  that  Christians 
may  be  tempted  to  apostasy  by  calamity,  and  that  therefore  they 
should  be  kindly  warned  and  prayed  for  by  those  that  see  its  ap- 
proach. 

In  looking  at  Timothy,  we  may  learn  that  a  Christian  should  neither 
accelerate  his  removal  from  one  sphere  of  duty  nor  defer  going  to 
another  through  fear  of  affliction  :  that  he  ought  to  strengthen  his  own 
mind  for  what  may  befall  him :  that  the  danger  of  others  ought  not  to 
intimidate  him,  but  to  render  him  at  once  prudent,  and  willing  to 
35* 


414  INFERENTIAL   READING   OF   THE   BIBLE. 

undergo  similar  sufferings:  that  even  in  the  case  of  eminent  Christuuis, 
when  calling  them  to  the  service  of  God,  it  may  be  important  to 
remove  the  scruples  and  difficulties  they  may  feel  in  relation  to  the 
call. 

In  looking  generally  at  the  scope  of  the  Epistle,  and  connecting  it 
with  the  words  of  the  text,  we  may  learn  such  lessons  as  these.  In 
seasons  of  persecution,  the  spiritual  boldness  of  love  and  of  a  sound 
mind  is  peculiarly  required.  In  such  seasons  the  servants  of  God  may 
justly  stir  up  each  other  to  promote  the  common  cause;  to  preserve 
each  other's  fidelity  in  obedience  and  in  suffering.  Before  we  bid  an- 
other to  engage  in  a  difficult  service,  we  must,  by  prayer  and  exhorta- 
tion, seek  to  prepare  him  for  it.  The  qualifications  for  service  in  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  are  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  fifth  source  of  inferential  reading  is  the  comparison  of 
a  passage  with  other  passages  throughout  the  sacred  writings. 
In  this  case  it  is  not  a  merely  verbal  parallelism  which  suggests 
the  lesson  but  the  parallelism  of  thought  and  truth. 

Let  us  take  phrase  by  phrase.  "  Be  not  thou  therefore  ashamed." 
In  Rom  i.  16  and  Phil.  i.  20,  Paul  affirms  that  he  is  "  not  ashamed 
of  the  Gospel  of  Christ,"  and  it  is  the  same  boldness  he  requires  in. 
Timothy.  Hence  it  may  be  said  that  faithful  teachers  require  of  other,? 
what  they  themselves  know  is  not  impossible;  and  again,  he  who  best 
inculcates  patience  manifests  it  by  example  before  he  enjoins  it  by 
precept. 

"  Be  thou  partaker  of  the  afflictions  of  the  Gospel." 
From  1  Thess.  iii.  2-4,  we  learn  that  Timothy  had  been  sent  to 
Thessalonica  to  establish  and  comfort  the  church,  that  no  man  might 
be  moved  by  their  afflictions ;  and  from  Pi,om.  viii.  17  and  18,  we  gather 
that  participation  in  sufferings  is  essential  to  participation  in  glory. 
Hence  we  may  infer  that  Timothy  was  specially  bound  to  observe  what 
he  himself  taught;  and  that  the  prospect  of  everlasting  blessedness 
proportioned  to  our  holy  and  devoted  suffering  may  well  repress  our 
shame  of  present  affliction. 

By  comparing  the  second  clause  of  the  verse  with  other  passages 
lessons  equally  important  and  interesting  may  be  obtained.  See  1  Cor. 
iv.  y :  2  Cor.  xi.  13-33,  where  affliction  is  said  by  the  apostle  to  be  the 
seal  of  his  apostleship;  and  1  Pet.  iv.  13  and  Col.  i.  24,  where  Chris- 
tians are  exhorted  not  only  to  bear  afflictions,  but  to  rejoice  in  them  ; 
and  Rev.  xii.  11,  where  the  end  of  affliction  is  set  forth  in  the  blessed- 
ness of  those  who  are  now  before  the  throne.     By  reference  to  1  Pet. 


INFERENTIAL    BEADING   OF    THE    BIBLE.  415 

iii.  13  and  iv.  IV,  it  will  be  seen  that  even  the  ungodly  are  not  free 
from  suffering,  and  that  the  surest  way  of  avoiding  afflictions,  or,  if 
it  cannot  be  avoided,  of  having  comfort  in  it,  is  to  cherish  fidelity  aa 
Christians. 

533.  These  rules  are  of  extensive  use.     They  may  be  ap- 
plied to  nearly  the  v^^hole  of  the  Bible ;  and  as  this 
kind  of  study  is  highly  instructive  it  may  be  well  to 
give  another  instance  or  two  of  the  application  of  them. 

We  take  a  passage  from  the  history  of  our  Lord.  In  John  xi.  15, 
we  read,  "  I  am  glad  for  your  sakes  that  I  was  not  there  to  the  intent 
ye  may  believe;  nevertheless  let  us  go  unto  him."  The  meaning  of 
the  words  we  suppose  to  have  been  gathered  from  the  general  usage 
of  language  and  from  comparison  with  other  parts  of  the  Scripture. 
The  obvious  facts  of  passage  are  the  following.  Christ  was  glad.  He 
was  glad  for  the  sake  of  his  disciples :  he  was  glad  that  he  was  not 
there.  To  the  intent  that  they  might  believe.  He  nevertheless  loved 
Lazarus,  and  determined  to  restore  him,  and  therefore  (said* he)  "let 
us  go  unto  him." 

1.  Christ  was  glad. 

Joy  may  be  at  times  becoming ;  on  connecting  this  fact  with  verses 
14,  35,  36,  we  infer  that  an  event,  in  itself  painful,  may  be  a  source 
of  joy  to  the  Christian;  or,  connecting  it  with  similar  facts  in  Scrip- 
ture, it  may  be  gathered  that  our  Saviour's  joy  was  always  found  in 
what  contributed  to  the  good  of  his  disciples  or  to  the  glory  of  His 
Father. 

2.  He  was  glad /or  the  sake  of  his  disciples. 

That  a  benevolent  mind  finds  happiness  in  the  improvement  of  others 
is  one  obvious  inference ;  that  some  of  the  dealings  of  Christ  were 
prompted  by  a  regard  to  the  welfare  of  his  disciples  is  another.  Both 
these  truths  are  in  the  sentence.  Looking  to  the  context,  we  find  that 
one  Christian  may  sometimes  suffer  for  the  good  of  others.  Comparing 
this  expression  with  other  parts  of  Scripture,  we  gather  a  conclusion 
more  general  still.  All  that  Christ  did  or  suffered  was  done  for  the 
sake  of  his  church.  Did  he  empty  himself  of  glory,  and  come  into  our 
world  in  circumstances  of  the  deepest  humiliation?  "  For  our  sakes 
he  became  poor."  Did  he  here  endure  sufferings  more  diversified  and 
intense  than  human  nature  had  ever  known?  "  He  bore  our  griefs  and 
he  carried  our  sorrows."  Did  he  devote  himself  to  our  interests  and 
sanctify  himself  for  the  work  of  mediation?  It  was /or  our  sakes  and 
that  he  might  be  sanctified  by  the  truth  (John  xvii.  19).     Did  a  voice 


416  INFERENTIAL    READING   OF   THE   BIBLE. 

from  heaven  comfort  Him  ?  "  This  voice  came,"  says  he,  "  not  hecause 
of  me,  hat  for  your  sakcs'  (John  xii.  30).  Did  he,  after  he  had  suffered, 
leave  the  world  ?  It  was  because  it  was  expedient  for  us.  Is  he  now 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high  ?  It  is  that  if  any  man  sin 
he  may  have  "  an  Advocate  with  the  Father."  Even  the  conduct  of 
his  providence  is  regulated  by  a  regard  for  the  interests  of  his  church. 
"  He  rebuked  kings  for  their  sakes."  He  spared  ancient  Israel,  though 
guilty,  and  lie  tells  them  that  they  were  spared  for  the  sake  of  his  true 
servants  who  were  found  among  them,  Isa.  Ixv.  8.  More  comprehen- 
sively still,  he  assures  us  that  all  things  are/or  our  sakes,  that  life  is  ours 
and  death,  and  things  present  and  things  to  come,  Rom.  viii.  28:  2 
Cor.  iv.  15. 

3.  He  was  glad  that  he  was  not  there,  i.  e.  to  heal  the  sick. 

To  withhold  deliverance  may  be  a  blessing.  On  comparing  this  verse 
■with  verses  21  and  32,  where  Martha  and  Mary  expressed  their  sur- 
prise that  Christ  was  not  there  ;  and  again,  with  verses  44,  45,  where  it 
is  said  that  the  Jews  believed,  we  infer  that  Christ's  purpose  is  some- 
times accomplished  by  means  which  are  not  consistent  with  the  expec- 
tations of  his  disciples.  This  truth  is  taught  in  a  limited  form  by  the 
context.  Comparing  the  truth  thus  ascertained  with  other  similar  his- 
tories, we  gather  the  general  conclusion  that  God's  ways  are  not  as  our 
ways,  nor  his  thoughts  as  our  thoughts.  Joseph,  for  instance,  was  sold 
into  Egypt  in  the  anguish  of  his  soul,  and  amidst  the  lamentations  of 
his  father.  In  Egypt  he  endured  bitter  temptation  and  imprisonment, 
yet  the  whole  of  his  affliction  seems  now  to  have  been  part  of  the  Di- 
vine plan,  and  was  certainly  the  means  of  preserving  his  family  alive. 
It  proved  advantageous,  moreover,  to  his  own  honor ;  and  the  history 
of  his  trial  suggests  many  a  lesson  for  the  improvement  of  young  men 
in  every  age. 

The  sufferings  of  Job  must  at  first  have  seemed  mysterious.  At  the 
close  of  his  history,  however,  all  is  explained  ;  for  God  blessed  his  latter 
end  more  than  his  beginning,  gave  him  honor  in  proportion  to  his  pre- 
vious afflictions,  and  has  handed  down  his  history  as  a  permanent  lesson 
of  patience  and  faith. 

The  three  Hebrew  youths  in  Babylon  were  found  faithful  among  the 
faithless,  and  for  their  conscientious  obedience  to  the  Divine  law  were 
thrown  into  the  fiery  furnace.  '  Was  God  there,  and  did  he  interpose  in 
their  behalf?  Not  in  the  way  we  might  have  hoped,  but  in  his  own. 
He  made  their  sufferings  the  means  of  giving  to  his  church  a  new  pro- 
mise of  the  Messiah  (for  a  fourth  was  seen  walking  with  them) ;  and 
they  themselves  were  uninjured,  so  that  even  the  smell  of  fire  was  not 
ujion  them.     In  the  end,  too,  not  at  the  beginning,  a  heathen  king  was 


INFERENTIAL    READING   OF   THE   BIBLE.  417 

compelled  to  acknowledge  that  no  god  was  able  to  deliver  like  the  God 
of  the  Hebrews.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  Divine  purpose  was  accom- 
plished by  a  process  very  different  from  the  expectation  of  the  sufferers. 
The  folly  of  judging  the  dispensations  of  God  during  their  operation, 
and  the  wisdom  of  waiting  till  the  day  when  all  shall  be  made  plain,  is 
equally  a  lesson  of  this  part  of  the  verse,  and  might  be  illustrated  in 
the  same  way. 

4.  All  this  was  done  to  the  intent  that  the  disciples  might  believe. 
Christ,  therefore,  is  anxious  in  his  dealings  to  increase  our  faith.    His 

disciples  were  not  credulous,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  the  contrary. 
Their  faith  was  not  inclination,  but  conviction,  and  the  result  of  evi- 
dence. That  they  believed  the  things  they  describe,  ought  therefore  to 
add  to  the  weight  of  their  testimony.  Comparing  this  clause  with  ver. 
45,  where  it  is  said  that,  as  the  result  of  the  miracle,  many  of  the  Jews 
believed,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  same  exhibition  of  Divine  power 
which  is  adapted  to  increase  a  believer's  faith,  is  adapted  to  produce 
conviction  in  the  undecided.  Comparing  it  with  John  xx.  31,  we  gather 
that  the  miracles  of  the  Gospel  should  have  the  same  influence  upon  us 
as  they  had  upon  those  that  witnessed  them ;  the  record  of  them  by 
credible  witnesses  making  them  standing  miracles.  Comparing  it  with 
passages  in  which  it  is  implied  that  the  disciples  had  believed,  we  gather 
that  faith  admits  of  increase ;  and  comparing  it  with  Romans  v.  1,  where 
Christians  are  said  to  be  "justified  by  faith;"  and  with  Acts  xxvi.  18, 
where  they  are  said  to  be  "sanctified  by  faith;"  and  with  Gal.  ii.  20: 
2  Cor.  i.  24,  where  faith  is  said  to  be  the  secret  of  their  life  and  stead- 
fastness, we  gather  that  this  increase  of  faith  is  thus  precious  in  the 
esteem  of  our  Lord  because  it  brings  with  it  to  the  Christian  an  increase 
both  of  usefulness  and  of  peace. 

5.  Christ  had  nevertheless  resolved  to  go  unto  him. 

His  case  might  seem  desperate,  but  it  was  not  beyond  the  reach  of 
Divine  power.  Christ  often  does  above  what  we  think.  The  extremity 
of  the  sufferer  was  the  opportunity  of  the  Redeemer. 

Comparing  this  verse  with  the  following,  it  is  plain  that  the  words 
of  our  Lord  are  often  mi.sunderstood,  and  misunderstood  through  un- 
belief. 

Comparing  this  clause  with  ver.  8,  we  learn  that  Christ  is  ready 
to  expose  himself  to  personal  peril  in  order  to  comfort  or  relieve  his 
disciples. 

Comparing  it  with  ver.  42-44,  we  gather  that  when  the  purpose  of 
affliction  is  answered,  the  affliction  itself  is  removed.  From  the  wl:ole 
verse  we  gather  that  God  speaks  to  us  in  the  afflictions  of  others,  and 


418  INFERENTIAL    BEADING   OF    THE    BIBLE. 

that  if  we  disregard  his  voice  we  are  the  more  likely  to  be  chastised 
ourselves. 

534.  Sometimes  the  student  of  Scripture  is  anxious  to  as- 
certain what  it  teaches  on  some  one  question.  In  which  case 
he  uses  each  passage  with  a  special  reference  not  to  all  it  con- 
tains, but  to  the  truth  which  he  is  investigating :  an  exercise 
which  combines  the  systematic  with  the  inferential  study  of 
the  Bible. 

If,  for  example,  he  wishes  to  obtain  a  fall  view  of  what  is  taught  in 
Scripture  on  affliction,  he  examines  a  few  passages,  and  soon  finds  that 
they  begin  to  arrange  themselves  in  his  mind.  Some  treat  of  affliction 
generally,  some  of  the  afflictions  of  Christians,  and  some  of  the  afflic- 
tions of  the  impenitent ;  while  throughout  he  finds  truths  and  duties 
most  instructively  blended.  In  the  end  he  ascertains  such  results  as 
these : 

Affliction  -. — Men  born  to  it.  Job  v.  6,  7.  Is  the  consequence  and 
a  punishment  of  sin.  Gen.  iii.  16-19  :  Prov.  i.  31 :  2  Sam.  xii.  14:  Psa. 
Ixxxix.  30-32 :  Isa.  Ivii.  17:  Jer.  ii.  14-17.  For  which,  however,  it 
cannot  atone,  Isa.  v.  25:  Lev.  xxvi.  14-39:  Lam.  iii.  1-22:  Dan.  ix. 
16-19.  Is  appointed  by  God,  who  regulates  the  measure  and  continu- 
ance of  it,  Psa.  Ixvi.  11 :  Job  i.  21 :  Lam.  iii.  33  :  2  Kings  xiv.  26,  27: 
Isa.  ix.  1;  Jer.  xlvi.  28:  Gen.  xv.  13,  14;  Jer.  xxix.  10.  Is  often  deep 
and  severe,  Psa.  xviii.  4,  5 :  1  Pet.  iv.  12.  But  tempered  with  mercy 
and  less  than  we  deserve,  Psa.  Ixxviii.  38,  39 ;  Isa.  xxx.  20 ;  Ezra  ix.  13. 

Affliction  is  often  blessed  to  the  Christian — showing  him  his  errors, 
Numb.  xxi.  6,  7:  Luke  xv.  16,  17.  Bringing  him  back  to  God  and 
keeping  him  there,  Psa.  Ixxviii.  34 :  Hos.  ii.  6,  7 :  Isa.  x.  20 :  Ezek.  xiv. 
10,  11.  Humbling  him,  trying  and  perfecting  his' patience,  faith,  and 
obedience,  Pv,om.  v.  3  ;  1  Pet.  i.  7  :  Jud.  iii.  4  :  Heb.  xi.  17.  Testing  and 
exhibiting  his  sincerity.  Job.  xxiii.  10 :  Prov.  xvii.  3.  Fitting  him  for 
greater  usefulneiss :  explaining  the  Bible :  purifying  the  heart,  Mai. 
iii.  23.  Tending  to  the  furtherance  of  the  Gospel,  Acts  viii.  3,  4 :  2  Tim. 
iv.  17.  Illustrating  the  power  and  love  of  God,  2  Cor.  iv.  7-11 :  John 
ix.  1-3;  xi.  4.  Ending,  when  rightly  endured,  in  the  greater  blessed- 
ness, 1  Pet.  iv.  13,  14,  etc. 

Its  influence  is  exemplified  in  Joseph's  brethren.  Gen.  xlii.  21 :  in 
Israel,  Deut.  viii.  3,  5:  David,  2  Sam.  xvi.  12:  Josiah,  2  Kings  xxii. 
19;  Hezekiah,  2  Chron.  xxxii.  25,  26:  Manasseh,  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12. 

In  the  case  of  the  impenitent  affliction  is  multiplied,  and  often 


INFERENCES — PARABLES.  419 

sudden,  Psa.  xxxii.  10;  xvi.  4:  Prov.  vi.  15:  Isa.  xxx.  13.  Is  a  conse- 
quence of  impenitence,  Zech.  vii.  11,  12:  Prov.  i.  24-33.  Is  of  itself 
ineffectual  for  conversion  ;  often  hardens  the  heart,  or  produces  slavish 
fear,  Isa.  i.  5 :  Jer.  ii.  30 :  Neh.  ix.  27-29  :  Jer.  xlix.  5.  Is  no  cause  of 
fear  to  the  righteous,  Psa.  xc.  1,  5.  Is  a  warning  to  others,  1  Cor.  x. 
5-11 :  2  Pet.  ii.  6.     God  will  be  gloritied  in  it,  Ezek.  xxviii.  22,  23. 

Its  influence  exemplified  in  Pharaoh,  Ex.  viii.  8-15:  Ahaziah,  2  Kinga 
i.  1-4 :  Gehazi,  2  Kings  v.  27 :  Jehoram,  2  Chron.  xxi.  12-19  :  Athaliah, 
2  Chron.  xxii.  10 :  Uzziah,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  19,  21 :  Ahaz,  2  Chron.  xxviii. 
5-8,  22. 

The  AFFLICTED  CHRISTIAN  should  exe*'cise  resignation  and  patience, 
Psa.  xxxix.  9:  James  i.  4:  1  Pet.  ii.  20.  Acknowledge  the  justness  of 
his  chastisements,  Mic.  vii.  9.  Avoid  sin,  John  v.  14.  Trust  in  God, 
Psa.  Ixxi.  20;  Psa.  Ivi.  11.  Praise  him,  Psa.  xxxv.  18;  Psa.  Ivi.  8-12. 
Take  encouragement  from  past  mercies,  Psa.  xlii.  4,  5 :  2  Cor.  i.  10. 
Remember  that  God  has  promised  that  in  time  of  trouble  he  will  be 
with  him;  will  support,  comfort,  and  finally  deliver  him,  Isa.  xliii.  2; 
Psa.  xxvii.  5,  6:  2  Cor.  vii.  6:  Psa.  cvii.  13. 

The  AFFLICTED  CHRISTIAN  should  be  visited,  pitied,  protected,  com- 
forted and  relieved,  James  i.  27:  Job  vi.  14:  Psa.  Ixxxii.  3:  1  Thess. 
iv.  18:  1  Tim.  v.  10. 

The  character  of  the  afflicted  Christian  is  illustrated  in  Joseph,  Gen. 
xxxix.  20-23  :  Moses,  Deut.  ix.  18,  19 :  Job  i.  22  :  Eli,  1  Sam.  iii.  18 : 
Ezra,  Ezr.  ix.  5:  Nehemiah,  Neh.  i.  1 :  Daniel,  Dan.  ix.  3-19:  Paul, 
Acts  XX.  22-24 :  2  Cor.  xii.  7-9 :  Apostles,  1  Cor.  iv.  9-13 :  2  Cor.  vi. 
4-10. 

535.  Sometimes,  again,  the  student  of  Scripture  is  desirous 

of  investigating  the  history  of  Scripture  practically  v^^ith  ref- 

'  erence  to  some  particular  fact ;  or  parables  with  reference  to 

their  scope;  and  then  the  question  is  what  is  taught  on  the 

subject  of  inquiry  by  each  phrase  or  verse. 

The  parable,  for  example,  of  the  Prodigal  Son  may  be  variously  re- 
garded;  either  with  Neander,  as  an  exhibition  of  Pharisaism  and  its 
opposite,  or  with  Lisco,  as  an  exhibition  of  true  penitence,  and  of  the 
treatment  it  receives  from  God  and  man.  Taking  the  second  view,  we 
have  the  following  connection  of  thoughts  : 

i.  We  have  the  necessity  of  repentance,  grounded  (Luke  xv.  11-32)— 
1.  In  the  state  of  preceding  sinfulness : 


420  INFEKENCES — PARABLES. 

(a.)  Its  origin,  ver.  12.     Self-sufficient  waywardness :  give  me, 

father. 
(p.)  Its  nature,  ver.  13.     And  not  long  after. 
(c.)  Its  manifestation,  ver.  13.     And  there  wasted. 

2.  In  the  misery  consequent  upon  sin  : 

(a.)  The  man  has  still  a  desire  after  blessedness,  ver.  14. 
(b.)  And  feels  his  misery,  ver.  14.     Began  to  be  in  want, 
(c.)  And  seeks  in  vain  for  relief,  ver.  15.    Went  and  joined  him- 
self. 
(d.)  And  sinks  the  longer,  the  deeper,  ver.  15.   Sent  to  feed  swine, 
(e.)  Without  finding  the  longed-for  satisfaction,  ver  16. 

ii.  The  nature  of  repentance  is  described: 

1.  The  sinner  comes  to  a  right  understanding,  ver  17. 

2.  Perceives  the  greatness  of  his  misery,  ver.  17.     How  many,  etc. 

3.  Forms  a  good  resolution,  ver.  18.     I  will  arise. 

4.  Recognises  his  guilt,  ver.  18.     Father,  I  have  sinned. 

5.  Humbles  himself,  ver.  19. 

6.  By  faith  actually  returns,  ver.  20.     He  arose  and  came  to  his 

father. 

iii.  The  results  of  repentance,  ver.  20-30. 

1.  In  reference  to  a  compassionate  God,  ver.  20-24. 

(a.)  God  descries  the  repentant  feeling,  ver.  20.     When  yet  a 

great  way. 
(6.)  Graciously  receives  the  sinner,  ver.  20.     Had  compassion, 
(c.)  Facilitates  the  execution  of  his  purpose,  ver.  21. 
(d.)  Heaps  upon  him  marks  of  love,  and  goodness,  ver.  22,  23. 
(e.)  And  calls  for  a  genei'al  expression  of  joy,  ver.  24. 

2.  In  reference  to  the  self-righteous,  ver.  25-32.  i 
(a.)  Their  cold-hearted  envy  is  excited,  ver.  28.     He  was  angry. 
{b.)  They  accuse  God  of  unrighteousness,  ver.  29,  30. 

(c.)  They  overlook  God's  gracious  goodness  to  themselves,  ver.  31. 
(d.)  And  violate  the  obligations  of  mutual  love,  ver.  32. 
So,  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  we  have  worldly  un- 
belief, Luke  xvi.  19-31 — 

1.  In  its  manifestations — 

1.  Insatiable  thirst  for  enjoyment,  ver.  19.     Clothes  in  purple, 
lives  sumptuously, 
(a.)  It  seeks  all  sorts  of  enjoyment. 


INFERENCES — PARABLES.  421 

(6.)  It  seeks  in  these  all  its  satisfaction — every  day. 
(c.)  It  regards  the  temporal  as  its  only  good. 
2.  Cold-hearted  uncharitableness,  ver.  20,  21. 
(a.)  It  despises  the  poor  as  worthless,  ver.  20. 
(6.)  It  hardens  itself  against  the  rights  of  misery,  ver.  20. 
(c.)  It  gives  no  relief,  ver.  21. 

ii.  In  its  final  condition  : — 

1.  It  is  fearfully  undeceived,  ver.  22,  23. 

(a.)  In  regard  to  the  value  of  its  enjoyments,  ver.  23. 

(5.)  In  regard  to  the  value  of  salvation  now  imperfectly  appre- 
hended. 

(c.)  In  regard  to  the  relation  between  Lazarus  and  God,  in 
Abraham's  bosom. 

2.  Its  sinful  misapprehensions  remain,  ver.  24. 

(a.)  As  to  trust  in  descent  from  Abraham.     Father  Abraham. 
(6.)  As  to  imaginary  hopes  of  salvation.     Have  mercy. 
(c.)  As  to  its  unholy  preference  for  personal  comfort.     Dip  the 
tip,  and  cool  my  tongue. 

3.  It  is  self-condemned  by  an  evil  conscience,  ver.  25-31. 

(o.)  As  dealt  with  justly,  ver.  25. 

(6.)  As  incapable,  from  its  state  of  mind,  of  deliverance,  ver.  26. 

(c.)  As  being  without  excuse. 

Because  no  want  of  means  of  grace,  ver.  27-29. 

Because  these  means  sufficient  for  salvation,  ver.  30,  31.» 

536.  The  results  in  these  examples  (which  might  be  greatly 
extended)  are  reached  in  an  order  different  from  the  one  in 
which  they  are  now  given.  Here  we  have  first  the  result  and 
then  the  proof  passage ;  but  in  investigating  a  subject  we 
turn  first  from  passage  to  passage,  and  then  state  their  import 
in  the  form  of  a  general  lesson.  The  text  and  the  lesson  is 
the  order  of  inquiry;  the  lesson  and  the  proof  is  the  order 
of  instruction. 

The  exercise  of  following  out  truth  in  this  way  is  one  of  the 
most  instructive  in  which  a  Christian  can  engage. 

537.  For  the  further  study  of  this  part  of  the  subject  see 

•  See  Lisco  on  the  Parables. 
36 


422  INFERENCES — PARABLES. 

any  common-place  book  of  the  Bible — especially  "  Talbot's 
Bible,"  and  the  common-place  books  of  Strutt  and  Locke. 
"  Scripture  Text  arranged/'  is  a  very  useful  manual  of  sub- 
jects classified  under  their  respective  heads  and  illustrated 
by  Scripture  examples. 

On  the  subject  of  this  chapter,  the  inferential  reading  of  Scripture, 
see  Rarnbach's  "  Institutiones  Hermeneuticas,"  lib.  iv.,  c.  3;  Francke's 
"Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Scripture  ;"  Claude's  "  Essay  on  the  Cora- 
position  of  a  Sermon;"  and  especially,  for  the  illustrations,  the  "Com- 
mentary" of  Matth.  Henry,  one  of  the  richest  storehouses  of  evan- 
gelical truth.  Felicitous  examples  abound,  also,  in  the  writings  of 
Rev.  R.  Cecil  and  Rev.  W.  Jay. 


THE   BOOKS   OF   THE   BIBLE.  423 


PART  II. 


THE   BOOKS   OF   THE    BIBLE. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

"  Though  many  other  books  are  comparable  to  cloth,  in  which,  by  a 
small  pattern,  we  may  safeljr  judge  of  the  whole  piece,  yet  the  Bible 
is  like  a  fair  suit  of  arras,  of  which,  though  a  shred  may  assure  you 
of  the  fineness  of  the  colors  and  richness  of  the  stuff,  yet  the  hangings 
never  appear  to  their  true  advantage  but  when  they  are  displayed  to 
their  full  dimensions  and  are  seen  together." — Boyle  :  On  the  Style  oj 
Scripture. 

1.  "We  now  come  to  the  study  of  the  books  of  the  Bible. 
Already  we  have  considered — 

rrn  1    T    ■   •  p  ci      ■  m  Subjects  al- 

The  general  divisions  of  Scripture :  the  two  Testa-  ready  con- 

sidered. 

ments  :  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  holy  writings 
of  the  Old :  the  Gospels,  Epistles,  and  Acts,  and  the  Revela- 
tions, of  the  New:  chapters,  verses,  a,nd  other  sections : 

The  claims  of  Scripture  as  genuine,  as  authentic,  and  as 
inspired,  with  the  evidences  of  its  claims  (Chaps,  i.  ii.) : 

The  peculiarities  of  Scripture  as  a  revelation  of  God,  of 
man,  and  of  the  plan  of  salvation  reconciling  both,  securing 
at  once  peace  and  holiness :  revelation  gradually  communi- 
cated, everywhere  consistent;  taught,  however,  without  a 
formally-announced  system,  though  all  centring  in  the  cross 
(Chap.  iii.  1-5) : 

The  principles  of  the  interpretation,  and  the  use  of  exter- 
nal helps ;  the  spirit,  above  all,  in  which  inquiries  into  the 
meaning  of  Scripture  should  be  conducted  (iv.  especially  §  2) : 

The  systematic  study  of  Scripture ;  the  best  methods  of 
applying  it  to  practical  life,  and  the  difficulties  of  various 
kinds  connected  with  all  those  questions  (v.  vi.  vii). 


424  USE   OF    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 

Having  thus  viewed  sacred  Scripture  as  a  whole,  we  pro- 
ceed to  examine  particular  portions  and  to  apply  more 
minutely  the  rules  and  principles  already  discussed. 

THE    TWO    PARTS    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

2.  The  Bible  is  composed  of  two  parts  :  the  Old  Testament 

and  the  New.     The  second  containing  a  full  revela- 

The  two  .  T  .    .  .  ° 

parts  of  the  tion  of  the  Divine  will,  and  a  plan  of  salvation 
addressed  to  all.  The  first  containing  not  all  pro- 
bably that  God  revealed  in  early  times  to  our  race,  but  as 
much  as  he  deemed  it  necessary  to  preserve.  Every  part  of 
what  is  thus  revealed  being  "  profitable  for  instruction,  for 
reproof,  for  rectification,  and  for  establishment  in  righteous- 
ness." 

3.  The  use  of  the  fiost  Testament  is  highly  important :  and 
Use  of  th  ^  simple  statement  of  the  use  will  show  the  connec- 
fii'st-  tion  of  the  two. 

1.  Though  most  of  it  was  addressed  to  one  nation,  yet  it  enjoins 
nauch  on  man  as  man,  and  contains  principles  of  morality  which  are 
universal  and  eternal.  The  precepts  which  were  given  to  Adam,  the 
decalogue,  and  the  appeals  of  the  whole  book  illustrate  and  enforce 
moral  truth. 

2.  Much  of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  history  of  God's 
government.  In  that  government  he  illustrates  his  own  character  and 
ours ;  and  whatever  advantage  an  inspired  record  of  this  kind  can 
give,  we  derive  from  this  part  of  the  sacred  volumes. 

3.  Further,  the  hopelessness  of  salvation  by  law  is  clearly  taught  in 
this  early  dispensation.  The  patriarchal  faith,  with  its  immediate  or 
traditional  communications  ended  in  a  corruption,  which  not  even  the 
Deluge  could  check.  Solemn  legal  institutes,  with  rites  and  sanctions 
most  instructive  and  awful,  failed  to  preserve  the  people  from  idolatry, 
though  the  Great  Legislator  himself  repeatedly  interposed  ;  and  when, 
after  the  captivity,  idolatry  ceased,  formalism  and  infidelity  extended 
on  every  side,  and  at  length  prevailed  (Eart  ii..  Chap.  iv).  In  the 
meantime,  the  power  of  natural  religion  was  tried  among  the  heathen : 
and  the  result  of  the  whole,  the  result  of  an  experiment  carried  on 
under  every  form  of  government,  amidst  different  degrees  of  civiliza- 
tion, with  traditional  knowledge  and  immediate  light,  is  a  demonstra- 
tion, that  in  our  fallen  state,  reformation  by  law  is  hopeless,  and  that 


CONNECTION    OF    DIFFERENT   BOOKS.  425 

unless  some  other  plan  be  introduced,  our  race  must  perish.  The  Old 
Testament  was  given,  therefore,  in  part,  to  show  us  our  sins,  and  to  shut 
us  up  into  faith  (Gal.  iii.  23). 

4.  To  this  new  faith  it  is  also  an  introduction,  teaching  to  the 
spiritual  and  humble  under  the  first  dispensation,  more  or  less  of  the 
plan  of  salvation  to  be  revealed  under  the  second.  Hence  its  types, 
prophecies,  sacrifices;  hence  assurances  of  pardon  to  the  penitent,  and 
the  revelation  of  a  God  ready  to  forgive,  though  the  procuring  cause 
of  pardon,  the  provision  that  was  to  reconcile  justice  and  mercy  is  not 
fully  stated,  nor  was  it  fully  understood  till  the  remedial  work  of  Christ 
was  accomplished. 

Other  purposes  also  were  no  doubt  answered  by  the  first  dispensa- 
tion. A  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  which  might  otherwise  have  died 
away,  Was  preserved ;  and  the  effect  of  true  religion,  even  in  its  less 
perfect  forms  was  illustrated  ;  but  the  foregoing  are  jirobably  the  chief. 

The  relation  of  the  New  Testament  to  these  purposes  of  the 
Old  is  plain.     The  second,  or  new  covenant,  is  a  „,    ., 

J^  _  '  riie  New 

double  completion  of  the  first.     As  the  first  was  a  ^'estament 

■■■  •'  .      .  a  fulfilment 

covenant  of  types  and  predictions,  the  second  fulfils  °^  the  oid. 
it ;  putting  the  fact  in  the  place  of  the  prophecy,  and  in  the 
place  of  the  shadow  the  substance.  As  under  the  first,  more- 
over, the  revelation  of  God  and  of  duty  was  imperfect,  and 
holiness  was  made,  or  became  ceremonial,  national,  and  con- 
tracted, the  second  filled  up  the  system  of  truth  and  of  pre- 
cept which  was  thus  but  partially  disclosed,  developing  and 
explaining  it  with  more  of  spiritual  application,  and  securing 
for  it  in  a  richer  degree  the  influence  of  the  Spirit.  In  a 
double  sense,  then,  the  Gospel  is  the  completion  (wPvi^pai^-K)  of 
the  law. 

4.  Regarding  the  whole  Bible  in  its  connections,  we  are 
prepared  to  trace  the  continual  development  of  Di-  „ 

■■•       ^  .       .        , .  Summary  of 

vine  truth  in  its  different  parts.  the  whole. 

In  the  first  eleven  chapters  of  Genesis,  and  in  Job,  we  have  the  out- 
lines of  the  patriarchal  religion;  in  the  later  chapters  of  Genesis  the 
history  of  the  transition  from  it  to  the  temporary  and  typical  dispensa- 
tion of  the  law.  In  the  other  books  of  the  Pentateuch  we  have  the 
moral  law,  illustrative  at  once  of  God's  character  and  of  human  duty ; 
the  ceremonial,  with  its  foreshadowings  of  the  great  atpnement-  and 


426  CONNECTION   OF   DIFFERENT   BOOKS. 

the  civil,  the  means  of  the  preservation  of  the  other  two.  In  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  whether  considered  in  itself,  or  as 
an  emblem  of  the  future  ;  in  the  apostasy  of  the  Jews,  their  punish- 
ment and  deliverance  under  the  Judges  ;  in  the  establishment  of  the 
prophetic  and  kingly  offices  of  later  books,  in  addition  to  the  priestly ; 
and  in  the  unchanging  and  yet  diversified  tenor  of  God's  providence  to 
his  separated  people,  we  have  our  knowledge  of  the  Divine  character 
and  purpose  varied  and  augmented.  In  the  Psalms  we  have  the  utter- 
ances of  devout  hearts,  and  much  that  is  predictive  of  Him  in  whom 
all  devout  hearts  trust.  In  the  words  of  Solomon  w&  learn  hoth  the 
wisdom  and  the  vanity  of  the  world,  and  are  led  forward  to  that  world 
where  there  is  neither  vanity  nor  vexation,  and  are  at  the  same  time 
conducted  beyond  the  maxims  of  worldly  prudence,  to  Him  who  is  the 
eternal  wisdom.  In  his  nuptial  song  we  see  God  in  a  new  relation  to 
his  church,  no  longer  her  Lord  (Baali),  but  her  husband  (Ishi).  In 
Isaiah  we  have  Messiah  as  prophet,  sacrifice  and  King,  gathering  from 
scenes  of  the  captivity  descriptions  of  a  double  deliverance.  In  Jere- 
miah the  same  scenes  are  revealed,  though  dimly,  and  as  in  a  cloudy 
and  dark  day.  In  Ezekiel  the  shadowy  priesthood  of  the  Jews  is  en- 
larged into  a  more  glorious  and  spiritual  worship :  and  in  Daniel  we 
see  the  termination  of  all  kingly  power  in  the  never-ending  empire  of 
the  Messiah.  The  minor  prophets  present  the  same  views  of  the  Di- 
vine government,  either  in  providence  or  in  grace,  and  Malachi  closes 
the  old  revelation  with  predictions  of  the  coming  appearance  of  the 
Sun  of  righteousness. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Matthew,  after  a  silence  of  the  prophetic 
spirit  for  400  years,  connects  the  ancient  Scriptures  with  the  more  re- 
cent, and  completes  prophecy  by  pointing  out  its  fulfilment  in  Christ. 
Luke  reveals  Him  as  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles;  Mark,  as  the 
mighty  God;  John  as  the  everlastimj  Father,  and  as  the  Prince  oi peace. 
The  Acts  continue  the  illustration  of  tbe  fulfilment  of  ancient  predic- 
tions, and  connect  the  facts  of  the  Gospel  history  with  the  Epistle.s. 
Each  Epistle,  while  giving  most  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  em- 
bodies distinctly  some  particular  truth.  The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalo- 
NIANS  exhibit  the  self- evidencing  power  of  the  Gospel  in  the  hearts  of 
believers,  and  set  forth  the  antecedents  and  result  of  the  second  coming. 
The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  explain  Christian  unity,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  gives  to  tho.se 
whom  Paul  had  not  then  visited,  a  full  view  of  the  Gospel,  without 
reference  to  any  previous  communication,  enlarging  most  on  the  great 
truth  f)f  "justification  by  faith."     The  simplicity  of  that  faith,  and  its 


BOOKS — HOW    CLASSIFIED.  427 

independence  of  the  law,  in  opposition  to  the  legality  of  Judaizing 
teachers,  is  maintained  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  The  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  shows  the  connection  between  the  Christian  faith  and 
the  law  ;  James  and  John  (1  Ep.),  the  connection  between  the  Christian 
faith  and  practical  holiness ;  while  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  shows 
that  language  is  unequal  to  express  the  fulness  which  is  communicated 
in  all  abounding  grace,  from  the  Head  to  the  body.  Other  Epistles 
treat  of  specific  duties  or  truths,  and  the  system  of  revelation  is  com- 
pleted by  the  Apocalypse,  which  unites  and  closes  the  prophecies  that 
go  before,  and  introduces  the  church,  after  all  her  trials  and  changes, 
first  into  millenial  rest  on  earth,  and  then  into  never-ending  blessednesa 
in  Heaven.* 

The  volume  that  speaks  of  these  topics  may  be  described 
as  consisting  of  tiuo  parts  ;  but  they  form  really  one    „ 
book:  and  the  truths  it  reveals  are  ever  the  same,     book, 
dimly  seen  or  fully  disclosed,  according  to  their  position  in 
relation  to  the  cross. 

5.  It  becomes  us,  then,  duly  to  appreciate  both  Testaments. 
Study  the  Old  to  see  what  God  has  done,  and  what, 
therefore,  he  is.     See  in  it  a  solemn  protest  against  and  inferi- 
idolatry  ;  a  proof  that  none  can  be  justified  by  the  o^dVesta-^ 
deeds  of  the  law ;   a  gradual  disclosiire  of  the  Di- 
vine will  and  of  the  plan  of  redemption.     Prize  it  for  these 
reasons,  but  remember,  also,  that  as  contrasted  with  the  New, 
inspired  writers  speak  of  it  in  depreciating  terms.     They  call 
it  "darkness,"  "flesh,"  "letter,"  "  bondage,"  "  the  elements 
of   the  world"    (Gal.    iv.   3),  while  the   Gospel  is   "  liaht," 
"spirit,"  liberty,"  "a  heavenly  kingdom."     Important  prin- 
ciples of  interpretation  are  thus  suggested,  nor  less  the  pecu- 
liar obligations  of  our  position.     It  is  now  doubly  binding 
upon  us  to  be  complete  in  all  His  will.     Our  dispensation  is 
light,  let  us  be  wise:  it  is  spirit,  let  us  be  holy:  it  is  power, 
let  us  be  strong. 

6.  The  thirty-nine  books  of  the  Old  Testament  may  be  ar- 

»See  Douglas  on  the  "  Truths  of  Religioa." 


428  THE   PENTATEUCH. 

oidTeMa-     ranged  on  different  principles.     Sometimes  they  are 

mont.  how  o  r  r  J 

divided.  classed  according  to  tlieir  contents  :  the  Pentateuch, 
the  historical  books,  the  poetical  books,  and  the  prophets. 
This  division  is  sufficiently  accurate,  though  several  of 
the  books  belong  to  two  or  more  classes,  and  the  division 
has  not  been  uniformly  observed.  Sometimes  they  are  classed 
in  the  order  of  time;  and  as  much  of  the  meaning  of  Scrip- 
ture is  elicited  by  the  chronological  study  of  the  different 
books,  we  shall  arrange  them  in  this  order,  not  overlooking, 
however,  the  difference  of  object  and  of  contents  on  which  the 
other  division  rests. 

The  importance  of  specific   introductions   to  each  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible  must  not  be  disreo;arded.     Such 

Importance  .  .  ,  . 

of  specific  introductions  will  often  prove,  as  Bishop  Percy  has 
tions.  observed,  "  the  best  of  commentaries,  a,nd  frequently 

supersede  the  want  of  any.  Like  an  intelligent  guide,  they 
direct  the  reader  right  at  his  first  setting  out,  and  thereby 
save  him  the  trouble  of  much  after  inquiry ;  or,  like  a  map 
of  the  country  through  which  he  is  to  travel,  they  give  him  a 
general  view  of  his  journey,  and  prevent  his  being  afterwards 
bewildered  and  lost." 

We  begin  with  the  Pentateuch  and  the  book  of  Job. 


CHAPTER  I. 

the  pentateuch  and  the  book  of  job. 

Sec.  1. — The  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the 

Pentateuch. 

7.  All  complete  copies  of  Holy  Scripture  begin  with  the 
Pentateuch.  It  was  called  by  the  Jews  "  the  law," 
or,  more  fully,  "  the  five-fifths  of  the  law  ;"  or  simply 


GENUINENESS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH.         429 

the  fifths  ;  a  single  book  being  called  "  a  fifth. "  '  The  several 
books  take  their  names  in  Hebrew  from  the  first  word  or 
words.  The  English  names  are  taken  from  the  Greek  version, 
and  indicate  in  part  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat.  Pen- 
t^ateuch  means,  in  Alexandrian  Greek,  "the  five  volumes;"  a 
name  first  used,  as  was  probably  the  division  into  five  books, 
by  Alexandrian  critics.'' 

8.  That  Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  is  the  tes- 
timony of  all  tradition,  both  Jewish  and  heathen ;   „ 

-  _        '  '    Genuine- 

and  this  testimony  is  sustained  by  the  record  itself."  ^^^^  proved 

•'  ,  •'  from  Scnp- 

The  book  is  quoted,  moreover,  by  nearly  all  the  tureand 
sacred  writers  as  his  work,*  and  is  appealed  to  as  genuine  and 
authentic  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles.®  The  Old  Testament 
quotations  begin  with  Joshua,  B.  C.  1451,  and  extend  over 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  B.  C.  430.  Indeed  the  coinci- 
dences between  the  Pentateuch  and  the  later  books  are  so 
numerous  and  exact  that  the  sense  of  the  law  might  have 
been  gathered,  if  the  law  itself  had  perished,  from  other  parts 
of  the  Bible  ;  every  allusion  in  the  later  books  having  also  its 
corresponding  passage  in  the  Pentateuch/ 

The  testimony  of  profane  history  is,  of  course,  much  later 
than  Scripture.     Mohammed  (A.  D.  569)  maintained  ^^^^     ^ 
that  Moses  was  inspired,  and  the  Jewish  law  divine.  ^^^^  history. 
Julian,  the    apostate  (331),   acknowledged  that   persons  in- 

*  „tr>r\  ^V.^^^  to''91  Ti:5'3^n.  and  -^i^aTan. 

^  Havernick.     TSy;^oc  ordinarily  means  an  implement. 

«Deut.  xxxi.  9,  24,  26:  Exod.  xvii.  14;  xxiv.  4-7;  xxxiv.  27,  28: 
Numb,  xxxiii.  2:  Deut.  xxviii.  58-fil. 

<>  Josh.  i.  7,  8;  xxiii.  6:  Comp.  xxiv.  26;  viii.  32,  34:  1  Kings  ii.  3: 
2  Kings  xxii.  8:  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  14. 

'  Matt.  XV.  4;  v.  17,  18,  etc. 

f  2  Kings  xiv.  6,  and  Deut.  xxiv.  16.  2  Kings  xxiii.  2-25,  and  Lev. 
ixvi.  3-45  :  Deut.  xxvii.  11  to  xxviii.  68.  Ezra  iii.  2-6,  and  Lev.  chaps, 
vi.,  vii.  Neh.  i.  7,  8,  and  Lev.  xxvi. :  Deut.  iv.  26,  27.  Isa.  i.  9,  and 
Gen.  xix.  2-4.  Isa.  xii.,  and  Exod.  xv.  2.  Micah  vi.  5,«i.nd  Numb, 
xxii.  5,  etc.  Amos  ii.  9,  and  Numb.  xxi.  21-24.  Amos  iv.  11,  and  Gen 
xix.  24,  25. 


430  GENUINENESS   OF   THE    PENTATEUCH. 

structed  of  God  ouce  lived  amongst  the  Israelites,  and  main- 
tained both  the  genuineness  and  the  authenticity  of  these 
books.  Porphyry  (233)  admits  their  genuineness,  and  con- 
tends for  the  truth  of  Sanconiathon's  accounts,  from  their 
accordance  with  the  Mosaic  history.  Nicolaus  of  Damascus, 
an  eminent  orator,  and  Strabo,  both  contemporaries  of  Au- 
gustus, ascribe  the  Pentateuch  to  Moses ;  as  do  Tacitus, 
Juvenal  and  Longinus  (A.  D.  273). 

Internal  evidence  corroborates  this  view.  (1.)  The  books 
Internal  ev-  "^^^®  evidently  Written  by  a  Hebrew,  speaking  the 
idence  of     language  and  cherishing  the  sentiments  of  his  nation. 

genuine-  o      o  o 

ness.  (2.)  They  were  written  by  a   Hebrew  acquainted 

with  Egypt  and  Arabia,  their  customs  and  learning.'  But 
Egyptian  learning  was  carefully  concealed  from  foreigners 
(Her.  ii.  c.  iii.  100, 101,  164,  168).  The  priests  alone,  and  the 
royal  family,  who  were  reckoned  as  priests,  had  access  to  it. 
To  this  class,  therefore,  the  writer  must  have  belonged. 
(3.)  There  is,  moreover,  an  exact  correspondence  between  the 
narrative  and  the  institutions,  showing  that  both  had  one 
author.  The  laws  are  not  given  in  the  form  of  statutes,  but 
are  mixed  with  narrative,  and  are  inserted  as  the  exigencies 
requiring  them  arose.  They  are  often  briefly  sketched,  and 
afterwards  repeated  at  greater  length,  with  such  modifications 
as  were  demanded  by  altered  circumstances.^  (4.)  No  less 
remarkable  is  the  agreement  between  the  style  of  the  different 
books  and  the  circumstances  of  Moses.  In  the  earlier  nar- 
rative of  Exodus  and  Numbers  the  style  is  broken  and  abrupt. 
In  Deuteronomy  it  is  continuous  and  parental.  The  history 
of  the  antediluvians  is  brief  and  simple ;  of  the  Jews,  full 
and  explicit ;  and  the  whole  exhibits  the  unity  of  design 
which  bespeaks  a  single  author. 

^See  Gen.  xiii.  10;  xl.  11,  16  (see  pp.  380-1);  xlii.  9;  xlvii.  20-6: 
Deut.  xi.  10 :  Numb.  xiii.  22. 

b  Compare  Exod.  xxi.  27,  and  Deut.  xv.  12,  17.  Numb.  iv.  24-33, 
and  vii.  1-9.  Lev.  xvii.  3,  4,  and  Deut.  xii.  5,  6,  21,  Exod.  xxii.  26, 
and  Deut.  xxiv.  6,  10-15. 


AUTHENTICITY    OF   THE    PENTATEUCH.  431 

The  first  doubt  expressed  on  this  question  in  England  was  by  Thomas 
Hobbes,  A.  D.  1650,  at  least  three  thousand  years  alter  the  first  publi- 
cation of  the  Pentateuch.  Nor  were  doubts  expressed  by  any  known 
writer  earlier  than  the  13th  century. 

9.  The  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
no  less  decisive  ;  though,  as  many  of  the  events  are  ^^ 

recorded  only  here,  it  is  necessarily  less  comprehen-        ticity. 
sive  than  similar  evidence  in  the  case  of  ordinary  history. 

Several  of  the  historical  statements  of  the  Pen-    .,    .  , 

Its  St8itG~ 

tateuch  are  confii-med  by  the  traditions  of  ancient    ments  conr 

*'  firmed  by 

nations  tradition. 

In  proof  of  its  general  accuracy  Josephus  appeals  to  various  public 
records,  and  to  books  extant  in  his  time  (A.  D.  70),  confirming  in  this 
way  the  history  of  the  flood,  of  the  delivery  from  Egypt,  and  of  the 
expulsion  of  the  Canaanites.  Creation  completed  in  six  distinct  days, 
or  in  six  distinct  periods ;  the  division  of  time  into  weeks,  the  seventh 
day  being  holy  ;  the  state  of  innocency,  or  the  golden  age  ;  the  promise 
of  a  Mighty  Deliverer ;  the  flood ;  the  ark ;  are  traditions  preserved 
among  nearly  all  nations,  and  have  been  shown  to  exist  in  the  East, 
though  strangely  disguised,  in  the  very  age  in  which  Moses  lived. 
Faber's  Horss  Mosaicee  i.  1-136 ;  Graves  on  the  Pentateuch  i.;  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones's  Works,  and  Maurice's  Hindosta,n.  See  other  traditions  in 
S.  Turner's  Sacred  History  i.,  and  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  111.  Antedil.  and 
Patriarchs. 

A  new  kind  of  proof  has  sprung  up  in  our  own  days.  It  has  been 
said,  for  example,  that  the  following  customs,  or  allusions,  are  Asiatic, 
and  not  Egyptian,  or  are  later  than  the  exode :  building  with  bricks, 
Exod.  i.  14;  keeping  asses — animals  odious  to  the  Egyptians;  the 
presence  of  eunuchs,  implied  in  the  name  given  to  the  captain  of  the 
guard,  Gen.  xxxvri.  36 ;  the  freedom  of  domestic  life  implied  in  Gen. 
xxxix. ;  the  use  of  wine,  which  Herodotus  says  was  not  made  in  Egypt ; 
of  rings,  seals,  and  other  ornaments,  xli.  42 ;  the  appointment  of  stew- 
ards, xliii.  16,  19 ;  xliv.  1 :  the  custom  of  sitting  at  table,  xliii.  32. 
All,  however,  have  been  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  ancient  Egyp- 
tian monuments.  Bricks  are  still  found  with  the  names  of  the  oldest 
Egyptian  dynasties  stamped  upon  them.  To  the  art  of  wine-making 
Rosellini  devotes  a  section  of  his  work  ;  and  upon  the  very  monuments 
whence  his  illustrations  are  taken  appear  eunuchs,  stewards,  ornaments 


432 


AUTHENTICITY — EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE. 


and  entertainmeirts,  exhibiting  habits  of  social  intercourse,  and  modes 
of  sitting,  such  as  the  Pentateuch  implies. 


ANCIENT  fTEALS,  ETC. 

That  the  Egyptians  shaved,  Gen.  xli.  14,  and  carried  burdens,  not  on 
the  shoulder,  but  on  the  head,  xl.  16 ;  that  shepherds  were  treated  with 
great  contempt, — the  butts  of  Egyptian  wit;  that  caste  existed;  that 
foreigners  were  naturalized  by  clothing  them  in  the  celebrated  Egyptian 
linen,  Gen.  xli.  42;  are  facts  confirmed  by  ancient  sculptures,  or  ex- 
pressly mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  peculiar  to  Egypt. 

See  Hengstenberg's  "  Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses." 

The  statements  of  the  Pentateuch  are  confirmed,  moreover,  ■ 
.         by  the  facts  of  history  (a),  ethnography  {h),  and 
faots.  geology  (c),  so  far  as  these  have  been  clearly  ascer- 

tained. 

(a.)  No  nation  has  credible,  or  even  intelligible,  records  extending 
earlier  than  the  flood.  Tlie  dynasties  of  Egypt  run  up,  on  the  largest 
interpretation,  no  higher  than  B.  C.  2200  (ChampoUion).  The  reign  of 
Yoa,  the  first  Chinese  emperor  mentioned  by  Confucius  (B.  C.  450), 
cannot  be  earlier  than  B.  C.  2500;  nor  is  there  any  historical  certainty 
till  the  year  B.  G.  782  (Klapi'oth).  The  celebrated  chronology  of  India 
reaches  no  higher  than  B.  C.  2256,  and  then  we  have  Buddha  himself, 
the  representative,  perhaps,  of  Noah  (Col.  Tod).  Sucli  is  the  testimony 
of  witnesses  who  have  examined  the  most  ancient  chronological  systems, 
avowedly  without  any  leaning  to  the  Pentateuch. 


AUTHENTICITY — INTERNAL   EVIDENCE.  433 

(6.)  Ethnography,  in  its  threefold  division,  philological,  physiological 
and  ethical,  is  equally  in  favor  of  the  Mosaic  account.  The  mytho- 
logical S3^stems  of  India,  China,  Greece  and  Scandinavia,  are  really 
identical  (Sir.  W.  Jones);  while  Shemitic  nations  are  all  monotheistic, 
indicating  in  each  case  identity  of  origin.  All  known  languages,  it  iff 
admitted,  are  reducible  to  a  few  families :  the  Indo-European,  the  She- 
mitic, the  Ugro-Tartarian,  the  Malayan,  the  Transfengetic,  which  are 
chiefly  monosyllabic ;  the  American  and  the  African.  Chev.  Bunsen 
and  Mr.  Schon  have  already  traced  the  Egyptian,  and  several  of  the 
African  dialects,  to  a  Shemitic  origin.  The  American  languages  are 
proved  to  be  chiefly  Asiatic,  and  the  ablest  scholars  find  among  all  such 
affinities  as  bespeak  original  unity  (so  Humboldt,  Klaproth,  F.  Schlegel, 
Balbi,  Herder).  Philologically  and  physiologically  "the  human  race," 
says  the  last-named,  "  is  a  progressive  whole,  dependent  upon  a  common 
origin."  "With  the  increase  of  knowledge  ill  every  direction,"  is  the 
last  testimony  of  Dr.  Pritchard,  "  we  find  continually  less  and  less 
reason  for  believing  that  the  diversified  races  of  men  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  insuperable  barriers." 

(c.)  Nor  is  geology  an  unimportant  witness.  One  of  its  clearest  les- 
sons is  the  recentness  of  the  ''  last  great  geological  change."  The 
present  state  of  the  globe  "cannot  date  much  further  than  five  or  six 
thousand  years"  (Saussure,  Cuvier,  De  Luc). 

Independently,  even,  of  external  evidence,  the  internal  is 
itself  decisive.     The  artlessness  of  the  style,  the  fre-      ^  , 

•'      '  Internal 

quent  genealogies,  the  impartiality  of  the  author  in  evidence, 
recording  the  faults  of  the  Jews  and  his  own,*  are  all  obvious. 
Add  to  this  that  Judaism  is  founded  upon  the  supposed 
truthfulness  of  these  recoids.  They  give  the  history  of  Jew- 
ish institutions,  and  the  reasons  for  the  observance  of  them. 
If  there  be  a  forgery,  when  could  it  have  been  executed? 
Not  when  the  version  of  the  LXX  was  made  (B.  C.  275). 
Not  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (B.  C.  536),  Ezra  ii.  62. 
Not  on  the  division  of  the  kingdom  (975).  Not  in  the  days 
of  Samuel  (1095).  Not  in  the  four  hundred  years  preceding. 
For  at  each  successive  era  there  were  thousands  interested  in 
detecting  the  forgery,  and  in  setting  aside  the  burdensome 

»  See  history  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob;  also  Deut.  xxvi.  5:  Exod. 
ii.  14:  Numb.  xx.  10-13. 

37 


434  PENTATEUCH    EPITOMISED. 

and  peculiar  institutions  founded  upon  it.  To  suppose  that 
any  man  could  secure  the  observance  of  Circumcision,  of  the 
Passover,  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  or  of  tabernacles,  on  the 
plea  that  these  rules  had  been  observed  from  the  first,  and  for 
the  reasons  assigned,  when  it  must  have  been  known  that  this 
statement  was  untrue,  is  to  suppose  a  greater  miracle  than  the 
record  contains.  And  these  institutions  had  their  origin,  it 
will  be  noticed,  not  in  the  ordinary  events  of  the  history,  but 
in  the  miracles :  so  that  by  them,  not  only  the  history,  but 
each  miracle  is  confirmed." 

10.  It  may  be  added  that  it  is  supposed  by  some  writers 

that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  used  various  an- 
documents    cieut  documcuts  in  preparing  this  volume.     Hence 

quotations  from  other  books,  and  hence,  perhaps, 
the  different  names  applied,  in  different  parts,  with  marked 
uniformity  to  God. 

In  Numb.  xxi.  14, 15,  for  example,  "  the  book  of  the  wars  of  Jehovah" 
is  quoted,  and  m  ver.  27-30  is  an  extract  from  a  war-song  of  the  Amo- 
rites.  So  in  Gen.  i.-ii.  3,  the  name  applied  to  God  is  uniformly  God 
(C^nbi*  Eloliiai).  In  Gen.  ii.  4-3,  it  is  Jehovah-God.  In  chap.  v.  it  is 
God  only,  except  in  ver.  29,  whei-e  a  quotation  is  made.  In  Gen.  vi.-ix. 
God  and  Jehovah  are  used  indiscriminately  everywhere,  except  in  ix. 
29,  where  a  quotation  is  made;  and  in  chaps,  xii.,  xiii.,  Jehovah  only. 
In  chap.  xiv.  a  new  name  is  introduced,  "God  most  High,"  and  is  used 
throughout  the  chapter. 

This  opinion  was  first  advanced  by  Vitringa,  Obs.  Sac.  i. 
chap.  iv.  §  23,  and  has  been  advocated  by  Calmet,  Home,  Pye 
Smith,  Stuart,  and  others.  The  erroi's  and  refinements  of 
some  modern  writers  have  brought  it  into,  perhaps,  unde- 
served discredit. 

11.    There  are  also  passages  which  must   have 
tions  made    ^een  added  after  the  death  of  Moses. 

to  the  origi- 
nal narra- 
tive. Deut.  xxxiv.  records  his  death  and  burial.     Gen.  ixxvi. 

»  GravQP  has  expanded  this  argument  with  great  force :  "  Lectures  on 
the  Pentateuch,"  i.  ii. 


PENTATEUCH  AND  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB.        435 

31-39  gives  a  supplementary  list  of  Edomitish  chiefs,  and  in  several 
passages  the  latter  designation  of  a  place  has  been  substituted  for,  or 
is  given  with  the  original  name,  as  in  Gen.  xiv.  14,  where  Dan  is  put 
for  Laish  (see  Josh.  xix.  47):  so  Gen.  xiii.  18  (Josh.  xiv.  15):  Gen.  xiii. 
3  (Gen.  xxviii.  19);  xiv.  2,  7,  8:  Deut.  iii.  9;  iv.  48. 

12.  In  the  Jewish  canon,  the  Pentateuch  is  kept  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  Scripture,  as  it  is  the  basis  of  the  ,„ 

■^  ^  .  .       .  True  nature 

theocracy.     The  title  "law"  describes  the  principal  ofthePen- 
subject    of    the    books,  though  their    true   central 
point  is  the  covenant  relation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel. 
The  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  is,  indeed,  the  history  of 
that  covenant,  of  the  preparation  for  it,  and  of  its  progressive 
development,  till  it  gave  place  to  the  Gospel. 

13.  The  events  recorded  in  these  books  may  be   g^.^^^ 
arranged  as  follows : —  epitomized. 

Gen"esis. — The  Creation,  1,2:  the  fall  and  antediluvian  world,  3-6 : 
the  deluge,  7,  8,  a  consequence  of  wickedness :  the  blessing  of  Noah 
and  the  re-peopling  of  the  earth,  9,  10:  the  dispersion,  11:  call  and 
history  of  Abraham,  12-25 :  of  Isaac,  26,  27 :  of  Jacob,  etc.,  to  the 
death  of  Joseph,  28-50.— A  period  of  2869  years  (or  of  3619,  Hales). 

Exodus. — The  Israelites  after  Joseph's  death,  1:  birth  and  training  of 
Moses,  2-6 :  the  Exode,  vii.-xv.  21 :  first,year's  journey,  their  cove- 
nant, moral  and  other  laws,  the  tabernacle,  xv.  22-40. — A  period  of 
145  years. 

Leviticus. — Laws  on  sacrifices,  1-7 :  on  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
8-10:  on  purifications,  11-22:  on  festivals,  etc.,  23-27. — One  month. 

Numbers. — Events  from  the  numbering  of  the  people,  1-4:  in  the 
second  year  to  the  thirty-ninth  year,  several  laws,  v.-x.  10 :  and  the 
journeys  of  the  Israelites,  x.  11-36. — Nearly  39  years. 

Deuteronomy,  or  the  law  repeated,  has  seven  parts  giving — 

1.  A  summary  of  privileges  and  history  of  the  Israelites,  i.-iv.  40. 

2.  A  summary  of  their  laws,   moral,   civil,  and  ceremonial,  iv. 
40-26. 

3.  Directions  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  after  crossing  Jordan,  in- 
cluding the  blessings  and  curses,  27,  28. 

4.  Exhortations  to  obedience,  29,  30. 

5.  A  narative  of  events  subsequent,  with  the  song  of  Moses,  31,  32. 

6.  The  benediction  of  Moses,  33 ;  and 

V.  An  account  of  his  death,  34. — A  period  of  five  or  eight  weeks. 


J 


436  job— date  and  authorship. 

Sec.  2. — The  Book  of  Job. 

14.  This  book  takes  its  name  from  the  venerable  patriarch 
whose  history  it  records.  Its  antiquity,  and  the  brevity  of 
its  style,  make  it  confessedly  difficult  of  interpretation.  .  But 
these  difiiculties  seldom  refer  to  topics  of  religious  import- 
ance. 

As  Job  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection  with  other 
known  saints  (Ezek.  xiv.  14 :  Jas.  v.  11),  it  may  be 
safely  concluded  that  he  was  a  real  person,  and  that 
the  narrative  is  no  fiction.  This  conclusion  is  sustained  by 
the  details  given  of  persons  and  places,  and  by  the  internal 
evidence.  Uz,  the  country  which  he  inhabited,  was  probably 
in  the  north-east  of  Arabia  Deserta. 

The  age  in  which  Job  lived  is  a  question  that  has  created 
,„,  ,  much  discussion.  The  most  probable  opinion  fixes 
lived.  it  as  earlier  than  Abraham.      The  book  may  be 

read,  therefore,  between  the  llth  and  12th  chapters  of 
Genesis,  as  a  supplement  to  the  concise  record  of  the  early 
condition  of  our  race,  given  by  Moses. 

The  arguments  adduced  in  support  of  the  latter  opinion 
are  as  follows.  (1.)  The  long  life  of  Job,  extending  to  200 
years.  (2.)  The  absence  to  any  allusion  to  the  Mosaic  law, 
or  the  wonderful  works  of  God  towards  Israel  in  their  de- 
parture from  the  land  of  bondage,  and  their  journey  to 
Canaan  ;  which  are  constantly  referred  to  by  other  sacred 
writers,  as  illustrating  the  character  and  government  of 
Jehovah.  (3.)  The  absence  of  any  I'eference  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha;  which  memorable  event 
occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  the  country  where  J^f(ob  resided ; 
and  which,  as  a  signal  and  direct  judgment  of  the  Almighty 
upon  the  wicked,  would  hardly  have  been  omitted  in  an 
argument  of  this  nature.  (4.)  The  worship  of  the  sun  and 
moon  being  the  only  form  of  idolatry  mentioned ;  which  was, 
without  question,  the  most  ancient,  chap.  xxxi.  26-28.     (5.) 


JOB — CONTENTS   AND   OBJECT.  437 

The  manners  and  customs  described,  which  are  those  of  the 
earliest  patriarchs.  (6.)  The  religion  of  Job  is  of  the  same 
kind  as  that  which  prevailed  among  the  patriarchs  before  the 
Mosaic  enconomy.  It  is  the  religion  of  sacrifices ;  but  with- 
out any  officiating  priest  or  sacred  place.  (7.)  To  these  argu- 
ments Dr.  Hales  has  added  one  derived  from  astronomy, 
founded  on  chaps,  ix.  9,  and  xxxviii.  31,  32.  He  states,  that 
the  principal  stars  there  referred  to,  appear,  by  a  retrograde 
calculation,  to  have  been  the  cardinal  constellations  of  spring 
and  autumn  about  B.  C.  2130,  or  about  184  years  before  the 
birth  of  Abraham. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  if  Job  lived  between  the  deluge 
and  the  call  of  Abraham,  we  have  an  additional  proof  that 
God  has  never  left  the  world  without  witnesses  to  his  truth. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  think  they  detect  allusions  to  the 
destruction  of  Sodom,  etc.,  in  chap.  xv.  34;  xviii.  15;  xx.  26; 
and  adduce  the  coincidence  of  many  names  occurring  in  this 
book,  with  those  of  some  of  Abraham's  descendants,  through 
Ishmael  and  Esau,  as  indications  of  a  somewhat  later  age. 
By  some  of  these  writers  it  is  assigned  to  the  earlier  period  of 
the  sojourn  in  Egypt. 

Respecting  the  author  of  the  book,  a  difference  of  opinion 
prevails.     Some  ascribe  it  to  Job,  others  to  Elihu  : 
and  others  to  Moses.     Whoever  was  the  author,  its 
canonical  authority  is  proved  by  its  place  in  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures, and  the  recognition  of  the  whole  collection  by  our  Lord 
and  his  apostles. 

15.   The  book  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : — 

i.  The  historical  introduction  in  prose,  i.  ii.,  giving  a  nar- 
rative of  the  sudden  and   severe  affliction,  borne  with  ex-  J^""t«nts  of 

'  Uie  book. 

emplary  patience. 

ii.  The  argument  or  controversy,  in  poetry,  in  five  divisions : — 
1.  The  first  series  of  discussions,  comprising  Job's  complaint,  iii. ; 
the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  iv.  5. ;  and  Job's  answer,  vi.  vii. ;  of 
Bildad,  viii. ;  and  Job's  answer,  ix.  x. ;  of  Zophar,  xi. ;  and 
Job's  answer,  xii.-xiv. 
37* 


438  JOB — CONTENTS   AS.T)   OBJECT. 

2.  The  second  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  xv. ;  and 

Job's  answer,  xvi.  xvii. ;  of  Bildad,  xviii. ;  and  Job's  answer, 
xix. ;  of  Zophar,  xx. ;  and  Job's  answer,  xxi. 

3.  The  third  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  xxii. ;  and 

Job's  answer,  xxiii.  xxiv. ;  of  Bildad,  xxv. ;  and  Job's  answer, 

xxvi.-xxxi. 
The  question  discussed  thus  far  is,  whether  great  suffering  be  not  an 
evidence  of  great  guilt.    Job's  friends  affirm  it,  and  exhort  him  to  repent 
and  reform.     Job  denies  it,  appeals  to  facts,  and  complains  bitterly  of 
his  friends  for  aggravating  his  distress  by  false  charges. 

4.  The  speech  of  Elihu,  xxxii.-xxxvii. 

Elihu  maintains,  that  afflictions  are  meant  for  the  good  of  the  suf- 
ferer ;  even  when  not  properly  the  consequences  of  sin  ;  he  reproves  Job 
for  justifying  himself,  rather  than  God,  and  vindicates  the  Divine 
character  and  government. 

5.  The  close  of  the  discussion,  by  the  address  of  the  Almighty 

(not  condescending  to  explain  his  conduct,  but),  illustrating 
his  power  and  wisdom,  xxxviii.-xli. ;  and  Job's  response  and 
penitential  confession,  xlii.  1-6. 
iii.  The  conclusion  in  prose,  xlii.  7-17,  giving  an  account  of  Job's 
acceptance  and  prosperity. 

16.  The  precise  object  of  the  book  has  given  rise  to  much 
discussion.  Mercenary  selfishness  was  the  charge 
brought  against  Job  i.  In  the  end  the  charge  is 
disproved.  Job  assures  us  that  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth 
will  do  right,  and  resolves  still  to  trust,  though  God  should 
slay  him,  xix.  23-26.  The  nature  and  power  of  faith  are 
thus  illustrated,  as  in  the  identity  of  true  piety  in  every  age. 
Such  perhaps  was  one  chief  object  of  the  inspired  writer  in 
this  composition.  The  book,  moreover,  displays  the  Provi- 
dence of  God  in  its  inscrutableness  and  mercy,  and  sets  forth 
in  unrivalled  magnificence  the  glory  of  the  Divine  attributes. 
It  illustrates  -  human  depravity,*  exhibits  faith  in  a  coming 
Eedeemer  and  a  future  life,**  speaks  of  sacrifices  aa  the  ap- 
pointed means  of  acceptance,"  and  shows  the  benefit  of  inter- 
cessory prayer.^ 

»  xxxiii.  8,  9 :  xixiv.  5,  9,  35.  «>  xix.  25-29  •  xxxiii.  23-28. 

<=  i.  5  ;  xlii.  8.  ^  xlii.  8,  9. 


JOB — LESSONS — HEBREW  POETRY.  439 

Not  all,  of  course,  that  even  Job  said  in  these  discussions, 
is  to  be  commended.  The  principles  advanced  are  sometimes 
erroneous,  and  sometimes,  also,  the  conclusions.  Inspiration 
describes  accurately  what  was  said  or  done,  without  necessa- 
rily sanctioning  either. 

17.  The  practical  lessons  suggested  by  the  book  are  obvious 
and  important.     Copy  Elihu's  humility.     Though 

Its  IfiSSOtlS 

able  to  speak  best,  he  spoke  last.  Uncharitableness 
is  of  the  devil  (i.  9,  10).  Its  origin,  no  less  than  its  unlove- 
liness,  should  put  us  on  our  guard  against  it.  .  .  .  Perfect  and 
upright  men  are  among  the  first  to  confess  their  vileness  (i.  1 ; 
xl.  4  ;  xlii.  6).  Our  progress  in  holiness  may  be  measured  by 
our  humility.  .  .  .  What  wisdom  is  needed  to  conduct  contro- 
versy wisely,  when  even  Job  failed.  .  .  .  How  needful  is  a 
specific  revelation,  when  even  good  men,  with  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  God,  and  of  many  principles  of  his  government, 
misread  the  lessons  written  upon  his  works.  To  correct  hu- 
man misapprehension  on  such  questions,  God  had  himself  to 
interpose. 

Sec.  3. — On  Hebrew  Poetry  and  the  Poetical  Books. 

18.  As  Job  is  the  earliest  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  Bible, 
it  may  be  convenient  to  make  here  a  few  remarks 

•'  Hebrew 

on  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry,  poetry. 

The  division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  usually  called  the  poetical  books 
comprises  Job,  Psalms  and  Proverbs ;  some  adding  Ecclesiastes  and  the 
Song  of  Solomon.  In  point  of  date,  some  portions  of  them  are  earlier, 
and  others  are  later  than  many  parts  of  the  historical  books ;  but  they 
are  classed  by  themselves,  as  being  almost  wholly  composed  in  Hebrew 
verse.  In  the  Jewish  Canon  of  Scripture  they  are  included  in  the  Ha- 
giographa,  or  Holy  Writings.  The  writings  of  the  prophets,  are  for  the 
most  part,  also  in  a  poetical  form. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
employment  of  it  in  the  noblest  service,  that  of  religion.  It  presents 
the  loftiest  and  most  precious  truths,  expressed  in  the  most  appropriate 
language. 


440  PARAXLELISM 

There  is  so  much  uncertainty  respecting  the  ancient  pronunciation 
ot  the  language,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  He- 
brew versification.  But  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  subject 
in  later  times  by  Lowth,  Jebb,  and  other  scholars.  The  leading  char- 
acteristics of  Hebrew  poetry  may  be  described  generally  as  consisting 
in  the  ornate  and  elevated  character  of  the  style,  in  the  use  of  certain 
■words  and  forms  of  words,  in  the  sententious  manner  of  expression,  and 
in  certain  peculiaiities  in  the  structure  and  combination  of  the  sentences. 
.These  peculiarities  appear  in  the  following  artificial  forms: 

There  is  sometimes  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  whole  poem  ; 
each  line  commencing  with  one  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  every 
alternate  verse  beginning  with  a  succeeding  letter,  or  a  series  of  verses 
■with  the  same  initial  letter :  see  Psa.  cxix.  and  Lam.  iii.  In  Psa.  cxix., 
in  the  original,  eight  verses  in  succession  begin  with  the  same  letter, 
lv-\lowed  by  eight  more  beginning  with  the  succeeding  letter ;  and  so  on 
through  the  alphabet,  dividing  the  whole  psalm  into  alphabetical 
strofihes.  There  are  twelve  of  these  alphabetical  poems  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

Another  artificial  form  of  poetry  appears  to  have  consisted  in  the 

repetition  of  the  same  verse  or  sentiment  at  somewhat  distant  intervals, 
or  after  a  certain  number  of  verses,  as  in  Psa.  xlii.  5,  11;  xliii.  5; 
cvii.  8,  15,  21,  31:  Isa.  ix.  12,  17,  21;  x.  4:  Amos  i.  3,  6,  9,  11,  13;  ii. 
1.4,6. 

But  the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  what  Lowth 
ent\t\ef^  parallelism ;  that  is,  there  is  a  certain  correspondence  either  as 
to  thought  or  language,  or  both,  between  the  members  of  each  period. 
Sometimes  the  secondary  expression  is  little  more  than  an  echo  of  the 
first:  sometimes  it  adds  to  it  a  new  idea,  and  often  greatly  excels  it  in 
force  and  beauty  :  sometimes,  to  heighten  the  impression,  the  main  idea 
IS  expressed  in  contrast  with  some  other.  It  is  in  a  great  measure  owing 
to  this  structure  of  the  sentences  that  our  translation  of  these  books  has 
80  much  of  a  poetical  cast;  for  being  for  the  most  part  literal,  it  retains 
much  both  of  the  form  and  simple  beauty  of  the  Hebrew. 

This  poetical  parallelism  admits  many  varieties,  more  or  less  defined. 
The  following  classification  will  illustrate  the  subject. 

PirillGlism  ' 

1.  Some  paralleli^sms  are  gradational  or  synonymous. 

2.  Others  are  antithetic:  see  chap,  iv.,  sec.  3,  par.  286. 

Occasionally  we  meet  with  a  double  synonyme  and  a  double  anti- 
thesis ;  as  in  Isa.  i.  3,  19,  20. 

A  double  antithetical  form  of  the  parallelism  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Prophets.  A  very  beautiful  parallelism  of  this  kind  occurs  in  Hah.  iii. 
17,  18.     See  also  Isa.  ix.  10. 


PARALLELISM.  441 

3  A  third  form  of  parallelism  is  the  synthetic,  or  constructive.  la 
this  form  word  does  not  answer  to  word,  nor  sentence  to  sentence,  either 
as  of  an  equivalent  or  as  of  an  opposite  meaning;  but  there  is  a  cor- 
respondence and  similarity  between  the  different  propositions  in  respect 
of  the  shape  and  turn  of  the  whole  sentence.  This  species  of  parallels 
includes  such  as  do  not  come  within  the  two  former  classes ;  and  its 
variety  is  very  great. 

In  this  kind  of  parallelism  the  writer,  instead  of  merely  echoing  the 
former  sentiment,  or  placing  it  in  contrast,  enforces  his  thought  by  ac- 
cessory ideas  and  modifications,  generally  preserving  throughout  a  cor- 
respondence of  form  between  the  different  parts.  As  examples,  see  Job 
iii.  3-9 :  Psa.  cxlviii.  7-13 :  Isa.  i.  5-9 ;  Iviii.  5-8.  Instances  of  this 
kind  of  parallelism  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  Scriptures,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  Prophets. 

Respecting  these  different  species  of  parallelism  Bp.  Jebb  remarks, 
that  separately  "each  kind  admits  many  subordinate  varieties;  and 
that  in  combinations  of  verses  the  several  kinds  are  perpetually  inter- 
mingled ;  circumstances  which  at  once  enliven  and  beautify  the  compo- 
sition, and  frequently  give  peculiar  distinctness  and  precision  to  the 
train  of  thought." 

It  may  be  added  that,  according  to  the  theme  and  divisions,  Hebrew 
poetry  is  lyric,  as  in  the  Psalms;  epic,  as  in  Job;  didactic,  as  in  the 
Proverbs ;  pastoral,  or  idyllic,  as  in  Canticles ;  and  prophetical,  as  in 
the  earlier  prophets.  Occasionally  we  have  rhyme,  though  probably 
not  designed  by  the  poet,  Gen.  iv.  23 :  Job  vi.  4,  7,  9,  13,  22,  29. 

In  reading  the  Bible  it  is  very  desirable  to  understand  the  laws  of 
poetic  parallelism,  for  these  often  furnish  important  facilities  for  inter- 
pretation. As  one  member  of  a  sentence  frequently  expresses  the  same 
sense  as  its  parallel,  difficult  words  and  phrases  are  thus  rendered  sus- 
ceptible of  easy  explanation. 

In  the  Paragraph  Bible  (Religious  Tract  Society),  the  poetical  parts 
of  Scripture  are  printed  according  to  the  order  of  the  original,  in  par- 
allelisms. These  parallelisms,  indeed,  are  not  always  indicated  in  the 
mode  of  printing  the  Hebrew  text  (except  in  Exod.  xv. :  Deut.  xxxii. : 
Judges  v.,  and  2  Sam.  xxii.) ;  but  the  lines  may  always  be  marked  by 
attention  to  the  accents. 

Sec.  4. — The  Books  of  the  Pentateuch  Arranged  and 
Epitomized  with  Occasional  Helps. 

19.  In  studying  the  Bible  as  it  ought  to  be  studied,  for 
practical  purposes,  we  may  advantageously  regard  it  as  a 


442  BIBLE — VARIOUSLY    REGARDED. 

Bible,  how    revelation  of  God,  of  man,  and  of  salvation,  each 

regarded.  ,  .  ,.    ^ 

chapter  throwing  light  on  one  or  on  all  of  these 
themes.  Or  it  may  be  regarded  in  other  aspects.  According 
to  the  form  into  which  the  diiferent  portions  of  the  Bible  are 
thrown,  we  may  describe  it  as  a  book  of  biography,  contain- 
ing the  lives  of  believers  and  unbelievers,  with  the  history  of 
their  influence  and  example :  of  history,  under  its  twofold  di- 
vision of  the  church  and  the  world  :  of  doctrine,  gradually  dis- 
closing Divine  truth:  of  ethics,  teaching  the  whole  range  of 
human  duty:  of  positive  institutions,  founded  on  the  will  of 
God,  and  therefore  mutable,  as  morality  is  immutable,  being 
founded  in  his  character :  and  of  practical  wisdom,  suggesting 
and  illustrating  rules  of  both  human  and  divine  prudence.  In 
accordance  with  this  division  we  may  read  the  whole,  asking 
everywhere  what  light  is  thrown  here  on  personal  or  national 
character,  on  ethics,  on  spiritual  truth,  on  positive  institu- 
tions, or  on  practical  wisdom.  Simpler  and  more  practical, 
however,  is  the  division  first  suggested.  Study  the  Bible  to 
know  God,  his  nature,  perfections  and  government ;  to  know 
moM,  his  condition  and  destiny,  his  duties  and  privilege  ;  to 
know  Christ  in  his  office  and  work;  and  it  will  be  found  that 
under  one  of  these  three  heads  we  may  arrange  all  that  Scrip- 
ture teaches  and  reveals. 

20.  It   is   an   instructive   suggestion*   that,  after   reading 
through  a  book  of  Scripture,  we  should  read  it  again 

Read  with  .   1  „  ^  ,  .  -.,  .° 

refer,  nee  to  with  reference  to  some  one  subject.      Many  ulus- 

one  subject.  ■  r  ^  •        i  i  i 

trations  ot  truth  prevent  mistakes,  teach  us  to  apply 
it,  and  deepen  its  impression  upon  the  mind.  If  we  apply 
this  suggestion,  under  the  guidance  of  the  hints  and  clearer 
instruction  of  the  Gospel,  to  the  Pentateuch,  we  shall  find  it 
peculiarly  useful.  No  portion  of  Scripture,  indeed,  is  richer 
in  these  threefold  revelations. 

In  reading  history  (it  may  be  added)  our  business  is  so  to 

'  Bishop  of  Loudon,  Lent  Sermons  on  St.  John's  Gospel,  quoted  by 
Nichols. 


BIBLE — VARIOUSLY    REGARDED.  443 

group  and  compare  particular  facts  as  to  connect      History: 

1  •!!  •  1         ••If  T  ■   T      ^  Doctrine. 

them  with  the  motive  and  principle  from  which  they 
spring,  and  hence  to  apply  the  lessons  taught  in  the  inspired 
narrative  with  wisdom  and  clearness.  In  reading  precept  or 
doctrine,  on  the  other  hand,  seek  rather  to  illustrate  it,  so  as 
to  make  it  more  impressive  and  touching.  Let  facts  lead  up 
to  principles ;  and  let  principles  be  set  forth  and  explained  in 
appropriate  facts.  For  the  first,  see  notes  on  Genesis ;  and 
for  the  second,  see  notes  on  Proverbs. 

21.   In  the  following  summary  the  whole  Bible  will  be  found 
chronologically  arranged;  and  it  is  highly  important 
that  it  should  be  studied  in  this  order.     It  will  also  lowing  ar- 

■,r^T•-l^f^  ■  ■  rangeinent. 

be  found  divided,  tor  the  most  part,  into  sections, 
according  to  the  sense.  The  notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page  are 
all  adapted,  as  far  as  they  go,  to  explain  the  sacred  text. 
They  are  not  intended,  however,  as  a  commentary  upon  it, 
but  simply  as  helps  to  put  readers  in  the  way  of  making  com- 
ments for  themselves,  and  so  of  applying  principles  already 
discussed. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  Old  Testament  pre-intimations  of 
the  Messiah — his  person,  office,  and  work — are  all 

^  _  Pj'epar.a- 

printed  in  Italics,  and  in  such  a  form  as  to  catch     ^^'^"^.  •*'"'■ , 

■'■  coming  of 

the  eye  at  a  glance.  Though,  therefore,  these  are  Messiahi. 
of  the  deepest  importance,  the  notes  but  seldom  refer  to  them. 
Let  them  not,  however,  be  overlooked  by  the  reader. 
•  For  the  devotional  study  of  the  Bible,  the  reader  may  often, 
with  advantage,  lay  aside  all  helps,  and  select  a  few  verses 
only,  marking  and  applying  the  truths  suggested  by  each  word 
and  sentence  (see  chap.  vii.).  Many  have  found  this  plan 
more  impressive  than  the  more  student-like  process  above 
described.  The  two  plans  of  study  are  in  themselves  con- 
sistent, though  human  weakness  has  led  us  to  regard  them  as 
opposed.  If  we  could  but  study  devoiionally— tracing  God, 
and  Christ,  and  ourselves  everywhere,  and  applying  the  whole 
as  we  proceed — the  mind  and  the  heart  would  alike  gain  by 
the  arrangement. 


444 


GENESIS,  I.-IX. — LESSONS. 


22.  (i.)  From  the  Creation,  4004 ;  to  the  Death  of  Noah, 

2006  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


Events  illustrating  the  coming  and  work  of  the  Messiah  ; 
and  ordinarv'Occurrenees. 


B.C. 
4004. 

For  these  dates 
see  §  355, 

4004. 
Edeii.^ 

Eden. 

4003-2, 
Near  Eden. 

3875. 

3S75. 
3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
Near  Eden. 

3769. 

2468. 


2468. 

2.348. 

2347. 

Armenia, 

or  Ara,rat, 

Gen.  viii.  4. 

Togarmah, 

Ezek.  xxvii.  14. 

2247, 

A.  M.  1757, 

B.  C.  2233. 
Shinaar,  (Baby- 
lonia, or  Irak 
Arahi.) 

1998. 


Tiie  Creation,  Gen.  i.  ii.  4-7. 

Institution  of  the  Sabbath,  Gen.  ii.  1-3. 

Creation  of  Adarn  and  Eve,  briefly  described  in  chap, 
i.  recapitahited,  Gen.  ii.  8-25. 

Tlie  fall  of  Man,  Gen.  iii.  1-13. 

{Connection  of  the  first  sin  with  man's  subsequent  state, 

Rom.  V.  14 :  1  Cor,  xv). 
First  pro7nise  of  a  Saviour;   expulsion  from   Eden, 

Gen.  iii.  14^24. 
Birth  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Gen.  iv.  1-2. 


Sacrifice  first  mentioned,  Abel's  accepted.  Gen.  iv.  3-7. 
Cain's  crime  and  curse,  Gen.  iv.  8-15. 

Cain    builds    Enoch;     his     descendants;     Lamech's 
speech,  etc..  Gen.  iv.  16-24. 

Birth  of  Seth,  and  of  Enos ;  world  and  church  dis- 


tinguished. 


Gen.  iv.  25,  20. 


Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah;  the  line  of  the  Mes- 
siah, Gen.  V. 

Wickedness  of  the  world;  God  determines  to  destroy 
it  after  a  respite  of  120  years ;  Noah  preaches  (2 
Pet.  ii.  5),  Gen.  vi. 

Covenant  renewed  with  him ;  he  builds  an  ark  as  God 
commanded.  Gen.  vi.  18. 

Noah  enters  the  ark  ;  the  Deluge,  Gen.  vii. 

The  waters  abate;  Noah  leaves  the  ark.        Gen.  viii. 

God's  covenant  renewed  with  Noah,       Gen.  ix.  1-17. 

Noah  and  his  sons ;  his  prediction  concerning  them, 

[Gen.  ix.  18-27].'- 


Babel;  confusion  of  tongues;  dispersion,  Gen.  xi.  1-9. 

Genealogies  of  Noah's  sons ;  Nimrod  founds  Baby- 
lonian or  Assyrian  empire,  [Gen.  x.] 

Genealogy  from  Shem  to  Tcrah;  the  line  of  the  Me.s- 
siah,  [Gen.  xi.  10-26]. 


Death  of  Noah, 


Gen.  ix.  28,  29. 


»  Eden  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  near  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  or  in  Armenia,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

^  Pas.sages  marked  thus  [  ],  are  either  repetitions,  genealogical  tables, 
or  otherwise  less  suitable  for  general,  or  family  reading. 


GENESIS — LESSONS.  445 

Gen.  i.  On  this  narrative  of  the  creation,  see  §  224;  and  the 
brevity  and  moral  completeness  of  the  whole  history,  see  §  220.  The 
history  of  the  world  before  the  flood  occupies  seven  chapters.  The 
general  history  of  mankind  for  more  than  400  years  after,  four  more. 
The  history  of  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  for  only  286  years, 
occupies  thirty-nine  chapters,  and  contains  details  rich  in  moral  wis- 
dom. 

Gen.  i.  26.  Let  us:  On  the  gradual  revelation  of  the  Divine  nature 
in  the  Old  Testament,  see  ?  230. 

Gen.  i.  2.  Creation  is  here  ascribed  to  God.  All  heathen  philosophers 
maintained  the  eternity  of  matter;  even  those  who  taught  that  God 
moulded  it  into  its  various  forms.  This  chapter  teaches  more  truth  on 
creation  than  all  heathen  cosmogonies  combined,  and  it  so  teaches  it  aa 
to  prove  the  folly  of  idolatry.  What  God  is  here  said  to  have  made, 
the  Egyptians  and  others  worshipped.     See  Faber's  Orig.  of  Pag.  Idol. 

Gen.  ii.  4.  Gives  a  particular  account  of  what  has  been  briefly  re- 
corded in  i.  27. 

Gen.  ii.  2,  24.  The  law  of  marriage  and  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  were 
instituted  before  man  fell.  The  Sabbath  was  at  first  consecrated  by  the 
fact  that  it  closed  the  work  of  creation.  That  it  continued  to  be  observed 
^nd  the  form  of  the  precept,  Hemember !  From  the  exode  the  SabbathJ)^ 
is  clear  from  the  division  of  time  into  weeks,  viii.  8-13:  xxix.  27,  28; 
the  recognition  of  the  day  before  the  giving  of  the  law,  Ex.  xvi.  22-30 ; 
was  further  consecrated  by  the  deliverance  on  that  day  of  the  Isra- 
elites (Ex.  XX.  and  Deut.  v.  15).  Under  the  Gospel  we  observe  the 
day  that  commemorates  a  greater  deliverance,  and  introduces  a  new 
creation.  The  day  in  the  seven  is  changed ;  but  a  day  in  seven  has 
teen  observed  from  the  first,  Acts  xx.  7:  Rev.  i.  10.  The  day  is  to  be 
kept  as  one  of  rest,  moral  improvement,  and  of  joyous  holy  devotion, 
Ex.  xxxi.  13:  Is.  Iviii.  13,  14. 

Gen.  iii.  6,  7.  Mark  the  history  of  the  first  sin  (^  220),  and  the  con- 
nection of  that  sin  with  our  fallen  condition.  Compare  ch.  ii.,  iii.  with 
Rom.  V. :  1  Cor.  xv.  Neither  add  to  the  inspired  explanation,  nor  take 
from  it.  Sound  views  on  this  question  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all 
accurate  systems  of  truth.  (John  iii.) 

Gen.  iii.  Study  the  character  and  personality  of  the  tempter  in  the 
light  thrown  upon  both  by  inspiration,  2  Cor.  ii.  11  ;  xi.  3-14:  Eph.  vi. 
11:  Luke  xxii.  3:  Acts  v.  3:  Matt.  xiii.  25.  His  wiles  and  influence 
are  described  here  in  terms  which  prove  this  history  to  be  no  fiction. 
See  I  463,  4. 

Gen.  iii.  15.  On  the  delay  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  first  promise,  see 
§  382. 

38 


446  JOB — GENESIS — LESSONS. 

Note  on  thia  whole  narrative  the  justice  of  God  in  punishing  sin, 
and  compare  the  history  of  Cain,  iv. ;  of  the  flood,  vi. ;  of  Sodom,  xix; 
and  even  of  the  patriarchs.  Note  also  his  mercy.  The  promise  before 
the  sentence ;  the  curse  of  labor  made  a  blessing  :  and  comnare  Noah's 
preaching,  the  delay  of  the  flood,  and  the  promise  to  save  tiodom  if  ten 
righteous  had  been  found  in  it.  God  "  warns  that  he  may  not  strike." 
He  is  long-sufl'ering,  but  also  just. 

Gen.  iv.  4.  The  first  and  second  sacrifices  mentioned  in  Scripture  were 
specially  accepted.  Gen.  iv.  4:  viii.  20;  and  in  later  instances  the 
acceptance  of  them  is  implied,  xii.  7,  8 :  xiii.  18.  The  institution  of 
sacrifice  by  God  himself  is  expressly  recorded  in  Gen.  xv.  9.  What  it 
meant  may  be  gathered  from  the  New  Testament.  The  feelings  it 
excited  and  expressed  were  such  as  are  now  excited,  though  in  an 
infinitely  higher  degree,  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross,  |  231,  245.  On 
"Sacrifice  of  Divine  Origin,"  see  Mageeon  the  Atonement,  and  Faber's 
Origin  of  Pagan  Idol.,  b.  2,  ch.  viii. 

Gen.  iv.  25.  The  promise  of  a  great  deliverer  is  suspended  now,  aa 
afterwards,  upon  a  single  life — Isaac,  Joash,  2  Kings  xi. 

Gen.  v.  All  the  history  of  the  Scripture  is  useful.  This  chapter 
describes,  with  sad  monotony,  the  character  and  death  of  the  antedi- 
luvians; but  it  fixes  the  age  of  the  antediluvian  world,  and  it  com- 
pletes the  evidence  of  the  descent  of  our  Lord  from  the  first  man,  at 
once  confirming  a  prediction,  and  illustrating  a  truth. 

Gen.  V.  24.  Mark  the  three  ascensions  to  heaven,  in  three  successive 
stages  of  the  plan  of  redemption — of  Enoch,  Elijah,  and  our  Lord; 
each  an  evidence  of  immortality,  and  the  last  the  foundation  of  man's 
title  to  it. 

Abel  is  slain.  Enoch  translated.  Jacob  chosen.  Elijah  taken  to 
heaven  without  dying.  John,  his  New  Testament  representative, 
fouUv  murdered.  "Even  so.  Father!"  is  the  only  solution  man  can 
give — a  solution  sanctioned  by  the  Bible.  Psa.  cxxxv.  6 :  Ptom.  ix. 
20:  Dan.  iv.  35. 

Gen.  viii.  22.  Even  nature  proves  God's  faithfulness. 

Gen.  xi.  On  chronology,  as  fixed  by  this  chapter,  see  §  356". 

Gen.  xi.  9.  Place  ch.  x.  after  xi.  9,  because  iu  xi.  1-9  men  have  one 
speech  ;  in  x.  we  find  them  scattered. 


GEN.  XII.-XXII. — LESSONS. 


447 


23.  (ii.)  Fiorri  the  Death  of  Noah  to  the  Birth  of  Moses, 

417  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.C. 
Uz,  in  Idumasa. 


1996, 

Ur,  Edessa,  now 

Orfa. 

1922, 

Haran,     Char- 

rce,  Harran. 

1921, 

Canaan. 

1921. 

1920. 

1918. 

1917, 
Hebron. 

1913, 
Siddim  (El 

Ghor). 

1912, 
Hebron. 

1910. 

1897. 


1896, 
Gerar. 


Moriah  (site  of 
the  temj)le). 


1.  Joh. 

The  exact  date  of  Joh  is  not  known.  There  is  good 
reason,  however,  for  placing  his  history  before  that 
of  Abraham,  see  introduction  to  Job,  or  Town- 
send's  Arrangement,  i.,  p.  28 ;  for  analysis,  see  p. 
384,  etc.  Job.  i.-xlii. 

[Chaps,  iii.-xxxi.] ;  chaps,  xix.  25-27;  xxxiii.  23-28, 
are  direct  references  to  the  work  of  the  Messiah. 

2.  Abraham 

Birth  of  Abram  ;  marries  Sarai ;  leaves  Ur  and  his  idol- 
atrous kindred  (Josh.  xxiv.  2):  Gen.  xi.  27-32. 

Terah,  Lot,  and  Sarai ;  death  of  Terah  : 

(see  Acts  vii.  2-4). 

Leaves  Haran  at  God's  command  with  Sarai  and  Lot, 

Gen.  xii.  1-9. 
Great  Messing s  promised  him. 

Gen.  xii.  1-9:  see  Acts  iii.  25:  Rom.iv.:  Gal.  iii.  16. 
Visits  Egypt;  dissimulates.  Gen.  xii.  10-20. 

Returns  to  Canaan;   Lot  in  Sodom,      Gen.  xiii.  1-13. 
Promises  renewed;  goes  to  Mamre,     Gen.  xiii.  14-18. 

Chedorlaomer  ;  Lot  taken  and  rescued,  Gen.  xiv. 

Melchizedek  blesses  Abram,  Gen.  xiv. 

Covenant  of  God  with  Abram,  Gen.  xv. 

Hagar;   Ishmael  born.  Gen.  xvi. 

Covenant  renewed;  names  changed  ;  circumcision. 

Gen.  xvii. 

Abraham  entertains  angels,  one  of  whom  is  the  angel 

of  the  covenant;  Sodom;  Ijot'swife;  Lot's  incest, 

Gen.  xviii. ;  xix.  1-36:  [xix.  4-11,  30-36]. 

Abraham  leaves  Hebron  ;  disdembles  with  Abimelech, 

Gen.  XX. 
Moab  and  Ben-ammi  born,  [Gen.  xix.  37,  38]. 

Isaac  born;  Ishmael  sent  away;  covenant  with  Abi- 
melech, Gen.  xxi.  1-34. 
Trial  of  Abraham's  faith,                       Gen.  xxii.  1-19. 


448 


GENESIS — LESSONS. 


Date  and  Place. 

Event  or  Narrative. 

B.C. 

Machpelah, 

Death  and  burial  of  Sarah,                             Gen.  xxiii. 

near  Hebron. 

Account  of  Nahor's  family.              Gen.  xxii.  [20-24]. 

18.56, 

Abraham  sends  his  servant  to  Haran;  Laban  receives 

■-Beersheba ; 

him ;  marriage  of  Isaac,                              Gen.  xxiv. 

Bir-es-Seba. 

1850. 

Abraham  marries  Keturah  ;  children  by  her, 

Gen.  XXV.  1-6. 

1836, 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob ;  their  character. 

Lahai-roi. 

Gen.  XXV.  19-28. 

1821, 

Abraham  dies;  Isaac  and  Ishmael  bury  him, 

Beersheba. 

Gen.  XXV.  7-11. 

Gen.  xii.  The  wanderings  of  Abraham  carried  some  knowledge  of  the 
true  religion  through  a  large  part  of  the  East.  We  find  the  results  in 
the  lingering  convictions  of  many  families  referred  to  in  Scripture ;  and 
to  Abraham  many  ancient  nations  profess  to  trace  their  religion.  See 
Hales,  ii.  124;  Witsius,  ^Egypt.,  lib.  iii. 

Gen.  xiii.  7.  Servants.  Study  on  their  duties  the  history  of  Eliezer 
(xxiv.  1-60);  of  Jacob  (xxxi.  38-41);  of  Joseph  (xxxix.  1-6);  of  David 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  5);  of  Obadiah  (1  Kings  xviii  3):  of  N.aaman's  servants 
(2  Kings  V.  2,  3, 13) ;  and  compare  with  these  examples  the  precepts  of 
the  New  Testament  (Eph.  v.  6). 

Gen.  xiv.  14.  On  allegorical  interpretation,  see  ch  iv.,  sec.  7. 

Gen.  xiv.  16.  Brother,  i.  e.  collateral  relative;  here  nephew.  277(/). 

Gen.  xii.  The  successive  covenants  of  Scripture  are  subjects  of  deep 
interest.  The  first  was  made  with  Adam,  the  second  with  Noah,  and 
the  third  with  Abraham.  The  one  with  Adam  required  obedience,  and 
denounced  death,  legal,  spiritual,  natural,  and  (without  penitence)  eter- 
nal, as  the  consequence  of  sin.  The  second  was  without  conditions, 
and  is  fulfilled  to  this  day,  ix.  8-17.  The  third  also  was  without  con- 
ditions. Gen.  xii.  1-3,  7;  xiii.  14-17;  xv.  17;  xxviii  10-15:  Acts  iii. 
13-26  :  Gal.  iii.  4:  Rom.  iv.,  though  confirmed  in  consequence  of  Abra- 
ham's faith,  xxii.  16-18;  xxvi.  1-5.  This  last  covenant  is  called  by 
the  apostle  the  covenant  of  promise,  in  distinction  from  the  law,  which 
is  called  the  covenant  of  works.  The  Gospel  is  called  in  distinction 
from  both — truth  and  grace,  that  is,  salvation  realized  and  founded,  not 
on  works,  but  on  unmerited  favor.  That  Abraham  saw  in  the  covenant 
D3ade  with  him  the  promise  of  a  coming  Messiah,  is  clear  from  the  rea- 
sonings of  both  Peter  and  Paul  (Acts  iii.  25,  26  .  GaL  iii.  8)     This  pro- 


GENESIS  XXV.-XXXVI. 


449 


mise  was  frequently  repeated,  and  formed,  with  the  significant  truths 
to  which  it  pointed,  the  foundation  of  justifying  faith  for  many  ages. 
The  expectation  of  a  coming  Saviour  founded  upon  it,  explains  the 
value  of  the  birthright  (xxv.  34),  the  preservation  of  family  records, 
and  many  of  the  institutes  of  patriarchal  religion. 

Gen.  xii.  7.  The  religioas  knowledge  of  the  patriarchs  was  evidently 
very  limited,  but  their  piety  was  exemplary.  Wherever  the  patriarchs 
go  they  build  their  altar,  xii.  7;  xiii.  4.  Whatever  their  emergency, 
prayer  is  their  re.source.  Their  children  they  command  after  them ; 
and  the  traditional  promise  they  carefully  preserve  and  transmit;  faith 
sustaining  them  in  all  (see  ^  242). 

Trace  the  character  of  Abraham  as  the  "friend  of  God,"  and,  again, 
as  the  father  of  those  who  believe. 

Gen.  xix.  The  godly  are  saved,  yet  so  as  through  fire,  1  Cor.  iii.  13. 

Gen.  xxi.  The  seed  of  the  flesh  separated  from  the  seed  of  the  pro- 
mise: the  first  persecute  and  despise  the  second,  Gal.  iv.  29. 

Gen.  xxiv.  A  marriage  in  the  Lord.  Note  its  peculiarities  and  re- 
sults.    Yet  for  twenty  years  to  come  there  was  no  heir  of  the  promise. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.C. 

1804, 
Lahai-roi. 

1804. 

1804, 
Beersheba. 

1796. 

1773. 

1760, 
Beersheba. 

1760, 
Padan-aram. 

1760, 
Arabia. 

1753. 

752-1745. 

Padan-aram. 

Mesopotamia, 

Al  Jezireh. 


3.  Isaac  and,  Jacob 

Esau  sells  Jacob  his  birthright;  Isaac  leaves  Canaan, 

Gen.  xxv.  29-35. 
Covenant  confirmed  to  Isaac  at  Gcrar,  Gen.  xxvi.  1-5. 
Isaac  di.^sembles  ;  covenant  with  Abimelech, 

Gen.  xxvi.  6-33. 
Esau  marries  two  Ilittite  women,       Gen.  xxvi.  34-5. 
Death  of  Ishmael ;  descendants.         Gen.  xxv.  12-18. 
Jacob  obtains  his  father's  blessing,    and  flees   from 
Esau,  Gen.  xxvii. ;  xxviii.  1-5. 

Jacob's  vision  at  Luz;  the  proviises  continued  to  him; 
stays  with  Laban,  his  uncle, 

Gen.  xxviii.  10-22;  xxix.  1-14. 
Esau  marries  a  daughter  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  xxviii.  6-9. 

Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel,       Gen.  xxix.  15-30. 

Jacob's  children — Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  and  Judah, 
by  Leah;  Dan  and  Naphtali,  by  Billah,  Rachel's 
maid;  Gad  and  Asher,  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid; 
Issachar,  Zebulun  and  Dinah,  by  Leah  ;  Joseph,  by 
Rachel,  Gen.  xxix.  31-35;  xxx.  1-24. 


38* 


450 


GEN.    XXX.-XXXVI. — LESSONS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 
1745. 

1739, 

Galeed. 

1739, 

Succoth.      (See 

Josh.  xiii.  27). 

1736, 

Shechem. 

1732. 

Bethel,  Luz, 

Bethaven, 

(Hos.  X.  5), 

Beit-in. 

1729, 

Hebron. 

1729. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Jacob'.?  bargain  with  Laban  ;  he  becomes  rich, 

Gen.  XXX.  25-43. 
Jacob,  returning  to   Canaan,  is  pursued  by  Laban ; 

their  covenant,  Gen.  xxxi. 

Jacob's  vision  at  Mahanaim  ;  wrestles  with  an  angel 

at  Penuel ;  reconciled  to  Esau ;  settles  at  Succoth, 

Gen.  xxxii.;  xxxiii.  1-17. 
Jacob  removes  to  Shalem,  Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20 ;  birth 

of  sons  of  Judah,  [Gen.  xxxviii.  1-5]. 

Dinah  defiled  by  Shechem ;  slaughter  of  Shechemites 

by  Simeon  and  Levi,  [Gen.  xxxiv]. 

Jacob  removes ;  purges  his  household  of  idols ,  the 

promises   renewed   to   him;    his  name  changed  to 

Israel,  Gen.  xxxv.  1-15. 

Rachel  dies  on  the  birth  of  Benjamin,  Gen.  xxxv.  16-20. 
Sin  of  Reuben ;  Jacob  abides  with  Isaac, 

Gen.  xxxv.  21-27. 
Esau's  descendants,  [Gen.  xxxvi]. 


Gen.  xxvi.  Note  the  evils  of  parental  favoritism — in  Isaac. 

Gen.  xxvii  6.  Mark  how  each  virtue  has  its  counterfeit.  Seek  wis- 
dom, but  not  as  Eve  sought  it.  Husbands  should  love  their  wives,  but 
not  as  Adam  did,  iii.  6.  Worship  God,  but  not  with  Cain,  iv.  3,  5. 
Wives  should  obey  their  husbands,  but  not  in  sin,  xii  11.  Children 
should  obey  their  parents,  but  not  with  Jacob,  xxvii.  13,  14.  Seek  the 
accomplishment  of  God's  will,  but  not  with  Rebekah,  xxvii.  6.  Com- 
passion may  be  disobedience,  as  in  Ahab,  1  Kings  xx.  34 ;  delight  in 
God's  service,  selfishness,  Isa.  Iviii.  2;  and  zeal  not  good,  because  with- 
out knowledge,  Rom.  x.  2.  There  may  be  even  a  high  sense  of  duty 
without  love  to  Christ,  reverence  for  God,  or  true  obedience  -.  see  Acts 
xxvi.  9-11. 

Gen.  xxvii.  13,  17.  Temptation  is  sometimes  hope,  sometimes  fear, 
Gen  iii.  6  ;  xii.  12.  Eve  was  tempted  by  the  devil ;  Adam  by  his  wife; 
Sarah  by  her  husband ;  Jacob  by  his  mother. 

Gen.  xxvii.  Such  is  life.  Isaac's  favorite  son  proves  his  plague. 
Isaac  was  himself  the  child  of  the  promise  (Gen.  xxi.  22),  and  yet  was 
a  stranger  in  the  land  of  promise  (xxxvii  1).  Forty  years  nearly  of 
his  life  he  was  bedridden,  had  but  two  children ,  one  of  whom  by  his 
marriage,  and  the  other  by  his  deceit,  embittered  the  last  yeai's  of  their 
father's  life.  So  Eve  hoped  to  find  m  Uain  a  special  gift  (GeA.  iv.  1), 
but  he  proved  a  murderer,  §  248  (6). 


GEN.    XXXVII. — EXODUS   I. — LESSONS. 


451 


Gen.  XXX.  Compare  xxx.  1  and  xxxv.  18,  and  check  inordinate  desires. 

Gen.  xxxiv.  Sin  ever  deepens  and  extends.  Eve  sinned  and  tempted 
her  husband.  Cain  envied,  complained  against  God,  and  then  murdered 
his  brother.  Esau  sold  his  birthright,  and  intermarried  with  the  hea- 
then. He  was  angry  with  Jacob,  and  then  sought  his  life.  Jacob  meant 
to  tell  hut  one  lie,  but  in  the  end  he  told  several,  and  blasphemously  made 
God  a  party  to  his  deception.  Gen.  xxvii.  20.  In  this  chap,  we  have  dis- 
sipation leading  to  seduction,  seduction  to  wrath,  revenge,  treachery, 
and  murder.     Fuller. 

Gen.  xxxi.  Potiphar  favored  for  Joseph's  sake ;  Laban  for  Jacob's, 
Gen.  xxx.  27 ;  Zoar  for  Lot's,  xix.  21 ;  as  Sodom  would  have  been 
spared  if  ten  righteous  men  had  been  found  in  it.  How  God  puts  honor 
upon  his  people,  §  248. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

1728, 
Dothan. 

1726, 
Timnath. 

1719, 

Egypt. 

1718. 

1716. 
1715. 

1712,  1711. 

1708. 

1707. 

1706. 

1706. 

1704—1701. 

1689, 

Egypt. 

1689. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


4.  Joseph,  etc. 

Joseph's  two  dreams  ;  envy  of  his  brethren ;  sold  to  the 
Ishmaelites  and  to  Potiphar  in  Egypt,  Gen.  xxxvii. 

Er  and  Onan  slain  by  God ;  incest  of  Judah  and  Ta- 
mar  ;  Fharez,  a  progenitor  nf  Messiah,  born, 

[Gen.  xxxviii.  6-30]. 

Joseph  advanced,  tempted,  falsely  accused,  and  im- 
prisoned. Gen.  xxxix. 

Pharaoh's  butler  and  baker  imprisoned ;  Joseph  in- 
terprets their  dreams,  Gen.  xl. 

Death  of  Isaac  at  Manue,  Gen.  xxxv.  28,  29. 

Jcseph  interprets  Pharaoh's  dreams;  his  elevation, 

Gen.  xli.  1-49. 

Birth   of  Joseph's  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 

Gen.  xli.  50-52. 

Commencement  of  the  seven  years'  famine. 

Gen.  xli.  53-57, 

Joseph's  ten  brethren  come  to  buy  corn ;  Simeon  a 
pledge,  _  Gen.  xlii. 

They  come  again  to  buy  corn  ;  Joseph  makes  himself 
known  to  them  ;  sends  for  his  father.  Gen.  xliii.-xlv. 

Jacob  and  his  family  arrive ;  settle  in  Goshen  ;  Jacob 
meets  Pharaoh,  Gen.  xlvi. ;  [viii.-xxv.];  xlvii.  1-12. 

Joseph,  by  giving  corn   to  Uie  Egyptians,  increases 
the  wealth  of  tne  king,  Gen.  xlvii.  13-26. 

Jacob  blesses  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 

Gen.  xlvii.  27-31 ;  xlviii. 

Jacob's  predictions  concerning  his  sons  and  Judah; 
his  death,  Gen.  xlix. 


452 


GEN.    L. — EXODUS   I. — JOSEPH. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 
1635, 

Egypt. 

1577, 

Egypt. 

1573. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Joseph  and  his  brethren  bury  their  father. 

Gen.  1.  1-13. 

Joseph  shows  kindness  to  his  brethren,  Gen.  1. 14-21. 

Joseph  predicts  the  return  to  Canaan;  charges  them 

to  carry  up  his  bones  there ;  his  death.  Gen.  1.  22-26. 

The  Israelites  multiply;  a  new  king  oppresses  them, 

Exod.  i.  1-21 ;  [15-21]. 
Pharaoh  orders  the  male  children  to  be  cast  into  the 
river,  E.xod.  i.  22. 


Gen.  xlii.  21.  Affliction  is  sanctified  when  it  reminds  us  of  our  sins. 
Contrast  the  tender  anxiety  of  these  brothers  for  their  father's  feelings 
now,  Gen.  xliv.  16-34,  with  their  indifference  years  ago  (xxxvii.  31,  32), 
and  mark  another  fruit  of  affliction,  when  blessed.  This  book  is  won- 
derfully rich  in  such  instances. 

Gen.  xlix.  10.  Mark  the  gradual  narrowing  of  the  promise  of  the 
Messiah.  The  seed  of  the  woman,  through  Shem,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Ja- 
cob, Judah,  and  afterwards  David. 

Gen.  1.  20.  Even  evil  passions  are  overruled  for  the  accomplishment 
of  God's  purposes.  So  were  the  treachery  of  Judas,  the  injustice  of 
Pilate,  the  persecution  of  Paul.     Acts  iv.  28:  Phil.  i.  12. 

Gen.  1.  25.  "Joseph,  it  has  justly  been  remarked,  is  a  bright  example 
in  every  relation.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he  appears  uncor- 
rupted  by  the  wickedness  of  his  brethren  or  the  partiality  of  his  father; 
discountenancing  the  sin  of  the  former,  and  prompt  in  his  obedience  to 
the  latter  (xxxvii.  2,  13  ;  see  iv.  8,  11).  Unjustly  sold  as  a  slave,  he  is 
faithful  to  his  mai>ter  (xxxix.  4-6).  He  flees  youthful  lust,  though  ex- 
posed to  temptation  (xxxix.  9).  Persecuted,  he,  like  Paul,  finds  in  prison 
opportunities  of  usefulness  (xxxix.  22;  xl.  7).  Flattered  by  Pharaoh, 
he  disclaims  all  ability  of  himself  to  interpret  the  dream,  and  avows 
before  a  heathen  court  the  power  of  God  (xli.  16).  At  the  age  of  thirty 
he  is  suddenly  raised  to  the  highest  dignity,  and  yet  becomes  a  pattern 
of  industry  and  justice  (xli.  38;  xlvi.  48).  Though  a  courtier,  he  is 
truthful,  and  with  noble  simplicity  avows  the  disreputable  employment 
of  his  connections  (xlvi.  31-34).  As  a  brother,  he  exhibits  unabated  af- 
fection, not  only  for  Benjamin,  but  to  those  who  had  hated  him  (xliii.  29, 
30;  xlv.  14;  xliv.  18-34;  xlv.  4-13;  1.  21).  As  a  son,  though  lord  of 
Egypt,  he  manifests  the  most  affectionate  respect  for  his  aged  parent, 
who  was  now  dependent  upon  him  (xlvi.  29;  xlvii.  7).     As  a  father,  his 


EXODUS   II.-XII. 


453 


piety  appears  in  the  names  he  gave  his  children  (xii.  51,  52);  and  his 
earnest  desire  for  God's  blessing  for  them  in  bringing  them  to  Jacob's  dying 
bed  (xlviii.  1,  etc.)  For  eighty  years  he  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest 
worldly  grandeur,  surrounded  with  every  temptation  to  worldliness  and 
idolatry;  but  his  dying  breath  testified  how  entirely  his  heart  and 
treasure  were  in  God's  promises"  (1.  25).  See  also  Heb.  xi.  22  •  1  John  v.  4. 
This  summary  (from  Nichols)  illustrates  several  rules  of  interpretation 
(see  ?  248). 

24.  (iii.)  From,  the  Birth  of  Moses,  B.  O.  1571,  to  his  Death, 

120  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 
1571—1532. 

1531, 
Midian. 

1531, 
Egypt. 

1491, 

Horeb. 

(Acts  vii.  30.) 

1491, 

Egypt. 

(Acts  vii.  31.) 
1491. 
1491. 
1491. 


1491. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491. 


1491. 


1401, 
Eameses. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


1.    To  the  Exode. 

Birth,  exposure,  rescue,  and  early  life  of  Moses, 

Exod.  ii.  1-10. 
Moses,  having   killed   an    Egyptian,  flees ;    marries 
Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro :  Gershom  born, 

Exod.  ii.  11-22. 
The  Israelites  groan  for  their  bondage, 

Exod.  ii.  23-25:  Psa.  Ixxxviii. 
Ood  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  bush;  appoi^its  him 
and  Aaron  to  bring  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt, 

Exod.  iii.;  iv.  1-17. 

Moses   leaves   Midian ;    meets  Aaron ;    they  deliver 

their  message,  Exod.  iv.  18-31. 

Moses  and  Aaron  demand  the  release  of  the  Israelites ; 

Pharaoh  refuses,  Exod.  v. 

God  renews  his  promise  by  his  name  Jehovah, 

Exod.  vi.  1-13. 

Descendants  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  of  Levi,  from 

whom  came  Moses  and  Aaron,      [Exod.  vi.  14r-27]. 

Moses  and  Aaron  again  sent ;  confirm  their  message 

by  a  miracle;  magicians  imitate  them, 

Exod.  vi.  28-30;  vii.  1-13. 
Pharaoh  refuses  to  let  Israel  go  ;  eight  plagues, 

Exod.  vii.  14-25;  viii.  9;  x.  1-20. 
The  Passover  instituted,  Exod.  xii.  1-20. 

The  9th  plague,  three  days'  darkness,  Exod.  x.  21-27. 
Israelites  bidden  to  ask  gold  of  the  Egyptians;  Pha- 
raoh threatened  with  the  death  of  the  first-born, 

Exod.  xi.  1-8;  X.  28,  29:  xi.  9,  10. 
The  Passover  eaten,  the  same  day  of  tlie  same  month 
on  which  Christ  our  Pa^^.^over  was  sacrificed  for  us 
(see  Hales  ii.  197) ;  the  first-born  slain, 

Exod.  xii.  21 -.30. 
The  exodus,  (A.  M.  2513),  Exod.  xii.  31-36,  and  40-42. 


454  LESSONS — PLAGUES   OF   EGYPT. 

By  God's  command,  Nisan  or  Abib,  on  the  14th  night  of  which  the 
exode  took  place,  was  made  the  Ist  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year, 
Exod.  xii.  2.  As  the  rest  of  the  history  of  Moses  is  dated  chiefly  from 
this  epoch,  we  shall  give  the  dates  from  that  time. 

Exod.  ii.  25.  Lightfoot  and  Townsend  place  the  88th  Psalm  here 
(see  1  Chron.  ii.  6).  Witsius  and  others  refer  it  to  the  captivity 
(1  Chron.  vi.  33). 

Exod.  iii.  11.  Mark  the  diffidence  of  Moses,  till  his  scruples  and  fear 
are  removed  by  several  miraculous  proofs  of  his  Divine  legation. 

Israel  in  Egypt  had  evidently  become  contaminated  by  the  idolatry 
of  their  neighbors :  hence  their  unbelief  and  inconstancy.  See  Josh, 
xxiv.  14:   Ez.  XX.  8:  Josh.  v.  9:  Lev.  xxiv.  10. 

Exod.  iii.  14.  "  The  Angel  of  Jehovah"  speaks  of  himself  as  "  I  am 
that  I  am."  He  is  the  same  who  delivered  Jacob  from  all  evil  (Gen. 
xlviii.  15);  who  gave  the  law  (Acts  vii.  38-  Exod.  xix.  20;  xx.  1); 
who  conducted  Israel  through  the  wilderness  (Exod.  xxiii.  20,  21) ;  and 
claimed  the  homage  of  Joshua  (Josh,  v   15 ;  vi.  2.) 

Exod.  vii.  1.  "  My  prophet,"  or  spokesman  (iii.  16).  To  prophesy  is 
in  Scripture  language  to  foretell,  and  also  to  instruct  or  speak  publicly. 
See  Tit.  i.  12 :  Acts  xiii.  1 :  1  Cor.  xi.  4,  5 ;  xiv   1 :  Eph.  ii.  20. 

Exod.  vii.  13.  Pharaoh  hardened.  The  Divine  forbearance  seems 
to  have  produced  this  result  (viii.  31,  32). 

Exod.  viii.  These  plagues  are  all  significant  proving  the  power  of 
God  and  rebuking  idolatry.  1.  The  Nile — blood  ;  an  object  of  worship 
turned  into  an  object  of  abhorrence.  2.  The  sacred  frog  itself  their 
plague.  3.  Lice,  which  the  Egyptians  deemed  so  polluting,  that  to 
enter  a  temple  with  them  was  a  profanation,  cover  the  country  like 
dust.  4.  The  gad-fly  (Zebub),  an  object  of  Egyptian  reverence,  be- 
comes their  torture.  6.  The  cattle,  which  were  objects  of  Egyptian 
worship,  fall  dead  before  their  worshippers.  7  The  ashes  which  the 
priests  scattered  as  signs  of  blessings,  become  boils.  7.  Isis  and  Osiris, 
the  deities  of  water  and  fire,  are  unable  to  protect  Egypt  even  at  a 
season  when  storms  and  rain  were  unknown,  from  the  fire  and  hail  of 
God.  8.  Isis  and  Serapis  were  supposed  to  protect  the  country  from 
locusts.  West  winds  might  bring  these  enemies  ;  but  an  east  wind  the 
Egyptian  never  feared,  for  the  Pi-ed  Sea  defended  him.  But  now  Isis 
fails  :  and  the  very  east  wind  he  reverenced  becomes  his  destruction. 
9.  The  heavenly  hosts,  the  objects  of  worship,  are  themselves  shown 
to  be  under  Divine  control.  10.  The  last  plague  explains  the  whole. 
God's  first-born  Egypt  had  oppressed  ;  and  now  the  first-born  of  Egypt 
are  all  destroyed,  the  first  two  plagues,  it  will  be  noticed,  were  foretold 


J0URNEY3   OF   ISRAEL — EXODUS   XII. -XIX. 


455 


by  Moses,  and  imitated  by  the  Egyptians.     The  rest  they   failed  to 
copy,  and  confessed  they  were  wrought  by  the  finger  of  Go 
See  Bryant  and  Bishop  Gleig's  Diss. :  Stackhouse,  i.  p.  47 
Exod.  xii.  1-20.  Contains  a  command  given  five  days  before  the 
Passover,  i.  e.,  on  or  before  the  10th  Nisan.     Hence  the  position  of  this 
Bection. 

Exod.  xii.  21.  The  Passover  victim  was  selected  on  the  10th,  the  day 
Christ  entered  Jerusalem,  John  xii.  12-19  Early  on  the  14th,  the 
victim  was  prepared  for  the  sacrifice,  and  between  the  9th  and  11th 
hour — the  hour  when  Christ  expired — the  victim  was  slain ;  its  blood 
sprinkled  upon  their  dwellings  ;  its  body  a  family  feast,  strengthening 
them  for  their  journey.  At  midnight  the  first-born  was  slain,  and 
amidst  this  distress,  but  with  all  the  calmness  of  a  religious  procession, 
the  Israelites  leave  the  land  of  their  bondage.  How  instructive  is  this 
type. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  0. 

1491. 

Succoth, 
Eccl.  y.  1. 

Im.  15  d. 

Etham. 

1491, 

Pihahiroth ; 

e.,  mouth  of 

pass. 

Marah. 


Elim, 

(Wadi       Oha- 

rendal.) 

Red  Sea. 

2  m.  15  d. 

Sin. 

Exod.  xvi.  1. 

•Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Bephidim. 


3  m.  15  d. 

Smai. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


2.   The  forty-two  Journeys  of  the  Israelites. 

1st  journey.  Passover  reinforced.  First-born  com- 
manded to  be  set  apart.  Joseph's  bones  removed, 
Exod.  xii.  37-39,  and  43-51;  xiii.  1-19:  Numb. 
xxxiii  1-5. 

2d  journey.  Israel  guided  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  and 
fire,  Exod.  xiii.  20-22:  Numb,  xxxiii.  6. 

3d  journey.     Pharaoli  pursues, 

Exod.  xiv.  1-9:  Numb,  xxxiii.  7. 

4th  journey.     Pass.age  of  the  Red  Sea  (see  1  Cor.  x. 

1,  2).     Destruction   ot  Pharaoh's  army.     Song  of 

Moses.     The  bitter  waters  sweetened, 

Exod.  xiv.  10;  XV.  26:  Numb,  xxxiii.  8. 
5th  journey,  Exod.  xv.  27:  Numb,  xxxiii.  9. 


6th  journey, 
7th  journey. 

manna.     Dir 

Rev.  ii.  17), 
8th  journey, 
9th  journey, 
10th  journey. 

(1  Cor.  X.  4). 

prays, 
11th  journey. 


Numb,  xxxiii.  10. 

People  murmur  for  bread.     Quails  und 

eotious  oi  iiiaiuia  (see  John  vi.  31,  49: 

Exod.  xvi.  1-36:  Numb,  xxxiii.  11. 

Numb,  xxxiii.  12. 

Numb,  xxxiii.  13. 

Water  given  from  the  rock  in  Horeh 

Joshua  defeats  Amalek,  while  Moses 

Exod.  xvii.  1-16:  Numb,  xxxiii.  14. 

Preparation  for  giving  the  law, 

Exod.  xix.  1-25:  Numb,  xxxiii.  15. 


456 


JOURNEYS    OF    ISRAEL — EXODUS   XX.-XL. — LAWS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

1491. 

3  m.  15  d. 

Sinai. 


Eccl.  y.  1. 
6  m. 
Sinai. 


1490. 

Eccl.  y.  2. 

1  m.  1  d. 

1490. 

Eccl.  y.  2. 

1  m.  1  day. 

1  m.  8  d. 


1  m.  14  d. 


Event  and  Narrative 


2  m.  1  d. 


Moral  law  given.  Divers  laws  (chiefly  judicial)  en- 
joined. The  angel  promised  as  a  guide  to  the 
Israelites,  Exod.  xx.  23. 

The  people  promise  obedience ;  the  blood  of  the  cove- 
nant sprinkled  on  them.  Moses  and  others  have  a 
vision  of  God's  glory.  Moses  remains  forty  days 
and  forty  nights  in  the  mount,  Exod.  xxiv. 

Ceremonial  law  given.  The  tabernacle  and  its  furni- 
ture, the  priests  and  their  garments,  etc.  The  Sab- 
bath again  enjoined.  Daily  sacrifice  and  incense, 
Rom  viii.  3.  Rev.  viii.  3,  4.  Tables  of  the  law 
given  to  Moses,  Exod.  xxv.-xxxi. 

Idolatry  of  the  calf;  the  tables  broken;  the  people 
punished;  the  tabernacle  removed  out  of  the  camp. 
Moses  intercedes  for  the  people,  and  asks  to  see 
God's  glory,  Exod.  xxxii.  33. 

The  tables  renewed ;  the  name  of  the  Lord  pro- 
claimed ;  God  makes  a  covenant  with  Israel.  Moses 
stays  on  the  mount  forty  days  and  forty  nights ; 
his  face  shines,  Exod.  xxxiv. 

Offerings  of  the  people  for  the  tabernacle.  Bezaleel 
and  others  prepared  the  tabernacle  and  its  furni- 
ture, [Exod.  xxxv.-xxxix.] 

Moses  commanded  to  rear  the  tabernacle  and  to  anoint 
it,  and  to  sanctify  Aaron  and  his  sons, 
[Exod.  xl.  1-16.]     (John  i.  14 ;  ii.  19-21 :  Col.  ii.  9.) 

The  tabernacle  set  uj).  The  glory  of  the  Lord  fills  it. 
The  Israelites  directed  by  the  cloud,  Exod.  xl.  17-38. 

Laws  on  various  sacrifices  and  offerings.     Lev.  i.-vii. 

Consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests,  [Lev.  8.] 

The  offerings  of  Aaron.     Fire  consumes  the  sacrifice, 

[Lev.  ix.] 

The  offerings  of  the  princes  accepted,     _  Numb.  vii. 

Destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Lev.  x. 

Of  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  of  the  scapegoat. 
Lev.  xvi. :  see  Heb.  ix.:  and  v.  1. 

The  second  Passover  celebrated.  Some  allowed  to 
observe  it  in  the  second  month,        Numb.  ix.  1-14. 

Laws  on  meats  and  purifications,  [Lev.  xi.-xv.] 

Miscellaneous  laws,  moral,  ceremonial,  and  judicial. 
Shelomith's  son  stoned  for  blasphemy, 

[Lev.  xvii.-xxii.  and  xxiv.] 

Laws  concerning  festivals,  etc..   Lev.  xxiii.  and  xxiv. 

Prophetic  promises  and  threatenings,  Lev.  xxvi. 

Laws  of  vows,  devotions  and  tithes.  Lev.  xxvii. 

The  tribes  numbered  ;  their  order,  [Numb,  i.,  ii.] 


JOURNEYS    OF    ISRAEL LAWS. 


457 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

1490. 


1491. 
2  m.  20  d. 

Wilderness  of 

Paran 

{El  Tyh.) 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Hazaroth. 

5  m.-7  m. 

Kadeah  Barnoa, 

or  En  Mishpah. 

]490. 

Eccl.  y.  2. 

7  ra.  fc)  d. 


1490-1452. 
Eccl.  y.  2-40. 

1452. 
Eccl.  y.  40. 
'     1  ra. 

^9 


The  Levites  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle 
instead  of  the  first-born;  their  duties,  [Numb,  iii.,  iv. 

Institution  of  various  ceremonies.  The  law  of  the 
Nazarites.     The  form  of  blessing,      [Numb,  v.,  vi.] 

Consecration  of  the  Levites ;  their  age  and  period  of 
service  [Numb.  viii.].  Use  of  the  silver  trumpets 
[x.  1-10].  Manner  in  which  the  cloud  guided  the 
people,  ix.  15-23. 

Arrival  of  Jethro  with  Moses'  wife  and  sons.  He 
advises  Moses  to  appoint  judges  to  assist, 

Exod.  xviii.  1-26. 

12th  journey.     Order  of  the  march, 

[Numb.  X.  11,  12  (Numb,  xxxiii.  16),  28]. 

Moses  entreats  Hobab  to  accompany  Israel ;  Jethro 
returns  to  llidian, 

Numb.  X.  29-32,  and  Exod.  xviii.  27. 

The  form  of  blessing  on  the  removal  and  resting  of 
the  ark.  Numb.  x.  33-36. 

The  burning  at  Taberah.  The  people  murmur  for 
flesh;  Moses  complains  of  his  charge;  seventy  elders 
appointed  as  a  council  to  assist  him  ;  quails  given 
in  wrath.  Numb.  xi.  1-34. 

13th  journey.  Miriam  smitten  with  leprosy  for  sedi- 
tion. Numb.  xi.  35  (Numb,  xxxiii.  17),  xii.  15. 

14th  journey.  Spies  sent  to  search  the  land;  ten  of 
them  bring  an  evil  report;  Caleb  and  Joshua  faith- 
ful, Numb.  xii.  16  (Numb,  xxxiii.  18),  13. 

Israel  murmurs  at  the  report  of  tlie  spies ;  God 
threatens ;  Moses  intercedes ;  condemned  to  wan- 
der forty  years.  Numb.  xiv.  1-39:  Psa.  xc. 

The  people  going  up  against  the  will  of  God,  are  dis- 
comfited. Numb.  xiv.  40-45. 

Laws  of  oiferings  ;  Sabbath-breaker  stoned, 

[Numb.  XV. 1 

The  rebellion  of  Korah,  etc.,  earthquake,  fire,  and 
plague  inflicted  ;  Aaron  approved  as  high-priest  by 


the  budding  of  his  rod. 


Numb,  xvi.,  xvii. 


The  charge  and  portion  of  the  priests  and  Levites, 

[Numb,  xviii.] 

Water  of  purification ;  how  to  be  made  and  used, 

[Numb,  xix.] 

The  next  seventeen  journeys  (15th  to  31st)  of  the 
Israelites,  being  their  wandering  in  the  wilderness 
nearly  thirty-eight  years.         Numb,  xxxiii.  19-35. 

32d  journey;  death  of  Miriam, Numb. xx.  1;  xxxiii.  36. 

The  people  murmur  for  water ;  Moses  and  Aaron 
transgressing,  not  to  enter  Canaan,  Numb.  xx.  2-13. 


458 


JOURNEYS   OF    ISRAEL. 


Date  and  Place. 

B.  C. 

1490. 

Kadesh. 

Mount  Hor. 

Zalmonah. 


Punon, 
Oboth,  Tim. 
Dibon-gad. 


Almon- 
diolathaim. 

Abarim. 
Plains  of 
Moab  by 

Jordan. 


1451, 
Eccl.  y.  40. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Edom  refuses  a  passage  to  the  Israelites, 

Numb.  XX.  14:-21. 

33d  journey;  Aaron  dies;  Arad  attacks  Israel,  and, 

is  defeated,  Numb,  xx.,  xxi.-xxii.  3  ;  xxxiii.  37-40. 

34th  journey;  the  people  murmur;  fiery  serpents  are 

sent ;  the  brazen  serpent  set  up, 

(see  John  iii.  14);  Numb.  xxi.  4  (xxxiii.  41)-9. 
35th,  36th,  and  37th  journeys, 

Numb.  xxi.  10,  11 ;  xxxiii.  42-44. 
38th  journey.  Numb,  xxxiii.  45. 

The  Israelites  stop  at  Zared,  Arnon,  and  Beer, 

Numb.  xxi.  12-18. 
Sihon,  the  Amorite,  opposes  their  passage ;  defeated, 

Numb.  xxi.  21-32. 
Og,  of  Bashan,  attacks  them ;  defeated, 

Numb.  xxi.  33-35. 
39th  journey,  Numb,  xxxiii.  46. 

40th  journey.  Numb.  xxi.  18-20;  xxxiii.  47. 

41st  journey  ;  account  of  Balaam  and  Balak, 

(Luke  i.  78:  Rev.  xxii.  16:  1  Cor.  xv.  25:) 

Numb.  xxii.  1  (xxxiii.  48)-41 ;  xxiii.,  xxiv. 

42d  journey;  idolatry  of  Baal-Poor;  zeal  of  Phine- 

has.  Numb.  xxv.  1  (xxxiii.  49)-18. 

Third  nnmbering  of  the  people,  [Numb.  xxvi]. 

The  daughters  of  Zelophehad  ;  laws  of  inheritance. 

Numb,  xxvii.  1-11 ;  xxxvi. 

Laws  of  offerings,  vows,  etc..  Numb,  xxviii.-xxx. 

The  slaughter  of  Midian  ;  Balaam  slain,  Numb.  xxxi. 

Territories  given  to  Reuben,  Gad,  and  pjart  of  Manas- 

seh,  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  Numb.  xxii. 

Directions  for  the  Israelites  on  their  entering  Canaan; 

borders  of   land  described;    forty-eight  cities    for 

the  Levites,  of  which  six  are  to  be  cities  of  refuge; 

the  laws  on  murder. 

Numb,  xxxiii.  50-56 ;  xxxiv. ;  xxxv. 


Kxod.  xii.  37.  This  order  of  the  journeys  is  taken  from  Numb.  xxxv. 
We  see  here  how  God  weans  his  people  from  idolatry,  how  he  inures 
them  to  ti'ial  and  trains  them  to  obedienoe.  For  an  inspired,  prac- 
tical comment  on  the  history  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  see 
Psa.  Ixxviii. ;  cv. ;  cvi. ;  cxxxvi. :  and  1  Cor.  x. 

Lev.  What  an  instructive  month's  history.  Aaron  consecrated,  in 
proof  of  the  holiness  required  in  worship  ;  his  sons  Nadab  and  Ahihu 
])unished  for  unhallowed  contempt  of  Divine  authority  (see  Exod.  xxx. 
9),  shortly  after  their  consecration,  which  a  miracle  had  confirmed, 


LEVITICUS — NUMBERS — LESSONS — DEUT.    I.-XXX. 


459 


Exod.  xxiv.  9:  Lev.  ix.  24;  Aaron's  resignation  a  touching  exhibition 
of  grace,  x.  3  ;  the  bhasphemer  stoned. 

Lev.  xi.  As  the  sacrifices  of  the  law  point  to  Christ  and  his  atone- 
ment, so  do  the  repeated  purifications  to  man's  need  of  inward  purity 
and  of  the  cleansing  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  ceremonial  law  contains  rites  closely  resembling  those  in  use 
among  several  heathen  nations,  but  with  striking  differences  (Spencer, 
de  Leg,  and  Michaelis).  Some  (as  Warburton  and  Maimonides)  think 
the  former  borrowed  from  the  latter;  others  (as  Gale  and  Stillingfleet) 
think  the  latter  borrowed  from  the  former;  others  still  (as  Calmet  and 
Faber)  maintain  that  both  were  taken  from  early  patriarchal  institutes, 
which  the  Gentiles  corrupted  and  which  God  himself  modified,  to  meet 
the  peculiar  condition  of  the  Jews.  This  last  theory,  the  most  probable 
of  the  three,  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  ma,ny  pTimitive  traditions  are 
preserved  in  the  systems,  moral,  religious,  and  philosophical,  of  many 
ancient  nations. 

Numb.  ix.  1-14.  This  section  is  out  of  its  place,  see  ver.  1. 

Numb.  XXXV.  31,  32.     See  §  329  (h),  on  "satisfaction." 

When  Jacob's  family  entered  Egypt  they  numbered  but  seventy 
souls,  Gen.  xlvi.  27.  Now  their  descendants  number  upwards  (it  may 
be  gathered)  of  two  millions  (chap,  xxvi.) ;  so  richly  had  God  already 
fulfilled  his  promise. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

1451. 

Eccl.  y.  40. 

11  m.  1  d. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


3.    The  Review  and  closing  Charge  of  Moses. 

Moses  reviews  the  history  of  the  Israelites,  intro- 
ducing some  new  particulars,  Deut.  i.-iv. 

The  moral  law  repeated  and  enforced, 

Deut  v.-ix ;  X.  1-5,  10-22 ;  xi. 

The  ceremonial  law  repeated,  with  injunctions  against 
idolatry,  etc.,  [Deut.  xii ,-xvi. ;  xvii.  1], 

The  judicial  law  repeated  and  explained.  Christ  fore- 
told as  a  prophet  to  whom  theit  are  to  hearken, 

Deut.  xvii.  2-20;  [xviii.-xxvi]. 

Moses  directs  Israel,  after  entering  Canaan,  to  write 
the  law  on  stones,  and  to  recite  its  blessings  and 
curses  upon  Mt,  Gerizim  and  Mt.  Ebal,  Deut.  xxvii. 

Pro])hetic  promises  and  curses,  Deut.  xxviii. 

Concluding  appeal  to  the  Israelites,  Deut.  xxix.;  xxx. 


Deut.  On  the  importance  of  comparing  the  law,  as  given  in  Deuter- 
onomy, with  the  law  as  given  in  the  earlier  books,  see  Pt.  ii.  I  6. 


460      DEUT.    XXXI. -XXXIV. — THE   DESIGN    OF    THE    LAW. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

Eccl.  y.  40. 
11m. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


4.  Joshua' s  appointment ;  death  of  Moses. 

Joshua  appointed  to  succeed  Moses,  Numb.xxvii.  12-23. 

Moses  encourages  the  people  and  Joshua ;  char,!::^es  the 
priests  to  read  the  law  publicly  everj'  seventh  year, 

Deut.  xxxi.  1-13. 

God's  charge  to  Joshua ;  Moses  writes  a  song  of  wit- 
ness ;  completes  the  writing  of  the  law,  and  delivers 
it  to  the  Levites,  with  a  prediction  of  the  disobe- 
dience of  Israel,  Deut.  xxxi.  14-29. 

Moses  recites  his  song,  and  exhorts  Israel  to  set  their 
hearts  upon  it,  Deut.  xxxi.  30:  xxxii.  1-47. 

Moses  ascends  Mount  Nebo  to  view  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  to  die,  Deut  x.xxii.  48-52. 

Moses  prophetically  blesses  the  tribes,     Deut.  xxxiii. 

Moses  viev/s  the  promised  land ;  his  death,  burial, 
and  character,  Deut.  xxxiv. 


Sec.  5. — The  Design  of  the  Law — Summary  of  its 
Religious  Institutions. 


25.  What,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  was  the  purpose  of  this 
ancient  dispensation,  and  to  what  end  must  we  study  it? 
There  was  faith  and  piety  before  it  wais  given.  Faith  and 
piety  remain,  now  that  it  is  done  away.  As  an  institute,  it 
was  confessedly  burdensome ;  and  if  its  aim  had  been  either 
to  regulate  the  worship  of  God,  to  give  a  figurative  represen- 
tation of  the  Gospel,  or  to  separate  the  Jews  from  other  na- 
tions, this  aim  might  have  been  reached  by  simpler  means. 
Might  not  some  points,  moreover,  not  forcibly  impressed  upon 
the  ancient  Jews,  have  been  more  clearly  revealed — the  spir- 
ituality, for  example,  of  the  coming  dispensation,  and  the 
glories  of  eternal  life  ?  In  reply  to  these  questions,  let  it  be 
remembered  that  man  has  a  strong  tendency  to  forget  God. 
Virtue,  truth,  godliness,  submission  to  the  Divine  will,  con- 
formity to  the  Divine  law,  supreme  desire  for  the  Divine  glory, 
are  things  not  only  not  natural — they  are  things  to  which  man 
is  directly  opposed.  Without  successive  i-evelations,  or  some 
such  provision  as  the  Old  Testament  supplies,  the  feelings 


THE   DESIGN    OF    THE    LAW.  461 

which  these  terms  describe,  and  the  truths  on  which  they  are 
founded,  must  long  since  have  perished  from  the  earth.  This 
conclusion  is  gained  by  an  induction  of  particulars  as  sound 
as  any  in  science.  Let  it  now  be  supposed  that  God  has  to 
deal  with  men  who  are  ever  prone  to  idolatry  and  barbarism, 
in  a  condition  of  intellectual  childhood,  with  no  relish  for 
blessings  purely  spiritual,  and  so  earthly  as  to  be  incapable  of 
comprehending  them  ;  that  he  desires  to  impress  the  minds  of 
such  a  race  with  his  own  infinite  perfections,  and  induce  them 
to  worship  him  with  becoming  reverence  ;  to  prove  to  them 
what  is  in  their  heart,  and  so  humble  them  for  their  depravity  ; 
to  lead  them  to  acknowledge  him  in  all  their  ways,  that  they 
may  fear  his  power  and  trust  his  love ;  to  raise  their  confi- 
dence towards  the  God  of  their  fathers,  their  covenant-God ; 
to  incline  their  hearts  towards  his  holy  place,  and  the  privi- 
lege of  communion  with  him ; — suppose  that  he  wishes  to  dis- 
tinguish them  as  his  peculiar  people  (that  is,  both  purchased 
and  separate) ;  to  prevent  needless  intercourse  with  their  idola- 
trous neighbors ;  to  unite  all  classes  of  Israelites  as  one  body, 
under  one  king  ;  to  teach  them  to  love  one  another  as  brethren; 
to  check  the  tendency,  in  all  communities,  to  the  accumulation 
of  extreme  wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  and  the  oppression 
that  springs  from  such  accumulation ;  to  induce  honest  in- 
dustry among  the  people ;  to  give  every  man  the  conviction 
that  he  has  a  name  and  a  place  in  his  country  ;  to  secure  com- 
jDetent  provision  for  the  fatherless  and  the  widow ;  to  provide 
rest  and  moral  training  for  all  servants ;  to  connect  the  main- 
tenance of  the  learned  and  priestly  class,  in  part  at  least,  with 
the  obedience  and  piety  of  the  people,  thus  stimulating  them 
to  diligence  in  teaching  the  law ; — -suppose  that  he  seeks  to 
reveal  himself  with  new  claims ;  to  preserve  the  memory  of 
what  he  had  done  for  them  as  a  nation  ;  to  teach  them  impli- 
cit obedience  ;  to  excite  thoughts  and  feelings  in  harmony  with 
the  office,  and  work,  and  reign  of  that  Messiah  whom  these 
various  institutions  were  to  introduce  ; — and  suppose,  lastly, 

that,  owing  to  man's  guilty  depravity,  and  the  powerlessnese 
39* 


462  THE    THEOCRACY — THE   TABERNACI^E. 

of  ritual  observance  to  cleanse  him  spiritually  from  sin,  these 
precepts  and  rites  could  not,  hy  iheviselves  alone,  secure  more 
than  legal  forgiveness,  or  attain,  in  any  sense,  eternal  life  ; — 
admit  that  these  suppositions  describe  the  end  of  the  law,  and 
its  adaptation  to  its  end  will  at  once  appear. 

Now,  these  suppositions  really  do  describe  its  end,  though 
they  may  be  stated  variously.  Is  the  law  a  moral  code  ?  It 
teaches  us  our  duty  both  to  man  and  to  God.  Is  it  ritual  ob- 
servance? It  teaches  us  our  faults^  and  God's  holiness,  point- 
ing, moreover,  to  the  cross.  Is  it  a  dmil  institute?  It  regu- 
lates the  worship  of  an  Invisible  King,  preserves  the  Jews  as 
a  peculiar  people,  and  enforces  brotherly  love.  Regarded  as 
a  revelation  of  truth  (objective  religion),  all  its  parts  are  in- 
structive. Regarded  as  a  shadow  of  truth  afterwards  to  be 
revealed,  it  excites  and  deepens  holy  feeling  (subjective  reli- 
gion). Regarded,  chiefly  as  a  treasury  of  earlier  traditional 
knowledge,  that  knowledge  it  preserves,  adding  much  of  its 
own,  in  order  to  preserve  it;  though,  of  course,  a  spiritual 
perception  of  its  truths  is  still,  as  before,  essential  to  salvation. 
However  the  end  of  the  law  be  defined,  the  chief  facts  remain. 
It  reveals  man's  sin,  God's  holiness  and  love,  forgiveness 
through  sacrifice,  and  sanctification  as  its  result,  Christ's  work 
and  reign,  while  it  provides  for  the  preservation  of  these  truths 
in  a  world  ever  prone  to  forget  what  is  spiritual,  and  deterio- 
rate what  is  holy.  The  whole  institute  is  at  once  a  Gospel 
and  a  church.  It  preserved  and  guarded  piety,  union,  and 
happiness  ;  is  every  way  worthy  of  its  author,  and  entitled  to 
the  commendations  which  pious  Jews  have  bestowed  upon  it 
in  every  age,  Psalms  xix.,  cxix. 

In  theory  the  Jewish  constitution  was  a  theocracy,  a  visible 

representation  of  the  reign  of  God.     Jehovah  him- 

constitution  self  was   regarded  as  king;  the  laws  were  deliv- 

' '  ered  by  him ;    the  tabernacle  (and  afterwards  the 

temple)  was  considered  as  his  palace ;  there  he  gave  visible 

manifestations  of  his  glory  ;  there  he  revealed  his  will ;  there 


THE    TABERNACLE.  463 

was  offered  "the  bread  of  the  presence;"  there  he  received 
his  ministers,  and  performed  his  functions  as  sovereign.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  land  of  Palestine  is  ever  represented  as  held  by 
direct  tenure  from  Jehovah  (Lev.  xxv.  23).  To  him,  peace 
and  war,  questions  determined  under  all  governments  by  the 
supreme  authority,  were  referred  (Deut.  i.  41,  42 :  Josh.  x. 
40  :  Judges  i.  1,  2  :  1  Kings  xii.  24) ;  and  idolatry  -was  treason. 
In  relation,  therefore,  to  the  JeAvs,  Jehovah  was  both  God  and 
king. 

27.  This  twofold  character  was  preserved  in  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  ancient  law. 

1.  The  Tabernacle,  where  public  worship  was  held  from  the  exoda 
till  the  reign  of  Solomon,  was  both  the  temple  of  God  and 
the  palace  of  the  invisible  king.  It  was  his  "holy  habita-  ^acle^etc'"" 
tion."  It  was  the  place  where  he  met  the  people  and  com- 
muned with  them — "  the  Tabernacle,"  therefore,  "  of  the  ConEfregation." 
It  was  an  oblong,  rectangular  erection,  55  feet  by  18  feet,  built  of 
planks  of  the  acacia,  overlaid  with  gold,  united  by  poles  of  gold,  and 
resting  on  bases  of  silver.  The  whole  shielded  by  four  costly  cover- 
ings. Exod.  xxvi.  7-13.  (See  Shittim.)  The  eastern  end  was  not 
boarded,  but  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of  cotton,  suspended  from  .silver 
rods,  that  were  sustained  by  five  pillars  covered  with  gold.  The  inte- 
rior was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  curtain  or  veil  made  of  rich  stuff, 
and  curiously  embroidered  with  figures  of  cherubim  and  other  orna- 
ments (Exod.  xxvi.  36,  37).  Tlie  first  apartment  was  the  Ploly  Place 
(Heb.  ix.  2).  The  inner  and  smaller  one,  the  "  Holy  of  Holies."  Here 
was  the  ark  of  the  Covenant,  an  oblong  chest  of  wood,  covered  with 
gold,  and  surmounted  by  two  golden  figures  of  cherubim  with  out- 
stretched wings.  Above  them  was  "  the  Glory,"  the  symbol  of  the  Di- 
vine presence.  It  rested  between  them,  and  came  down  to  the  liil  of 
Che  ark — "the  mercy  seat."  In  or  near  the  ark  were  the  tables  of 
stone,  the  book  of  the  law,  a  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod  (Exod. 
xxv.  21:  Deut.  xxxi.  26.  Heb.  ix.  4).  In  the  first,  or  ante-room,  whxq 
placed  the  golden  altar  of  incense  (Exod.  xxx.  1-10) ;  the  seven-handed 
golden  candlestick  or  lamp  (Exod.  xxv.  31-39);  and  the  table  of  wood, 
overlaid  with  gold,  where  the  shew-bread  and  wine  were  placed  (Exod. 
xxv.  23-30). 

Around  the  tabernacle  was  an  extensive  court,  about  180  feet  by  ^0 
feet,  formed  by  curtains  of  linen,  suspended  by  silver  hooks  from  rods 


4G4  THE   TABERNACLE — THE   LEVITE3. 

of  silver,  which  reached  from  one  columa  to  another.  These  columns 
were  twenty  in  all,  of  acacia,  probably  supported  on  bases  of  brass, 
and  8  or  9  ieet  (5  cubits)  high.  The  entrance  was  on  the  east  side,  and 
was  closed  by  falling  tajiestry,  adorned  with  figures  in  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet  (Exod.  xxvii.  9-19  ;  xxxix.  9-20).  In  this  court,  which 
was  open  at  the  top,  all  the  public  services  of  religion  were  performed, 
and  all  sacrifices  presented.  Near  the  centre  was  the  great  brazen  altar 
(5  cubits  square  and  3  high),  with  prominences  at  the  corners  called 
"horns,"  Exod.  xxvii.  1-8:  Psa.  cxviii.  27.  On  the  south  side  there 
was  an  ascent  to  it  made  of  earth  (Exod.  xx.  24 ;  xxxviii.  1-7).  The 
various  instruments  of  this  altar  were  of  brass,  as  those  of  the  altar 
of  incense  were  of  gold  (Exod.  xxvii.  3;  xxxviii.  3;  xxv.  31-40).  In  the 
court  of  the  tabernacle,  between  the  brazen  altar  and  tabernacle, 
stood  a  brazen  laver,  at  which  tlie  priests  performed  their  ablutions 
before  approaching  the  altar  (Exod.  xxx.  15-21).  On  the  altar  a  fire 
burnt  continually,  at  first  kindled  miraculously,  and  afterwards  kept 
in  by  the  priests,  (Lev.  ix.  24 ;  vi.  12 ;  x.  1). 

The  Temple  of  Solomon  was  built  after  the  same  plan,  and  contained 
the  sa.me  furniture;  but  it  was  much  larger,  and  the  materials  were 
more  costly  and  durable.  In.stead  of  one  court  there  were  three,  the 
innermost  corresponding  to  the  court  of  tlie  tabernacle.  The  curtains 
were  supplied  by  walls  and  colonnades ;  the  brazen  laver  being  repre- 
sented by  the  brazen  sea,  1  Kings  vii.  26,  and  ten  smaller  vessels, 
1  Kings  vii.  27-39.  The  greater  grandeur  of  the  temple  service  was  in 
harmony  both  v.'ith  the  extended  power  of  the  nation,  and  with  thtj 
clearer  revelation  which  was  then  given  of  God's  kingly  authority. 

To  a  much  later  date  belong  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews.    They  were 

plain  and  unpretending  buildings,  in  which  the  Jews  met 

"    '  "^  °   "  "  to  offer  prayers,  to  hear  Moses  and  the  prophets  read,  and 

to  receive  instruction.    They  are  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 

and  seem  to  have  sprung  up  after  the  captivity. 

28.  (2.)  As  the  tabernacle  was  both  the  temple  of  God  and 
the  palace  of  the  Great  King,  so  the  Levites  were 
both  priests  and  officers  of  state. 

Under  the  law,  the  high-priesthood  was  confined  to  the  family  of 
Aaron,  and  during  the  purest  age  of  that  economy  to  the 
first-born  of  that  house ;  Nadab,  however,  his  eldest  son, 
perished  by  his  impiety  during  the  high-priesthood  of  his  father,  so  that 
Eleazar  succeeded  Aaron,  and  from  him  the  office  passed  in  succession 
to  Eli.  From  him  it  was  transferred  to  the  family  of  Ithamar  (Aaron's 
fourth  son);  but  in  the  days  of  Solomon  it  returned  to  the  family  of 


THE    LEVITES.  465 

Eleazar,  where  it  remained  till  the  captivity.  During  the  Asmonean 
dynasty  a  private  Levite  family  held  it,  and  towards  the  close  of  the 
Hebrew  polity  the  right  of  succession  was  wholly  disregarded. 

Aaron  was  consecrated  by  Moses,  and  his  sons  were  priests  under  him. 
Into  the  inner  chamber  of  the  tabernacle  the  high-priest  alone  entered, 
once  a  year,  on  the  day  of  atonement. 

In  the  reign  of  David  the  descendants  of  Eleazar  and  Ithamar  were 
so  numerous  that  they  could  not  all  be  employed  at  the  same  time  iu 
their  sacred  duties;  they  were,  therefore,  divided  into  24  courses,  each 
serving  in  weekly  rotation  twice  in  the  lunar  year  (1  Chron.  xxiv). 
Each  course  had  its  head  or  chief,  and  these  are  probably  the  chief 
priests  so  often  referred  to  in  the  Gospels.  They  had  the  whole  care  of 
the  sacrifices  and  religious  services  of  the  temple,  most  of  the  important 
functions  of  their  office  being  assigned  to  each  by  lot. 

All  the  priests  were  Levites,  that  is,  descendants  of  Levi,  through 
Gershom  and  Aaron.  Levi,  however,  had  other  children, 
and  all  their  descendants  were  devoted  to  public  business. 
They  assisted  the  priests,  formed  the  guard  of  the  tabernacle,  and  con- 
veyed it  from  place  to  place  (Numb.  iv.  1-20).  In  David's  time  the 
whole  body  was  divided  into  three  classes,  each  of  which  was  subdi- 
vided into  24  courses.  The  first  class  attended  upon  the  priests ;  the 
second  formed  the  choir  of  singers  in  the  temple,  and  the  third  acted  as 
porters  and  guards  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  25,  26)  in  the  temple  and  at  the 
gates. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  Levites  all  acted,  Avhen  not  engaged  in  the 
t/emple  service,  as  the  instructors  of  the  people ;  they  formed,  in  fact, 
the  learned  class. 

For  the  support  of  this  large  body  of  men  48  cities,  with  a  belt  of 
land  round  each,  were  assigned:  a  tenth  of  all  the  produce 
and  cattle  of  the  country  (Lev.  xxvii.  30:  Numb.  xxxv.  port"'^'^^ 
1-8),  of  which  tenth  the  priests  had  a  tenth  :  all  shared  also 
in  another  tenth  of  the  produce,  which  the  people  generally  were  to 
expend  in  feast  offerings,  to  which  the  Levites  were  to  be  invited  (Dout. 
xiv.  22-27). 

When  not  engaged  in  their  sacerdotal  duties  the  priests  dressed  as 
other  men;  but  when  so  engaged  their  tunics,  girdles,  tur- 
bans, &c.,  were  all  of  white  linen  (Exod.  xxxix.  27,  28).  J^^ pl^-^J^^^f 
The  dress  of  the  high-priest  was  both  splendid  and  significant. 
Over  his  white  tunic  ho  wore  a  woollen  robe  of  blue,  having  on  its  hem 
small  golden  bells  (Exod.  xxviii.  31-34).  Over  this  was  a  short,  sleeve- 
less garment — an  "ephod"  of  fine  linen,  inwrought  with  gold  and  pur- 
ple, and  having  on  each  shoulder-strap  a  precious  stone,  tlie  whole  eu- 


466  THE    SACRIFICES    OF    THE   LAW. 

graven  with  the  name  of  the  tribes  (xxviii.  5-12).  In  front  was  the 
breast-plate  of  judgment,  similarly  adorned,  each  stone  similarly  en- 
graven (xxviii.  15,  21).  On  his  head  was  a  kind  of  mitre,  to  the  front 
of  which  was  fastened  a  plate  of  gold,  inscribed  "  Holiness  unto  the 
Lord."  Connected  with  the  breast-plate  was  the  urim  and  thummim, 
by  which  the  priest  was  enabled  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  invisible 
king.     How  the  response  was  given  is  not  clearly  known. 

To  their  office  all  the  priests  were  consecrated  with  a  "holy  anoint- 
ing," and  the  spiritual  significance  of  the  whole  institute  is  plain. 

39.  (3.)  Among  the  Jews,  as  among  all  ancient  nations,  sac- 
rifices formed  tlie  most  essential  part  of  religious 

Sacrifices.  •        p  • 

worsliip.  The  subject,  thereiore,  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, and  as  the  laws  in  relation  to  it  are  scattered  over  the 
various  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  we  give  the  substance  of 
them  in  a  connected  form. 

i.  The  things  offered  were  taken  from  both  the  vegetable  and  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  those  from  the  former  called   the  bloodless 
feredT  offerings  {7rfj<T<^ofii,  £Tini]?a,  minchoth),  and  those  from  the 

latter  the  bloody  (Qin^Ti  zevachim,  dva-ieu,  slain  sacrifices).     With  both, 

the  mineral  salt,  an  emblem  of  purity,  was  used. 

From  the  vegetable  kingdom  were  taken  the  meat-offerings  (flour, 
cakes,  parched  corn,  frankincense),  and  Uie  drink-offerings  ('jjo^,  nesek, 

cT/TivW,  Phil.  ii.  17)  of  wine,  either  in  its  natural  or  fermented  state. 
Both  offerings  were  usually  united,  and  were  considered  as  an  addition 
to  the  thank-offerings  made  by  lire,  Numb.  xv.  5-11;  xxviii.  7-15:  Lev. 
xiv.  10-21. 

Heathen  libations  were  not  unlike  the  drink-offerings  of  the  law. 
II.  i.  4G2:  ^n.  vi.  254,  with  characteristic  differences,  however:  they 
consisted  of  wine  and  blood.  Sail.  Cat.  sec  32:  Psa.  xiv.  4:  Zech.  ix.  7. 

The  animals  offered  were  oxen,  goats,  and  sheep ;  all  were  to  be 
without  blemish,  not  under  eight  days  old,  nor  over  three  years.  Doves 
were  also  offered  in  some  cases,  Exod.  xxii.  20;  xii.  5:  Lev.  ix.  3. 
Fishes  were  never  offered,  and  human  sacrifices  were  expressly  forbid- 
den, Lev.  xviii.  21 ;  xx.  25. 

ii.  Offerings  were  presented  only  in  the  front  court  of  the  sanctuary, 

the   tabernacle,  that  is,  and  afterwards  the  temple.   Lev. 

riaoe  of  xvii.  1-9  :  Lent.  xii.  5-7.  Occasionally,  however,  sacrifices 
(nienng.  *'  ' 

were  offei-ed  elsewhere,  without  reprehension,  Judges  ii.  5: 
1  tiam.  vii.  17;  ix.  12:   1  Kings  xviii.  19-32. 


KINDS    OF    SACRIFICES.  467 

iii.  The  object  of  the  legal  sacrifice  was  either  the  expression  of 
gratitude  to  God  or  the  expiation  of  sin.  Thank-offerings 
had,  as  their  object,  the  first:  sin-otferings  and  trespass-of-  ottmn^s' 
ferings,  the  second.  Sin  was  expiated,  it  must  he  remem- 
bered, not  by  the  merit  or  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice  ofTered,  but  by  the 
great  sacrifice  of  the  Son  of  God,  which  it  typified,  and  in  which  the 
spiritual  worshipper  believed.  A  legal  or  civil  expiation,  however,  was 
effected  by  the  sacrifices  of  the  law:  they  freed  the  offerer  from  the  legal 
penalty  of  transgression. 

iv.  In  the  performance  of  the  sacrifice,  the  offerer,  himself  legally 
purified  (1  Sam.  xvi.  5 :  Exod.  xix.  14),  brought  the  victim 
to  the  altar,  and  turning  towards  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  ii.  formed''* 
3,  4;  iii.  1 ;  xvii.  4),  laid  his  hand  upion  its  head  (Lev.  i.  4; 
iii.  2;  iv.  33),  implying  a  transference  of  his  sin  and  punishment  to  the 
victim.  He  then  slew  it  (Lev.  i.  5),  an  act,  however,  which  the  priest 
might  do,  and  sometimes  did  (2  Chron.  xxix.  24  :  Ezra  vi.  24).  As  the 
victim  was  slain  the  priest  received  the  blood,  and  sprinkled  or  poured 
it  near  the  different  offerings,  yet  apart  from  them.  The  victim  was 
cut  in  pieces  by  the  offerer  (Lev.  i.  6),  and  the  fat  was  burnt  by  the 
priest.  In  some  sacrifices,  before  or  after  tlie;  laying,  the  victim  was 
heaved  or  lifted  up,  and  waved  towards  heaven,  a  symbol  of  its  presen- 
tation to  Jehovah 

V.  There  were  various  kinds  of  sacrifices, 

Burnt- offerings,  sin  and  trespass-offerings,  and  thank-of-      kinds  of 
ferings.  saciitices. 

1.  Burnt-offerings,  holocausts  (n'b5>  ol^^i  ^oMx-uuTiejua.),  consisted  in  the 
immolation  of  a  male  victim,  which  was  entirely  consumed  i.  Burnt^ 
in  the  fire.  The  sacrifice  was  slain  on  the  north  of  the  altar,  ofleringa. 
deprived  of  the  skin  (which  belonged  to  the  priest.  Lev.  vii.  8),  and 
then  cut  in  pieces  by  the  offerer.  The  blood  was  sprinkled  around  the 
altar,  and  the  parts  of  the  victim  were  laid  separately  upon  the  fire, 
which  the  priests  kept  always  burning. 

The  design  of  burnt-offerings  was  to  make  atonement  for  sins  in  gen- 
eral (Lev.  i.  4).  They  were  presented  daily  in  the  name  of  the  nation 
(Exod.  xxix.  38-42:  Numb.  vii.  lo-17;  viii.  12),  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  3),  and  on  the  three  great  festivals.  They  were 
also  presented  by  private  persons  Levitically  unclean,  viz.,  by  women 
(Lev.  xii.  6-8);  by  lepers  (Lev.  xiv.  21-31);  by  Nazarites  (Numb.  vi. 
11-14);  and  by  those  referred  to  in  Lev.  xv.  1-15.  When  two  doves 
were  oflered,  one  of  them  was  made  a  burnt-offering.  Lev.  v.  10.  Heca- 
tombs of  such  offerings  were  sometimes  presented,  Ezra  vi.  17:  1  Chron. 


468  SIN    AND   THANK-OFFERINGS. 

xxix.  21 ;  and  in  later  times,  even  the  heathen  sometimes  presented 
them,  as  did  Augustus  (Joseph.  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  17). 

2.  Tresi>ass- offerings  and  sin-offerings  are  not  easily  distinguished. 

„  The  fir.'^t  were  generally  presented  for  a  sin  of  omission,  and 

Tref-'pass  a  ^   r 

ami  Mu-  the  second  for  one  of  commission  (Jahn  and  others),  though 
otterings.  ^j^-g  distinction  does  not  always  obtain.  Lev.  v.  17-19: 
Kumh.  vi.  11 :  Lev.  xv.  25,  etc.  The  trespass  has  been  thought  the  less 
guilty ;  the  sin  the  more  guilty ;  sometimes  this  rule  seems  reversed. 
In  fact,  the  two  are  distinguished  in  Scripture,  and  the  cases  are  pre- 
Bcribed  in  which  each  is  to  be  offered. 

Trespass-ojferings  are  enjoined  in  Lev.  vii.  1-10,  and  'also  in  Numb, 
vi.  12;  see  ver.  14:  Lev.  xiv.  12;  see  ver.  19;  Lev.  xix.  20-22.  Ezra 
X.  10.  The  victims  offered  were  an  ewe  or  she-goat,  doves  or  fine  flour, 
a  ram  or  lamb,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Sin-offerings  are 
enioined.  Lev.  iv.  6,  25-30.  They  were  offered  by  the  high-priest  when 
he  liad  committed  an  offence,  and  brought  guilt  upon  the  nation ;  when 
the  whole  nation  had  sinned  inadvertently,  and  afterwards  repented ; 
and  on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  In  the  first  and  last  cases  the  high- 
priest  laid  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim,  confessing  his  sin.  In 
the  second  case  the  elders  laid  their  hand  on  the  victim.  The  transac- 
tions of  the  great  day  of  atonement  are  exceedingly  significant:  see 
Numb.  xxix.  7-11 :  Lev.  xvi.  1-34;  xxiii.  26-42;  the  azazel,  or  scape- 
goat, carrying  off  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  forming,  with  the  second 
goat,  which  was  sacrificed,  a  single  complete  type  of  the  work  of  our 
Lord.  Sin-offerings  were  also  presented  by  magistrates  and  private 
persons,  who  had  sinned  through  ignorance,  Lev.  iv.  22-26 ;  and  on 
variouf!  occasions  of  purification,  Lev.  xv.  25-30  ;  xv.  2, 14,  15 :  Numb, 
vi.  10-14:  Lev.  xiv.  19-32;  ix.  23. 

In  all  tliese  offerings  the  idea  of  substitutionarj''  expiation  is  involved. 
The  blood  was  "the  life;"  and  the  life  of  the  victim  was  accepted  for 
the  life  of  the  offerer.  Lev.  xvii.  1 ;  v.  18 ;  xiv.  19. 

3.  Thank-offerings  consisted  of  the  presentation  of  a  bull,  sheep,  or 

goat.    It  was  brought  by  the  offerer,  with  lajnng  on  of  hands, 

'^.ll''*"''-'  and  was  slain  bv  him  on  tlie  south  side  of  the  altar.     The 

ollerings.,  •' 

blood  was  sprinkled  around  the  altar;  the  fat  was  burnt. 
The  "heaved"  breast  and  "waved"  shoulder  belonged  to  the  priest, 
and  the  rest  was  used  as  a  sacrificial  feast:  see  1  Cor.  x.  18.  Thank- 
offerings  for  particular  blessings  were  called  "sacrifices  of  praise" 
(tmri  Db'd.  Svo-i'st  o/MOAcy/ac) ;  when  presented  from  a  feeling  of  pious 
devotedness,  they  were  called  free- will  offerings.  Sometimes  they  were 
offered  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow.  Numb.  vi.  3.      Peace-offering   is   the 


JEWISH    FESTIVALS.  469 

general  name  for  the  whole  of  this  kind  ;  and  though  the  expression  of 
gratitude  formed  part  of  the  offerer's  aim,  propitiation  was  also  involved, 
as  is  proved  by  the  title  of  peace- ofinring,  which  was  given  to  them. 

Everything,  therefore,  under  the  law,  was  purified  with  blood — ■ 
thanksgivings  and  other  religious  acts,  man's  sins,  and  his  corrupt  na- 
ture itself.  For  the  first,  there  was  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  the 
victim ;  for  the  second,  there  were  sin  and  trespass-offerings ;  and  for 
the  last,  there  were  the  whole  burnt-offerings  of  the  daily  sacrifice  and 
of  the  great  festivals.  God  thus  sought  to  impress  upon  the  people 
their  guilt  and  his  holiness,  and  to  reveal  to  them,  by  line  upon  line, 
the  only  way  of  access  to  himself. 

The  repeated  purifications  enjoined  by  the  law  were  no  less  sugges- 
tive of  the  need  of  practical  holiness,  and  of  the  sanctifying  influence 
of  the  Spirit. 

See  on  this  section  Winer's  Realworterbuch,  or  the  article  on  sacrifice, 
translated  in  Dr.  Pye  Smith's  Four  Discourses. 

30.  (4.)  The  festivals  of  the  Jews  were  held  weekly,  monthly, 
and  yearly.  Each  seventh  and  fiftieth  year,  moreover,  was 
kept  with  peculiar  solemnities. 

The  lueekly  festival  was  the  Sabbath,  a  day  consecrated  to  rest  and 

cheerful  devotion  (Psa.  Ixviii.  25-27,  etc).     On  this  day  addi- 

.  Weekly, 

tional  sacrifices  were  presented  (Lev.  xxiv.  8  :  Numb,  xxviii. 

9).  Children  were  instructed ;  and  those  who  were  not  far  distant 
visited  the  temple.  Later  than  the  days  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  people 
seem  to  have  visited  the  prophets  (2  Kings  iv.  28);  and  after  the  cap- 
tivity synagogues  were  erected  in  many  of  the  towns  of  Palestine, 
where  the  "  law  and  the  prophets"  were  read  and  expounded 
(Acts  xiii.  15).     The  monthly  festival  was  held  on  the  day  ""  '  ^' 

of  the  new  moon,  and  was  announced  by  the  sound  of  silver  trumpets 
(Numb.  X.  10).  Labor  was  not  interdicted,  but  additional  sacrifices 
were  offered.  The  new  moon  of  the  seventh  month  (Tisri,  or  Oct.) 
commenced  the  civil  j'ear.  The  great  annual  festivals  pre- 
scribed by  the  law  were  three  ;  and  when  they  were  cele- '  *'''*''  ^' 
brated,  all  the  adult  males  in  Israel  were  required  to  appear  at  the 
sanctuary  (Exod.  xxiii.  14-17).  They  were  all  intended  to  be  seasons 
of  joyous  thanksgiving,  and  were  commemorative  of  the  kindness  and 
favor  of  God 

1.  The  passover  was  kept  in  remembrance  of  the  destruction  of  the 
first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  of  the  sparing  of  the  Israelites, 
and  of  their  departure  from  Egypt.     It  began  on  the  eve       P**''"^®'- 
4U 


470  FESTIVALS. 

of  the  14th  of  Abib;  i.  e.  all  leaven  was  removed  from  the  house  on 
the  14th  day,  between  the  evenings,  the  feast  being  reckoned  from  the 
15th  to  the  21st.  Between  the  evenings,  also,  the  paschal  lamb  (a  ram 
or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  Exod.  xii.  1-16)  was  slain  before  the  altar 
(Dent.  xvi.  2-6).  The  blood  was  sprinkled  (originally  on  the  door- 
posts, and  later)  at  the  bottom  of  the  altar  ;  the  lamb  itself  was  roasted 
whole,  with  two  spits  thrust  transversely  through  it,  and  was  then 
eaten  with  bitter  herbs ;  unleavened  bread  was  broken  by  the  master 
of  the  family  and  distributed  to  each,  not  fewer  than  ten  nor  more 
than  twenty  being  admitted  to  the  feast.  After  the  third  cup  (the 
"cup  of  blessing")  had  been  drank,  praises  were  sung,  generally,  in 
later  times,  Psa.  cxv.-cxviii. ;  and  sometimes,  in  addition,  Psa. 
cxx.-cxxxvii.  It  was  in  connection  with  this  feast,  and  towards  its 
close,  that  our  Lord  instituted  with  the  last  supper  (Matt,  xxvi :  1  Cor. 
X.:  Mark  xiv.).  During  every  day  of  the  festival  additional  sacrifices 
were  oilered ;  on  the  IGth  Abib,  the  first  ripe  ears  of  corn  were  pre- 
sented at  the  sanctuary,  and  then  the  harvest  commenced  (Exod.  xii.  27 : 
Lev.  xxiii.  9-14). 

2.  The  fiftieth  day  after  the  second  day  of  the  Passover  (the  IGth), 

came  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  called  also  the  feast  of  weeks 
(i.  e.  seven  clear  weeks  from  the  16th  Abib.)  This  was  pro- 
perly the  feast  of  the  completed  harvest  of  the  ground.  Loaves  made 
of  the  new  meal  and  grain  were  offered  as  first-fruits  (Lev.  xxiii.  17). 
Many  burnt  offerings  were  now  presented  (Lev.  xxiii.  18-20),  and 
Jews  residing  out  of  Palestine  generally  chose  this  occasion  for  visiting 
Jerusalem. 

3.  In  autumn,  from  the  15th  to  the  23d  of  Tisri  (October),  the  feast 

of  Tabernacles  was  celebrated,  the  23d  being  the  chief  day 
Taberna-  of  the  feast  (Lev.  xxiii.  34-42:  John  vii.  23).  It  com- 
memorated the  sojourning  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and  was  intended  also  as  the  feast  of  the  ingathering  of  all  the  fruits 
of  autumn.  Booths  were  constructed  of  branches  of  trees  in  all  parts 
of  the  city,  and  here  the  people  resided  for  the  week.  This  feast  was 
the  most  joyous  of  all ;  "  the  Great  Hosanna"  it  was  called ;  and  more 
public  sacrifices  were  offered  than  at  any  other  (Numb.  xix.  13-37: 
compare  with  Lev.  xxiii.  38-40:  Numb.  xxix.  39:  Deut.  xvi.  14,  15). 
To  the  ordinary  legal  service  of  this  festival,  later  Jews  added 
others.  Water  was  drawn  from  the  pool  of  Siloam,  carried  with 
great  pomp  to  the  temple,  and  poured  before  the  altar  (see  Isa. 
xii.  3).  Priests  also  ascended  the  steps  which  separated  the  court  of 
the  women  from  the  inner  court,  singing  the  Psalms  of  Degrees,  Psa. 
cxx.-cxxxiv.     These  customs,  however,  are  comparatively  modern. 


FESTIVALS.  471 

The  fifth  day  before  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  the  10th  of  Tisri  (Octo- 
ber), was  the  great  day  of  atonement;  the  only  /asi  ap-  ,..,  ,  ,  , 
pointed  by  the  law  (Lev.  xxiii.  27-29;  xxv.  9:  Acts  xxvii.  9).  atonement. 
The  people  then  bewailed  the  sins  of  the  year,  and  ceremonial  ex- 
piation was  made  by  the  high-priest,  who  on  that  day  alone  entered 
into  the  holy  of  holies,  where  he  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  goat 
which  had  been  sacrificed.  The  goat  was  one  of  two  which  had 
been  appointed  by  lot  to  their  separate  destinations.  The  other,  after 
the  sins  of  the  people  had  been  confessed  over  it,  and  so  laid  upon  its 
bead,  was  sent  alive  to  be  lost  in  the  wilderness  (Lev.  xvi.  6-10).  All 
this  was  done  to  make  expiation  for  the  sms  of  the  people  (Lev.  xvi. 
11-19). 

Other  jaats  were  instituted  in  latar  times,  connected  with  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  (the  10th  of  the  10th  month),  the  capture  of 
the  city  (the  17th  of  the  4th  month),  the  burning  of  the     ^t'er'"/(i"(:l 
temple  (the  9th  of  the  5th  month),  the  death  of  the  Gedaliah 
(the  3d  of  the  7th  month):  see  Jer.  lii.  6,  etc.:  Zech.  vii.  3,  5;  viii.  19 

The  first  day  of  the  moon  of  Tisri  (October)  was  celebrated  as  the 
commencement  of  the  civil  year.     It  was  introduced,  by 
the  blowing  of  trumpets,  with  unwonted  solemnity,   and       year"^"^ 
hence  its  name,  the  feast  of  trumpets,   Jer.   xxiii.  23-25. 
Additional  offerings  and  sacrifices  were  now  presented.  Numb.  xxix. 
29 ;  and,  unlike  the  ordinary  new  moons,  it  was  kept  as  a  festival. 

There  were  also   two  other  feasts,  though  not  appointed  by  law, 

which  require  notice,  as  they  are  often  mentioned  in  Jewish 

PiiriiTi 
history.     The  first  is  the  feast  of  Purim  (i.  e.  lots).     It  falls 

on  the  14th  or  15th  of  Adar  (March),  and  commemorates  the  defeat  of 
Haman's  plot  for  the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (Esth.  iii.  7;  ix.  iQ).  It 
is  also  called  Mordecai's  day  (2  Mac.  xv.  36).  The  other  is  the  feast 
of  the  dedication,  appointed  to  celebi-ate  the  re-establish- 
ment of  Divine  worship  in  Jerusalem,  after  Antiochus  '^^^  dedica- 
Epiphanes  had  been  vanquished  and  the  temple  purified, 
B.  C.  164,  John  x.  22.  It  was  observed  for  eight  days,  from  the  25th 
of  Kisleu  (December),  and  was  sometimes  called  the  feast  of  lights, 
from  the  illuminations  in  which,  at  that  season,  the  Jews  indulged. 

Every  seventh  year  was  sabbatic;  aiid  during  that  year  the  land 
was  untilled  and  fruits  ungatherod,  except  by  the  poor  ;  the 
people,  however,  were  free  to  hunt,  to  feed  their  flocks,  badcTe'ar 
repair  their  buildings,  and  engage  in  commerce.  The  year 
began  on  the  1st  of  Tisri,  and  the  institution  was  intended  to  secure 
rest  for  the  soil,  to  teach  economy  and  foresight,  and  probably  to  im- 
press upon  the  people  their  dependence.     Special  services  were  held  at 


472  FESTIVALS — THEIR    USE. 

the  temple  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  Dent.  xxxi.  10,  13:  see 
Exod.  xxiii.  10,  11 :  Lev.  xxv.  1-7:  Deut.  xxvi.  33-35.  This  institute, 
as  Moses  predicted  (Lev.  xxvi.  34,  35),  was  long  disregarded,  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  21 ;  but  after  the  captivity  it  was  observed  more  carefully. 

The  year  after  seven  sabbatic  years,  or  the  fiftieth,  was  the  jubilee, 
Lev.  xxv.  8-11.  This  year  was  announced  on  the  10th  of 
Tisri,  the  great  day  of  propitiation.  In  addition  to  the 
regulations  of  the  sabbatic  year,  there  were  others  quite  peculiar.  All 
servants,  or  slaves,  obtained  their  freedom  (Lev.  xxv.  39-46:  Jer. 
xxxiv.  8,  etc.).  All  the  land  throughout  the  country,  and  the  houses 
in  the  cities  of  the  Levites,  sold  during  the  preceding  fifty  years,  were 
returned  to  the  sellers,  except  such  as  had  been  consecrated  to  God,  and 
not  redeemed  (Lev.  xxv.  10,  13-17,  24-28 :  xxvii.  16-21).  All  mort- 
gaged lands,  too,  were  released  without  charge. 

The  completeness  of  the  release  secured  by  these  arrangements  makes 
the  jubilee  a  type  of  the  Gospel  (Isa.  Ixi.  2  :  Luke  iv.  19). 

The  moral  and  spiritual  use  of  these  festivals  is  plain.  They  all 
tended  to  unite  the  people  in  holy  brotherhood  and  to  separate  them 
from  the  heatlien.  They  preserved  the  memory  of  past  mercies.  They 
illustrate  the  Divine  holiness.  They  lightened  tlie  load  of  poverty, 
checked  oppression  and  covetousness,  and  were  all  either  types  of 
Gospel  blessings,  or  suggestive,  to  a  spiritual  mind,  of  Gospel  trutlis. 

31.  Let  the  vs^hole  law  be  thus  studied;  regard  it  as  a 
scheme  intended  to  reveal,  or  suggest,  or  impress,  or  preserve, 
spiritual  truth,  and  not  only  will  objections  be  removed,  but 
the  whole  will  appear  a  gorgeous,  instructive  lesson,  emi- 
nently situated  to  the  condition  of  the  nation  to  whom  it  was 
addressed. 


AUTHORS   OF   THE   HISTORICAL   BOOKS.  473 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORICAL  AND  POETICAL  BOOKS  TO  THE  DEATH  OF 

SOLOMON. 

Sec.  1. — The  Historical  Books  of  Scripture  generally. 

32.  The   historical    books    of    Scripture — from    Joshua   to 

Nehemiah — contain    the     liistory    of    the    Jewish  „■  .    ■    , 

church   and    nation    from   the   first   settlement   in  V'""'^'^-  Jew- 
ish arrange- 

Canaan  to  their  return  after  the  captivity  of  Baby-  mentof. 
Ion.  The  books  as  they  are  placed  in  the. English  Bible,  are 
twelve  in  all,  though  the  Jews  reckoned  them  but  six,  classing 
R,uth  with  Judges,  N,ehemiah  with  Ezra,  and  numbering  the 
double  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  respectively, 
as  one.  In  early  times,  moreover,  they  were  all  placed  among 
the  prophets  ;  and  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  are 
still  Y)laoed  in  Hebrew  Bibles  in  this  list.  Taking  into  account, 
therefore,  the  fact  that  large  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  and 
of  the  Prophets  are  historical,  and  that  a  diflerent  arrange- 
ment was  adopted  by  the  Jews,  the  modern  classification  of 
"historical  books"  is  not  very  appropriate.  Having  men- 
tioned it,  however,  it  may  be  well  to  give  here  some  informa- 
tion concerning  the  books  of  which  it  is  composed. 

33.  The  historical  books  of  Scripture  claim,  like  the  rest, 
inspired   authority,    and   the    general    evidence  of 

their  inspiration  is  not  different  from  that  of  the  wiiom  writ 

ten. 

Pentateuch.  Some  of  these  books  bear  the  names 
of  distinguished  prophets,  and  the  rest  are  attributed  to  writers 
who  had  the  same  high  character.  The  annals  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  were  kept  only  by  persons  appointed  to  their  office ; 
and  the  writers,  who  are  occasionally  mentioned  in  Scripture 
as  the  penmen  of  sacred  history,  are  expressly  called  prophets 
40* 


474  HISTORICAL   BOOKS, 

or  seers.*  The  narrative  portion  of  Scripture,  moreover, 
displays  throughout  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  secret 
motives  of  men,  and  with  the  purposes  of  God  ;•*  it  reveals  his 
mercy  and  judgment  in  the  clearest  prediction  ;°  it  exhibits 
unexampled  impartiality,  and  enforces  everywhere  practical 
holiness.  The  facts  it  records  are  appealed  to  or  quoted 
throughout  the  Bible;  the  writings  which  record  them  were 
received  into  the  Hebrew  canon;  in  Ezra's  collection  they 
are  placed  among  the  productions  of  prophets,  and  are  cited 
by  apostles  and  by  our  Lord.  That  in  these  writings  other 
documents  are  named,  as  the  depositories  of  ampler  informa- 
tion, and  that  some  of  them  were  written  or  collected  long 
after  the  events  they  describe,  are  facts  which  create  no  diffi- 
culty, and  are  in  accordance  with  w^hat  we  know  of  the 
economy  of  inspiration  in  later  times.  They  account,  more- 
over, lor  the  occasional  blending  of  expressions,  evidently 
contemporaneous  with  the  events  described,  with  others  of 
clearly  a  later  origin. 

34.  The  Bible  is  (as  we  have  seen)  a  selection  from  the  his- 
tory of  the  church,  given   iust  so   much   as  was 

Principles  *;    .  °  "* 

on  which  sufhcient  to  teach  us  our  duty,  reveal  the  character 
of  Scripture  of  God,  and  prepare  us  for  the  coming  of  his  Son. 
It  is  a  history,  moreover,  of  the  church  only,  or  of 
the  heathen  as  connected  with  its  sufferings  and  destiny  ;  and 
nowhere  is  this  peculiarity  of  the  Bible  more  marked  than  in 
the  portion  called  historical.     During  the  times  it  chronicles, 

»  The  history  of  David,  for  example,  was  written  by  Snninel,  Nathan, 
and  Gad,  1  Chron.  xxix.  29:  of  Solomon,  by  Nathan,  Abijah,  and  Iddo 
the  prophets,  2  Chron.  ix.  29:  of  Eehoboam,  by  Shemaiah  and  Iddo, 
2  Chron.  xii.  15:  of  Abijah,  by  Iddo:  of  Jehoshaphat,  by  Jehu  the 
prophet,  2  Chron.  xx.  34:  1  Kings  xvi.  1;  and  of  Uzziah  and  Heze- 
kiah  (including  probably  the  two  intermediate  kings),  by  Isaiah- 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  22 ;  xxxii.  32.  Even  in  rebellious  Israel,  we  read  of 
several  prophets,  and  it  was  no  doubt  their  business  to  record  what 
occurred  in  that  country. 

•>  1  Kings  XII.  26,  28:   Esther,  chaps,  v.;  vi. 

*  See  chap,  on  Prophecy,  'i  4.53. 


OUTLINE    OF    EARLY    HISTORICAL    BOOKS.  475 

there  were  many  mighty  nations  celebrated  for  learning  and 
valor,  for  illustrious  men  and  illustrious  actions;  yet  their 
records  are  all  lost  in  silence  or  in  fable,  while  the  history  of 
the  Jews,  who  "dwelt  apart,"  and  were  "not  reckoned  among 
the  nations,"  has  been  carefully  preserved.  Such  concern 
has  God  for  his  church,  and  so  dear  are  its  interests  to  him, 
Deut.  xxxii.  8,  9. 

Another  peculiarity  is  no  less  marked.  Political  events 
of  deep  interest  are  passed  over ;  the  history  of  long  reigns 
is  compressed  into  a  few  sentences ;  national  concerns  give 
place  to  matters  of  private  life,  history  to  biography,  a  mighty 
monarch  to  a  poor  widow  (2  Kings  iii. ;  iv.)  These  omissions 
and  digressions,  however,  are  all  explained  by  the  designs  of 
the  Bible.  It  aims  to  reveal  the  grace  and  providence  of 
God,  to  show  the  workings  of  human  nature,  and  the  blessed- 
ness of  obedience,  while  it  interweaves  with  the  whole, 
lessons  and  truths  preparatory  to  the  work  and  reign  of  the 
Messiah. 

35.  Within  these  limits,  however,  the  completeness  of  Scrip- 
ture history  is  both  characteristic  and  instructive. 

It  explains  at  once  the  law  and  the  prophets,  the  compiete- 
Psalms  and  the  Gospel,  the  future  and  the  past.  To 
man,  to  nations,  to  the  church,  every  chapter  is  a  lesson ;  and 
the  history,  studied  in  the  light  of  the  law  and  prophets,  and 
applied  under  the  guidance  of  the  Gospel,  will  teach  and  illus- 
trate, either  by  examples  of  excellence  or  by  contrasts,  both 
our  duty  and  the  blessedness  of  obedience. 

Sec.  2. — Brief  Outline  of  these  Historical  Books. 

36.  Keeping,  then,  to  a  chronological  division  of  the  books, 
the  second  portion  of  Scripture — Joshua   to  Solo-  „    ,    , 

'-   _  ...  .  Books  from 

mon — is  readily  divisible  into  two  parts  ;   the  first  Jf-sima  to 
extending  from  the  entry  into  the  land  of  promise  Soinmon 
to  the.  efetabli?hment  of  monarchy ;  and  the  second  reaching 
to  the  death  of  Solomon.     The  first  period  contains  the  his- 


476  OUTLINE   OF   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS. 

tory  of  the  conquest  and  settlement  of  Canaan ;  of  the  decay 
of  the  spirit  of  obedience  after  the  death  of  Joshua;  the 
subsequent  punishment  and  restorations  of  the  people;  and 
the  second  describes  the  revival  of  that  spirit  under  Samuel 
and  David.  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  and  1  Sam.  i.-x.,  include 
events  extending  over  365  years.  1  and  2  Sam.,  1  Kings  to 
xi.,  1  Ohron.,  2  Ohron.  to  ix.,  include  the  remaining  events, 
which  extend  over  120  years  more ;  on  the  latter  period  all 
agree  :  on  the  former,  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  (see 
§356). 

Briefly  epitomized — - 

Joshua  may  be  divided  into  three  parts: — 

i.-xii.  Giving  an  account  of  the  conqv.cst  of  Oanaan,  with  a  history 
Epitome  of  ^^  ^^  re-establishment  of  Circumcision.  Camp  at  Qilgal. 
Joshua.         Seven  years  war  :  thirty-one  kings  destroyed. 

xiii.-xxii.  The  distribuiion  of  Canaan  by  lot,  each  tribe  obtaining 
a  portion  in  agreement  with  the  predictions  of  Jacob  and  Mosea. 
Tabernacle  at  Shiloh.     Two  half  tribes  return.    * 
xxiii.,  xxiv.  Joshua's  final  admonitions  and  death.     25  years. 
Judges  contains  a  history  of  subsequent  conquests  imperfectly  com- 
pleted,  and  ending  often  in  intermarriages  with  the  Ca- 
^^'^'         naanites,  and  subsequent  idolatry,  i.-iii.  4;  xvii.-xxii.  of 
seven  Servitudes  and  thirteen  Judges,  of  whom  Ehnd  and  Shamgar, 
Deborah  and  Barak,  are  deemed  by  Usher,  contemporaries. 

Chaps,  xvii.-xxi.  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  liistory.  309 
years. 

Ruth  gives  the  history  of  events  which  occurred  about  the  middle 
of  Judges  or  even  earlier,  as  Obed,  the  son  of  Ruth,  was 
grandfather  of  David.     His  descent  from  Judah  is  given, 
iv.  18.     See  Gen.  xxxviii.  29.     Matt.  i.  3. 

1  Sam.  i.-x.  gives  the  history  of  the  judicature  of   Eli,  i.-v.,  and  of 

Samuel  with  subsequent  events  to  the  designation  of  Saul, 
Samuel,  etc.  .^^ 

v.-x.     21  years. 

1  Sam.  X.  to  2  Sam.  i.  27,  and  1  Chron.  x.-xii.  give  the  reigu  o{  So,id, 
the  history  of  his  wars  and  unfaithfulness.     40  years. 

2  Sam.  ii.  1,  to  1  Kings  ii.  11  :  1  Chron.  xi.  ],  to  1  Chron.  xxix,  30, 
give  the  reign  of  David,  his  victories,  his  afflictions,  and  their  cause: 
bis  repentance  and  restoration.     40  years. 


JOSHUA — AUTHORSHIP.  477 

1  Kings  ii.  12,  to  xi.  43:  2  Chron.  i.  1,  to  ix.  31  give  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  his  glory,  and  the  extension  of  his  kingdom.     40  years. 
Psalms,  Solomon's  Song,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes. 


Sec.  3. — The  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Euth. 

the  book  of  joshua. 

37.  The  book  of  Joshua  is  composed  of  materials  supplied, 
in  all  probability,  by  Joshua  himself,  with  two  or 

.  .  Authorship. 

three  additions  made  by  a  later  writer. 

The  first  fact  may  be  gathered  from  the  general  tenor  of  the  book, 
which  is  the  narrative  of  a  contemporary  and  eye-witness- 
of  tlie  events  described  (v.  1;  vi.  25):  from  chap.  xxiv.  26,  nessandau- 
from  the  character  of  Joshua  as  an  instructor  and  inspired  "'^"'^'^''y- 
prophet  (1  Kings  xvi.  34:  see  Josh.  vi.  26,  and  compare  Eccl.  xlvi.  i), 
and  from  uniform  Jewish  tradition.  That  the  book  must  have  been 
written  before  the  days  of  David  or  Solomon  appears  from  xv.  63, 
compared  with  2  Sam.  v.  7-9,  and  from  xvi.  10,  compared  with  1  Kings 
ix.  16.  Additions  to  the  original  documents  may  be  seen  in  xix.  47 
(Judges  xviii.  27-9 :  xv.  13,  19,  see  Judges  i.  11-16),  and  xxiv.  29-33. 
The  facts  recorded  in  this  book  are  repeatedly  cited, »  and  several  pre- 
dictions are  found  in  the  book  itself. *• 

Joshua,  whose  victories  are  described,  was  a,n  Ephraimite  (b.  1536), 
one  of  the  spies,  a  faithful  servant  and  companion  of  Moses 
during  many  years.  He  was  permitted  to  ascend  Sinai  with 
him,  just  previous  to  the  giving  of  the  law.  He  seems  also  to 
have  been  intrusted  with  the  special  care  of  the  tabernacle,  Exod. 
xxxiii.  11.  After  the  death  of  Moses  he  took  the  command  of  the  Isra- 
elites, having  been  early  designated  to  that  office,  by  God  himself. 
Originally  he  was  called  Oshea,  a  saviour,  or  one  saved;  but  after- 
wards Moses  called  him  Joshua,  "he  shall  save,"  or  "  tJie  salvation  of 
Jehovah,"  referring  no  doubt  to  the  work  which  God  was  to  accomplish 
by  him.     In  this  office  he  is  a  type  of  our  Lord. 

His  character  and  history  are  highly  instructive.     The 
Spirit  was  in  him,   Numb,  xxvii.    18.     Having  a   certain  ter. 

»  1  Chron.  ii.  7 ;  xii.  18 :  Psa,  xliv.,  cxiv.  3,  5:  Isa.  xxviii.  21 :  Hab. 
iii.  2. 

i"  See  Josh.  i.  9 ;  iii.  13  (see  iv.  18) ;  vi.  26  (see  1  Kings  xvi.  34),  etc. 


478  JOSHUA — LESSONS. 

promise  of  success  (chap,  i.)  he  yet  prudently  used  whatever  means  were 
likely  to  secure  it.  He  sent  spies  and  disciplined  his  forces.  Not 
resting,  however,  in  these,  but  looking  still  to  God.  Thus  before 
attacking  the  Canaanites  he  solemnly  renewed  the  dedication  of  him- 
self and  the  people  (v.),  and  in  seasons  of  emergency  sought  bj''  prayer 
special  blessings  and  help  (x.  12-14).  "  Efforts  and  prayer,"  "  zeal  and 
dependence"  were  clearly  his  rule.  His  piety  and  devotion  are  beauti- 
fully displayed  in  his  closing  appeals,  and  the  spirit  of  afi'ectionate  sub- 
mission with  which  the  people  received  them  gives  us  a  favorable  im- 
pression of  his  influence  and  their  fidelity  (xxiii.  8).  The  discipline  of 
the  wilderness  had  not  been  unblessed. 

38.  Mark  in  Eahab  the  power  and  rewards  of  faith;  she  was  her- 
self saved  with  her  house,  and  she  became — though  of  the 
Rahab*^'       ^^'^^   ^^  Canaan — an   ancestor   of    David,    and   of    Christ. 
(Heb.  xi.  31). 
Our  victories  are  of  God:     Implicitly  obey  God's  commands:     Detec- 
tion and  punishment  follow  sin:     God  is  no  respecter  of 
A^han°'         persons — are  lessons  taught  in  the  history  of  Jericho  and 
of  Achan,  vii. 
The  repeated  renewals  of  the  covenant  recorded  in  this  book,  are 
solemn    and   instructive,  v. ;    xxiii.;    xxiv.     The  Israelites 
renewed.       "were  the  chosen  people  of  God ;  they  were  his  too  by  personal 
consecration.      Often  throughout  their  history  these  cove- 
nants were  renewed. 

The  destruction  of  the  Canaanites  is  a  fearful  admonition  of  the  final 

„  .       issues  of  transgression.     Compared  with  the  Israelites,  thev 

Destruction  ,     ,,  ,.     .    ,.     \  ,.  ,         ,  , 

of  the  were,  probably,   a  disciplined,   valiant   people;    but   they 

anaanites.  ggem  to  have  made  little  efi'ort  to  repel  the  invaders.  Perhaps 
they  trusted  to  the  "  swellings  of  Jordan,"  which  at  the  time  when 
Joshua  entered  Canaan  (the  vernal  equinox),  made  the  stream,  as  they 
supposed,  impassable ;  or,  perhaps,  as  one  of  their  number  expressed  it, 
"the  terror  of  the  God  of  the  Hebrews"  had  fallen  upon  them.  They 
were  certainly  fearfully  wicked  (Lev.  xviii.  24-30:  Deut.  ix.  4 ;  xviii. 
10-12).  Their  idolatry  had,  as  idolatry  ever  does,  augmented  licen- 
tiousness and  cruelty.  The  Divine  will  they  had  once  known,  for  they 
were  descendants  of  Noah,  and  for  centuries  the  light  of  an  early 
revelation  had  lingered  among  them  (Gen  xiv.).  They  had  been 
warned — by, the  deluge,  by  the  history  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  the 
destruction  of  Pharaoh,  the  recent  overthrow  of  their  eastern  neighbors, 
the  Amorites,  the  passage  of  the  Jordan,  the  capture  of  Jericho,  the  pre- 
servation of  Eahab,  and  the  conviction  of  their  own  conscience.     Their 


JOSHUA — LESSONS.  479 

removal  from  Palestine,  moreover,  seems  to  have  been  essential  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Israelites  from  the  contaminating  influence  of 
idolatry,  and  they  had  the  alternative  of  flight.  In  fact,  many  sailed 
to  the  distant  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  there  founded  flourish- 
ing colonies,  thus  preserving,  to  comparatively  modern  times,  records 
of  the  God  who  fought  against  them. 

Some  may  object  that  the  war  in  which  they  were  exterminated  was 
cruel,  and  that  they  might  have  been  removed  by  famine  or  pestilence. 
But  to  the  first  objection  it  is  a  sufficient  reply  that,  the  cruelties  thus 
practised  were  common  to  the  age,  and  that  in  exDerminating  a  very 
guilty  people,  God  did  not  direct  milder  usages  than  those  which  gene- 
rally prevailed  (Josh.  viii.).  The  second  objection  is  answered  by  the 
fact  that  no  plan  could  have  made  clearer  or  more  impressive  the 
power  and  righteousness  of  God,  his  infinite  superiority  to  the  idols  of 
those  nations,  and  his  righteous  hatred  of  the  crimes  into  which  they 
had  fallen.  It  may  be  added  that  by  similar  discipline  the  Israelites 
themselves  were  chastised,  and  the  general  system  involved  in  these 
events  is  strictly  analogous  to  the  course  of  moral  government  still 
exercised  in  tlie  world ;  with  this  difference  only,  that  now  men  act 
as  rods  of  God's  anger  by  tacit  permission ;  then,  under  his  immediate 
authority. 

As  the  triumphs,  through  faith,  of  the  Israelites  may  be  considered 
typical  of  the  final  triumph  of  the  church,  and  of  every  Christian, 
through  Jesus,  the  Captain  of  our  salvation,  the  Author  and  Finislier 
of  our  faith  (Heb.  ii.  10 ;  xii.  2),  so  the  destruction  of  the  Canaanites 
takes  its  place  with  the  deluge,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  Jerusalem, 
as  a  signal  proof  of  God's  displeasure  against  sin,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  emblem  of  the  judgment  of  the  great  day,  Psa.  cix. : 
Luke  xix. 

39.  And,  now,  God's  promise  has  been  in  vart  fulfilled : 
tlie  Jews  have  entered  Canaan;  the  tabernacle  of    „     ,    . 

How  fer  Ii? 

God  has  been  set  up  in  Shiloh ;  the  law  has  been  ttie  promise 

to  .\  bra  ham 

promulgated  and  accepted.  In  its  morality,  it  is  fulfilled, 
eminently  holy ;  in  its  civil  institutes,  adapted  to  preserve 
the  people  peculiar  and  separate,  and  to  set  forth  the  reality 
of  the  divine  government ;  and  in  its  ceremonies,  it  is  a  pro- 
phetic symbol  of  the  Gospel — but  only  in  part.  The  original 
promise  of  a  blessing  to  all  nations,  ratified  to  Abraham,  and 
renewed  to  the  other  partriarchs,  though  it  included  the  pos- 


480  THE  PENTATEUCH  AND  JOSHUA. 

session  of  Canaan,  seems  too  comprehensive  to  end  there.  The 
prediction  of  the  coming  dignity  of  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  the 
prophecy  of  Balaam ;  the  announcement  by  Moses  of  another 
greater  Prophet ;  and,  especially,  the  predictions  of  the  olst 
of  Deut.  (see  also  Lev.  xxvi.  and  Deut.  xxviii.),  foretelling  the 
sins  of  the  people,  and  the  consequences  of  them  in  the  dis- 
persion of  their  race,  all  seemed  to  direct  the  attention  of  the 
Israelite  to  an  enlarged  dispensation.  They  plainly  forebade 
him  to  rest  altogether  in  Canaan  or  his  law.  Everything  im- 
plied a  coming  universal  blessing,  a  kingdom,  a  revelation  not 
<-nigh,  a  prophet  from  among  the  people,  a  country  whose 
inhabitants  should  no  more  go  out,  even  for  ever.  The  reve- 
lation of  these  bles^ngs  was  not  always  clear ;  but  it  was 
clear  enough  to  excite  inquiry  and  justify  faith.     The  position 

of  the  pious  Israelite,  therefore,  was  not  altogether 
tionofthe  unlike  our  own.  From  Canaan  he  looked  back  on 
eiite'iike"      fulfilled    predictions,    and    forward    to    a   glorious 

future.  Much  of  his  future  is  now  past ;  and  we 
also  look  back  on  predictions  gloriously  fulfilled ;  others, 
again,  and  in  some  sense,  even  these,  are  unfulfilled.  All 
nations  are  not,  even  yet  blessed  in  Him.  A  third  point  of 
contemplation  for  pious  Jews  and  devout  Christians  remains ; 
and  the  certainty  of  the  predictions,  whose  fulfilment  is  to 
intervene,  is  assured  to  us  by  the  records  of  the  past. 

40.  No  small  light  will  be  thrown  upon  Joshua  and  Judges 
^   ,         ,    if  we  study  them  with  the  Pentateuch,  to  which, 

Joshua  and  •'  '  ' 

Judges  to     more  than  to  Samuel,  they  belong.     Between  these 

III  ©  ir  Gill  H~ 

teueh  what  books  there  is  the  same  connection  as  between  the 

the  book  of 

Afits  is  to      Uospels  and  the  Acts. 

the  Gospels. 

The  Pentateuch  gives. the  history  of  the  doings  of  the  great  law-giver 
and  of  the  laws  on  which  the  ancient  economy  was  to  be  founded. 
Joshua  gives  an  account  of  the  establishment  of  the  nation  itself, 
according  to  the  repeated  promise  of  God.  The  book  of  Judges  marks 
the  corruption  which  so  early  crept  into  the  ancient  church. 

The  Gospels  give  the  life  of  the  greater  prophet  and  the  laws  on 
which  his  church  was  to  be  established.     The  book  of  Acts  gives  the 


JUDGES — AUTHORSHIP.  481 

history  of  its  actual  establishment,  according  to  the  promise  of  its 
founder.  The  history  of  the  Judges  has  its  counterpart  in  facts  referred 
to  in  the  Epistles.  If  tlie  various  books  be  read  together  and  com- 
pared, the  connection  of  the  twQ  dispensations,  and  the  differences 
between  them,  will  more  plainly  appear.  Study  the  ritual  of  the  law 
in  the  incarnation  and  death  of  Christ,  and  compare  the  struggles  and 
victories  of  the  Jews  with  those  of  the  church.  Contrasts  will  be 
heightened  by  the  comparison.  The  genius  and  spirit  of  the  Gospel 
\?ill  appear  the  more  glorious ;  nor  less  glorious  will  be  the  character 
and  dignity  of  our  Lord.  He  combined  in  his  own  person  the  offices 
of  legislator,  priest,  and  leader ;  offices  filled  of  old  by  Moses,  and 
Aaron,  and  Joshua,  each  of  whom  was,  in  his  appropriate  place,  a  type 
of  Him. 

THE    BOOK    OF   JUDGES. 

41.  The  authorship  of  Judges  is  not  certainly  known,  though 
Jewish  tradition  ascribes  it  to  Samuel.     From  the 

1        1      ■        1  f  IT-  •  o  1        Authorship 

book  itseli,  we  gather  that  it  was  written  after  the  andauthen- 
commencement  of  the  monarchy,  xix.  1 ;  xxi.  25, 
and  before  the  accession  of  David,  i.  21 :  2  Sam.  v.  6-8.  The 
"  house  of  God"  refers,  therefore,  as  in  Joshua,  to  the  taber- 
nacle, XX.  18  (Josh.  ix.  23),  and  the  "  captivity"  spoken  of  in 
xviii.  30,  to  some  contemporary  servitude,  see  Psa.  Ixxviii.  60, 
61,  where  the  same  phrase  is  employed ;  many  of  the  sacred 
writers  allude  to  or  quote  this  book,  1  Sam.  xii.  9-11 :  2  Sam. 
xi.  21:   Psa.  Ixxxiii.  11,   Ixviii.  ;  Ixxxix.  :  Isa.  ix.  4;  x.  26. 

The  judges,  whose  administrations  for  about  300  years  are  here 

described,  were  not  a  regular  succession  of  governors,  but 

.7  &  '  Character 

occasional  deliverers  raised  up  by  God,   to  rescue   Israel    of  the 

from  oppression  and  to  administer  justice.  Without  assuming  ■l"'^^'^'^- 

the  state  of  royal  authority,  they  acted  for  the  time  as  vicegerents  of 

Jehovah,  the  invisible    king.     Their   power  seems  to  have  been  not 

unlike  that  of  the  suffetes  (tDilDQtJJ)  of  Carthage  and  Tyre,  or  of  the 

archons  of  Athens.     The  government  of  the  people  may  be  described 

as  a  republican  confederacy;  the  elders  and  princes  having  authority 

in  their  respective  tribes. 

Tlie  moral  character   of  the  Israelites,  as  described  in  this   book, 

41 


482  AUTHORSHIP — EUTH. 

Moral  con-    seems  to  have  undergone  a  sad  chana;e.     The  generation 
ditionofthe       ,  ^.  .  ,    ^     ,  °        ,      ,    ^ 

Israelites,      wno  were  contemporaries  with  Joshua  were  both  courageous 

and  faithful,  and  free  in  a  great  measure  from  the  weakness 
and  obstinacy  which  had  dishonored  their  fathers  (Judg.  ii.  7).  Their 
first  ardor,  however,  had  somewhat  cooled,  and  more  than  once  they 
fell  into  a  state  of  indiflerence  which  Joshua  found  it  needful  to  rebuke. 
Perhaps  the  whole  territory  of  Palestine  was  more  than  they  needed 
or  could  usefully  occupy.  As  each  tribe  received  its  portion,  they 
became  so  engrossed  in  cultivating  it,  or  so  much  fonder  of  ease  than 
of  war,  that  they  grew  unwilling  to  help  the  rest.  All  found  it,  more- 
over, more  convenient  to  make  slaves  of  their  subjugated  nations  than 
to  expel  them.  This  policy  was  unwise.  It  was  also  sinful.  The 
results  were  soon  seen.  Another  generation  arose.  Living  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  of  idolaters,  and  with  idolaters  even  in  their 
country,  the  Israelites  copied  their  example,  intermarried  with  them, 
and  became  contaminated  with  their  abominations,  Judg.  ii.  13.  The 
Canaanites,  moreover,  left  alone,  gathered  strength  to  make  head 
against  the  chosen  race ;  and  in  the  same  degree  the  latter,  yielding  to 
licentiousness,  ease,  and  idolatry,  lost  the  energy  and  faith  of  their 
fathers.  So  sin  multiplies  in  the  world.  So  sin  in  this  case,  as  ever, 
brought  with  it  its  punishment.  Sinners  are  but  filled  "with  their  oivn 
ways;"  and  in  their  punishment  God  illustrates  his  righteousness  and 
truth,  Judg.  ii.  14-18. 

The  grand  moral  lesson  of  the  whole  narrative  is  given  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  second  chapter. 

It  is  just,  however,  to  add,  that  the  whole  period  must  not  be  regarded 
as  an  uninterrupted  series  of  idolatries.  Some  of  the  disorders  men- 
tioned affected  only  parts  of  the  country,  while  the  rest  was  in  a  better 
state.  The  sins  which  incurred  punishment,  and  the  deliverances 
which  followed  repentance,  are  related  at  length  ;  while  long  periods, 
during  which  the  judges  governed,  and  the  people  obeyed  God,  are 
described  in  a  single  verse.  In  addition  to  the  many  who,  doubtless, 
remained  faithful  amidst  all  these  corruptions,  St.  Paul  reminds  us  of 
several  illustrious  examples  of  courageous  fidelity,  Heb.  xi.  32. 

THE    BOOK    OF    RUTH. 

42.  The  book  of  Ruth  may  be  considered  as  a  sequel  to  the 
,  ,.      , .     book  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  the  ensuing 

Authorship,  .  . 

^^^-  history.     It  contains  particulars  of  the  family  of 

Elimelech,  and  informs  us  how  Ruth,  a  Moabitess,  became 


EUTH — AUTHORSHIP.  483 

the  wife  of  Boaz,  an  ancestor  of  David,  and  tlius  of  Christ. 
The  authorship  is  not  certainly  known  ;  but  it  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Samuel.  There  are  several  phrases,  in  the  origi- 
nal, identical  with  expressions  which  occur  elsewhere  only  in 
Samuel  and  Kings  (Ruth  i.  17;  iv.  6,  etc.).  The  book  traces 
the  genealogy  of  David  to  a  source  not  flattering  to  that 
sovereign ;  and  this  fact  is  one  evidence  of  the  truthfulness 
of  the  narrative.  Its  genealogical  account  is  quoted  in 
Matt.  i.  6,  and  Luke  iii.  32. 

The  events  recorded  took  place  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  i.  1 ; 
but  the  history  was  certainly  written  some  time  later,  iv.  7. 

Brief  as  this  book  is,  it  is  remarkably  rich  in  examples  of  faith, 

patience,  indu.stry,  and  kindness,  nor  less  so  in  intimations 

Its  Iftssons 
of  the  special  care  which  God  takes  of  our  concerns  ;   "  still 

out  of  seeming  ill  educing  good."     Elimelech's  misfortunes;  his  son's 

sin  in  marrying  a  Moabitess ;  the  loss  of  her  husband — all  end  in  her 

own   conversion,    and   in   the   honor  of   her   adopted  family.     What 

changes  ten  years  have   produced  !     They  have  turned    Naomi   into 

Mara."     She  who  went  out  full  has  come  home  again  empty.     Her 

fortitude  and  faith,  however,  sustain  her ;  and  in  her  trouble  she  shows 

equal  wisdom  and  tenderness.  .  .  .  When  her  daughters  are  told  what 

they  must  expect  if  they  accompany  her  to  Canaan,  Orpah  weeps,  but 

returns  to  her  idols  ;  and  Ruth  cleaves  to  her,  indicating  therein  depth 

of   affection   and   religious  decision,  i.  16  ;    ii.  12.     Her  reward   she 

received  "  of  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  under  whose  wings  she  came  to 

trust." 

It  had  been  foretold  to  the  Jews  that  the  Messiah  should  be  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  it  was  aftenvards  further  revealed  that  he  should 
be  of  the  family  of  David.  It  was  important  therefore,  that  the  his- 
tory of  that  family  should  be  written  before  those  promises  were  de- 
livered. 

In  the  adoption  of  Ruth,  a  heathen,  a  Moabitess,  into  the  church  of 
God  and  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  we  see  a  ray  of  hope  rising  upon 
the  Gentile  world  •  and  still  more  in  her  being  taken  into  the  line  of 
the  Messiali,  we  seem  to  have  a  pre-intimation  of  the  great  mystery 
that  the  Gentiles  should  be  sanctified  by  him,  and  joined  with  his  peo- 
ple, and  that  there  should  be  one  floc'k  and  one  Shepherd. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  as  follows: — 

»  Bishop  Hall. 


484  SAMUEL^AUTHOR. 

An  account  of  Naomi,  from  her  departure  with  her  husband  from 
Canaan  into  Moab,  to  her  return  into  the  land  of  Israel  with  her 
daughter-in-law  Ruth,  chap.  i.  The  interview  of  Boaz  with  Ruth, 
and  their  marriage,  ii.-iv.  12.  The  birth  of  Obed,  and  genealogy  of 
David,  iv.  13-22. 


Sec.  4. — The  Books  of  Samuel,  Kings  and  Chroniclss. 


THE    books    of   SAMUEL. 

43.  The  relation  given  in  Ruth  is  a  kind  of  digression  in 
the  sacred  story,  with  a  particular  view.     The  gene- 

J.  finci  ^  08.111.  T       /J     T  •  • 

ral  thread  of  the  narrative  is  now  resumed.  We 
are  furnished  in  the  books  of  Samuel  with  the  history  of  the 
two  last  Judges,  Eli  and  Samuel  (who  were  not,  as  the  rest, 
men  of  war,  but  priests),  and  of  the  first  kings,  Saul  and 
David. 

.  These  two  books  were  anciently  reckoned  as  one,  the  pre- 
sent division  being  derived  from  the  LXX  and  Vulgate.  In 
those  versions  they  are  called  the  first  and  second  books  of 
Kings,  as  they  form  part  of  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Israel 
and  Judah. 

The  cjuestion  of  the  authorship  of  the  books  is  not  free  from 
difficulty ;  but  the  decided  preponderance  of  evi- 
dence is  in  favor  of  the  ancient  view,  that  Samuel 
wrote  1  Sam.  i.-xxiv.,  and  that  the  rest  was  written  by  Nathan 
and  Gad,  1  Chron.  xxix.  29.  The  narrative  was  probably 
written  towards  the  close  of  Samuel's  life,  v.  5  ;  vi.  18.  The 
place  of  the  books  in  the  canon ;  the  predictions  they  record  ;* 
the  quotations  from  them  in  later  books,  and  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament," supply  ample  evidence  of  their  authority. 

Gad  was  the  contemporary  of  David,  and  is  called  his  seer.     He  was 

>  See  1  Sam.  ii.  30:  2  Sam.  xii.  10-12,  etc. 

>>  1  Kings  XI.  2B:  2  Kings  ii.  4-11 :  1  Chron.  xvii.  24,  25:  see  Acta 
xiii.  22  :  Matt.  xii.  3. 


PROPHECY — EEVIVAL    AND   EXTENSION.  485 

also  probably  one  of  bis  companions  in  tbe  wilderness,  Gad. 
3  Sam.  xxii.  5.  Nathan  was  a  prominent  counsellor  of  Nathan. 
David's,  and  was  repeatedly  commissioned  to  give  him 
Divine  messages,  2  Sam.  vii.  2;  xii.  1:  Psa.  li.  In  Zech.  xii.  12,  his 
name  occurs  as  the  representative  of  the  great  family  of  the  prophets. 
These  books  contain  also  several  odes  by  different  writers.  The  song  of 
Hannah  is  remarkable  from  its  similarity  to  that  of  Mary  (1  Sam.  ii.  10: 
Luke  i.  46-55).  It  gives  a  striking  prophecy  of  Christ,  who  is  here 
called  for  the  first  time  Messiah,  (the  Anointed),  and  King, 

Samuel,  whom  we  thus  conclude  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  first  book,  was  the  desired  answer  (so  his 
name  implies)  of  his  mother's  prayers,  and  was  dedicated 
to  God  from  his  infancy.  Intrusted  with  supreme  power  in  the  state, 
he  ruled  without  ambition,  executed  his  office  with  irreproachable 
integrity,  and  resigned  it  without  reluctance.  He  was  both  feared  and 
respected  by  Saul,  and  was  allowed  by  that  monarch  to  judge  Israel  all 
the  days  of  his  life,  1  Sam.  vii.  15.  The  revelations  he  received,  and 
the  spirit  that  distinguished  him,  were  such  that  all  Israel,  from  Dan 
to  Beersheba  knew  that  Samuel  was  established  to  be  a  prophet  of  the 
Lord. 

Attention  to  the  chronological  arrangement  of  Samuel  and  later  his- 
torical books  is  peculiarly  important. 

44.  To  understand  the  covenant  which  God  gave  to  David,  securing 
the  perpetual   dominion   ot   his   seed,   read   and   compare 

2  Sam.  vii. ;  xxiii.  5  :   1  Chron.  xvii. .  Psa.  Ixxxix. ;  cxxxii.  covenant. 

Its  partial  fulfilment  in  Solomon  'may  be  gathered  from  ^'''^  David. 
1  Chron.  xxviii.  1-7 ;   1  Kings  viii.  15-26 ;  xi.  9-13. 

As  the  temporal  grandeur  of  David's  house  declined,  God  sent  pro- 
phets to  announce  the  stability  of  this  covenant,  and  to  assure  Judah 
of  the  unprecedented  glory  of  his  great  descendant,  Amos  ix.  11-15 : 
Isa.  ix.  6,  7 ;  xi.  ;  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  6 ;  xxxiii.  14-26.  These  promises  refer 
to  the  universal  and  permanent  reign  of  Messiah,  who  is  now  exalted, 
and  waiting  till  his  enemies  be  made  his  footstool,  Luke  i.  31-33,  69 : 
Actsii.  25-36;  xiii.  32-37. 

That  David  himself  understood  this  covenant  to  refer  to  our  Lord, 
and  to  spiritual  blessing  to  be  received  through  Him,  may  be  gathered 
from  Isa.  Iv.  3 :   Heb.  i.  5 :  and  Acts  ii.  30. 

45.  In  Samuel,  we  have  a  revival  of  the  prophetic  spirit.  From  the 
days  of  Joshua  to  Eli  there  seems  to  have  been  "no  open  vision" 
(1  Sam.  iii.  1.  Jer.  xv.  1:  Acts  xiii.  20;  iii.  24).  Under  the  judges, 
the  original  covenant  remained  as  at  first.     The  Jewish   polity  and 

41* 


486  PROPHECY REVIVAL    AND   EXTENSION. 

Suspension    priesthood  were  unchanged.     The  law  as  given  by  Moses, 
phecy'  ^^  ^°  ^^^^  force,  and  supplied,  in  the  fulfilment  of  its  pre- 

dictions, ample  evidence  of  its  authority.  In  the  days  of 
Samuel,  however,  marked  changes  were  passing  over  the  state.  Ca- 
lamities were  becoming  more  confounding.  Success  more  extraordinary 
and  transient.  Tlie  priesthood  was  to  be  transferred;  kingly  govern- 
ment to  be  established.  By  and  by,  the  kingdom  itself  will  be  broken 
and  divided.  Idolatry  will  be  publicly  sanctioned,  and  will  need 
public  authoritative  rebukes.  Then  will  follow  a  long  series  of  afflic- 
tions, ending  in  removal  and  captivity. 

Ohanges  so  serious  needed  special  interposition.     Hence  the  necessity 

of  a  revival  and  enlargement  of  prophetic  revelation.  As 
Revival  and  ,^  .,  ,.".,  ^  .  '^    ^.    . 

enlarge-         Moses  required  peculiar  evidence  oi  a  Divme  appointment 

mentofit.     ^^^  j^-g  jjjission,  so  does  Samuel.     He  appears,  therefore,  as 

prophet,  and  commences  an  age  of  prophecy,  which  continues  without 

any  material  chasm  to  the  days  of  Malachi. 

A  supernatural  call  and  a  prophetic  vision  were  granted  to  him  at 

the  commencement  of  his  ministry,  even  in  his  youth.     He 

was  commissioned  to  repeat  to  Eli  a  prediction  which  a 
man  of  God  had  already  announced,  and  the  fulfilment  of  this  predic- 
tion, with  other  circumstances,  gave  early  evidence  of  his  authority. 
The  people  soon  sought  a  king,  as  their  request  implied  a  distrust  of 
the  protection  and  love  which  had  made  them  a  theocracy,  it  was 
opposed  by  the  prophet  in  God's  name.  At  length,  God  complied,  and 
it  became  the  business  of  the  prophet  to  watch  over  the  change,  to 
define  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  lo  show  whom  God  had  chosen,  and 
ultimately  to  transfer  the  kingdom  to  the  person  and  tribe  of  David. 
So  far,  the  predictions  and  business  of  the  prophet  were  chiefly  civil. 
In  David's  person  and  reign,   however,  prophecy  assumes  a  new 

character.     His  kingdom  was  first  confirmed  to  him  (2  Sam. 

vii.  12-17 :  Psa.  Ixxxix.).  The  character  and  kingdom  of 
Solomon  are  then  foretold,  and,  blended  with  these,  we  find  revelations 
of  a  higher  and  holier  kind.  The  promise  to  Abraham  was,  as  we  have 
seen,  both  temporal  and  evangelical ;  so  also  is  now  the  promise  to 
David.  To  Abraham,  Messiah  had  been  announced,  more  or  less 
clearly,  as  the  promised  seed;  to  Moses,  as  the  coming  prophet;  to  all 
of  that  age,  as  the  priest;  to  David,  he  appears,  in  addition,  as  king. 
He  therefore  speaks  of  Messiah's  authority,  of  the  liostility  of  the 
kings  of  the  earth,  of  his  sceptre  of  righteousness,  of  his  unchangeable 
priesthood,  of  his  exalted  nature,  of  his  death,  and  his  victory  over 
death,  and  of  his  dominion,  including  both  Israel  and  the  Gentiles 
(Psa.  ii. ;  xvi. ;  xlv. ;  ex.,  etc.).     In  little  more  than  a  hundred  years, 


KINGS.  487 

the  oppressed  tribes  rule  from  sea  to  sea,  and  the  dimness  of  no  open 
vision  yields  to  what  seems  the  dawn  of  a  cloudless  day. 

It  is  very  worthy  of  notice,  too,  that  while  David  receives  the  pro- 
mise of  the  duration  of  his  kingdom  from  Samuel  and  Nathan,  it  is 
David  himself  who  is  instructed  to  connect  this  kingdom  with  the 
kingdom  of  his  greater  Son.  The  prophets  reveal- and  magnify  the 
type,  he  passes  on  the  prediction,  calls  Cheist  Lord,  and  pays  every- 
where willing  homage  to  his  person  and  law  (Psa.  ex.). 

In  proportion  as  the  kingdom  and  character  of  Christ  are  thus 
brought  into  view,  provision  is  made  for  deepening  the  im- 
pression of  these  Christian  prophecies  upon  the  hearts  of 
the  people,  and  making  them  conducive  to  faith  and  piety.  They  are 
given  in  Psalms,  and  thus  pass  into  the  devotions  of  the  church.  These 
Psalms  form  the  most  important  additions  that  had  yet  been  made  to 
the  Mosaic  revelation,  and  are  clearly  adapted  to  inspire  ancient  wor- 
shippers with  Christian  hopes.  Very  beautiful,  too,  is  the  growing 
distinctness  of  these  predictions.  To  Abraham,  a  seed  was  revealed. 
When  his  descendants  had  become  tribes,  to  Judah  the  promise  was 
confined ;  and  now,  when  the  kingdom  appears,  it  is  given  to  David. 
Nor  can  these  predictions  be  ascribed  to  flattery  or  selfishness.  It  ia 
not  David  who,  in  the  first  instance,  receives  them.  Nor  is  it  to  him- 
self, in  all  their  fulness,  that  he  appropriates  them.  He  applies  them  to 
another,  and  the  messenger  who  gives  them  is  Nathan ;  a  prophet  who 
rebuked  his  son,  and  severely  threatened  Solomon  with  the  conse- 
quences of  his  apostasy.  The  faithfulness  of  these  servants  of  God 
had  other  and  more  immediate  ends,  but  it  proves  incidentally  the 
truth  of  their  announcements. 

THE    TWO   BOOKS    OF   KINGS. 

46.  The  two  books  of  Kings  (which  in  ancient  copies  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  form  but  one  book)  contain  the  history  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  from  the  end  of  David's  reign  to  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  The  present  division  of  the  books  is  taken  from 
the  LXX  and  Vulgate. 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  authorship ;   the  most  pro- 
bable opinion  is,  that  as  memoirs  of  their  own  times 
were  written  by  several  of  the  prophets,  for  the  use  '      "  ^  "''' 
of  the  kingdom,  the  present  books  were  compiled  from  these 
records  by  Jeremiah  or  Ezra;  Jewish  tradition  is  in  favor  of 


488  KINGS. 

the  first,  and  ITavernick  has  recently  advocated  the  same  view. 
The  events  described  reach  to  the  liberation  of  Jehoiachim 
from  prison  in  Babylon  (twenty-six  or  twenty-eight  years  only 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem).  A  late  authorship  is 
proved  by  the  frequent  use  of  Chaldaisms  (De  Wette,  §115,6); 
and  there  is  a  remarkable  aiBhity  of  style  between  Kings  and 
Jeremiah  (Havern.)  .  .  .  The  view  that  the  books  were  drawn 
up  from  various  documents,  by  one  hand,  is  confirmed  by  the 
books  themselves.  The  frequent  vividness  of  the  narrative 
bespeaks  the  work  of  an  eye-witness;  and  appeals  are  con- 
stantly made  to  official  documents,  under  the  title  of  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel — a  title  given  elsewhere  to 
national  annals.  Est.  ii.  23  ;  vi.  1.  That  the  whole  was  revised 
by  one  hand  appears  from  the  similarity  of  style  and  idiom  in 
various  unimportant  expressions. 

Both  boohs  contain  several  prophecies,  and  other  intrinsic 
marks  of   inspiration ;    and  both  are  cited  as  au- 

Anthen-  i  •       i   i  t        i  i    i  •  i 

ticity-  thentic  and  canonical  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles 

(see  Luke  iv.  25,  27:  Jas.  v.  17). 

The  comparative  dates  of  Clironicles  and  Kings  explain  various  dif- 
ferences of  phraseology.  In  Chronicles  we  have  Aramaean  forms,^  later 
words  and  expressions,  more  recent  names,''  and  synonymous  expres- 
sions used  for  others  liable  to  misconception.": 

Differences  in  tlie  order  of  events  are  explained  by  the  fact  that  none 
of  the  writers  profess  to  give  the  exact  order  of  time.'^  Additions,  omis- 
sions and  abbreviations,  are  in  the  same  way  explained,  by  a  reference 
to  the  different  aim  of  each  narrative. 

Other  differences,  amounting  to  discrepancies,  are  occasionally  found, 
and  refer  chiefly  to  numbers  and  names.  It  is  well  known  that  the  text 
of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  is  in  a  worse  condition  than  that  of 
any  other  of  the  inspired  writings ;  nor  must  we  ascribe  to  the  author 
what  is  really  due  to  the  errors  of  copyists.'^     These  errors,  it  may  be 

»  2  Chron.  x.  18.     ^l  Chron.  xiv.  2  ;  xix.  12  ;  xxi.  2 :  2  Chron.  xvi.  4. 

'  1  Chron.  xix.  4  :  2  Chron.  xxii.  12.  "*  See  Tables  ;  1  Chron.  xiv. : 

2  Chron.  i.  14-17;  ix.  25,  are  evidently  out  of  chronological  order. 

eSee  2  Chron.  viii.  18:  (1  Kings  ix.  28):  1  Chron.  xi.  11:  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  8) ;  xxi.  5  :  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  9j :  i  Chron.  xviii.  4 :  (2  Sam.  viii.  4); 
XIX.  18:  (2  Sam.  x.  18). 


CHKONICLES.        .  489 

added,  do  not  affect  any  article  of  faith  or  rule  of  life,  and  till  we  can 
rectify  them  they  ought  to  be  candidly  acknowledged. 

Both  books  record  several  inspired  predictions,  and  are  referred  to  or 
quoted  in  the  New  Testament.*  It  is  remarkable  that  the  inspired  accla- 
mation of  David  to  the  praise  of  God  is  substantially  adopted  by  our 
Lord,  and  is  ascribed  by  John  to  the  blessed  spirits  who  celebrate  the 
praises  of  God  in  heaven,  1  Chron.  xxis.  10, 11 :  Matt.  vi.  13 :  Pi.ev.  v. 
12,  13. 

THE    TWO   BOOKS   OF   CHRONICLES. 

47.  These  books  were  reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one,  and 
called  the  words  of  Days,  i.  e.  diaries  or  journals,  probably  in 
allusion  to  the  ancient  annals,  out  of  which  they  appear  to 
have  been  composed.  In  the  LXX  they  are  distinguished  as 
the  books  of  "things  omitted"  (•jrupcx.Xn'Troy.ii/uv),  and  were  re- 
garded as  a  kind  of  supplement  to  the  preceding  books  of 
Scripture,  supplying  such  information  as  was  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  alterations  consequent  upon  the  captivity.  The 
present  title  was  first  given  to  them  by  Jerome. 

48.  The  authorship  of  Chronicles  is  generally  ascribed  to 
Ezra.     They    certainly   record   the    restoration    by 

Cyrus,  2  Chron.  xxxvi.   21;   22,   and  mention   the  '  '^' 

writings  of  Jeremiah,  xxxv.  25.  The  style  of  Ezra,  moreover, 
bears  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  style  of  Chronicles,  and  its 
history  seems  a  continuation  of  Kings,  Ez.  i.  1-3,  and  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  23.  If  this  vievi^  is  correct,  1  Chron.  iii.  19-24,  giving 
an  account  of  the  genealogy  of  Zerubbabel  to  the  time  of 
Alexander,  must  have  been  added  by  a  later  writer. 

49.  The  importance  of  the  fact  that  these  histories  were  compiled 
from  earlier  documents,  themselves  the  work  of  prophets,  is  well  illus- 
trated in  these  books.  These  documents  seem  to  be  quoted  literally, 
even  when  the  fact  recorded  applies  rather  to  the  time  of  the  writer 
than  of  the  compiler  ;  see  2  Chron.  v.  9  ;  viii.  8  :  the  purpose  of  the  com- 
piler being  not  to  modify  these  documents,  but  to  connect  with  them 
his  own  narrative.     Many  passages,  also,  are  identical,  or  nearly  iden- 

»2  Chron.  ii.  5,  6:  in  Acts  vii.  48,  49:  2  Chron.  xix.  7:  in  1  Pet.  i.  17. 


490  SAMUEL,  KINGS,  AND    CnRONICLES  COMPARED. 

tical,  with  passages  in  Kings,  both  being  taken  probab]y  from  the  same 
annals.  The  documents  referred  to  or  quoted  are  not  less  than  a  dozen, 
though  three  or  four  of  these  are  probably  the  same  document. 

The  three  double  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  have  much 

in  common,  though  they  have  also  characteristic  differences. 
of  Saniuel,  They  treat  for  the  most  part  of  the  same  period,  and  should 
Chronides     ^^  ^^'^'^  ^^'^  compared  together.    A  comprehensive  view  may 

thus  be  gathered  of  Jewish  history,  and  much  light  will  be 
thrown  on  brief  and  obscure  expressions.  Their  differences  of  aim,  how- 
ever, are  as  marked  as  is  their  substantial  identity.  Samuel  gives  the 
history  of  the  formation  of  the  kingdom,  and  a  biography,  even  more 
than  a  history  ot  the  first  kings.  The  Books  of  Kings,  on  the  other 
hand,  give  a  history  of  the  theocracy  under  regal  government,  and  are 
rich  in  brief  allusions  to  the  character,  sins,  and  consequent  punish- 
ment of  the  rulers  and  of  the  people.  The  Books  of  Chronicles,  again, 
have  special  reference  tn  the  forms  and  ministry  of  religious  worship, 
to  the  genealogies,  and  consequent  possessions  of  the  various  families 
and  tribes,  and  to  other  topics  connected  with  the  return.  Hence  gene- 
alogical tables ;  hence,  also,  the  prominence  given  to  the  pious  care,  in 
establishing  public  worship,  of  David,  Solomon,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah. 
The  genealogical  tables  of  these  books,  though  to  us  comparatively 

uninteresting,  were  highly  important  among  the  Jews,  who 
cal'tablel!'     were  made  by  prophetic  promises  extremely  observant  in 

these  particulars.  These  tables  give  the  sacred  line  through 
which  the  promise  was  transmitted  for  nearly  3,500  years ;  a  fact  itself 
unexampled  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

50.  The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  historical  books  of 
Scripture,  and  especially  of  Kings  and  Chronicles, 

Theocratic  .    .  .  . 

character      ig  their  relieious,  theocratic  character.     Secular  his- 

of  these  . 

histories.  tory  gives  the  public  changes  which  nations  have 
undergone,  with  their  causes  and  results.  Church  history- 
traces  the  progress  of  sentiment,  and  of  various  influences  in 
relation  to  the  church.  But  here,  king,  church,  state,  are  all 
rejiresented  as  under  God.  The  character  of  each  king  is  de- 
cided by  his  fidelity  to  the  religious  obligations  of  his  office. 
Of  each  it  is  said,  He  walked  in  the  ways  of  David  his  father, 
and  so  prospered ;  or  of  Jeroboam,  who  made  Israel  to  sin,  and 
so  failed.     These  books  are  valuable  as  the  history  of  God  and 


DAVID   AND    SOLOMON.  491 

his  law  in  the  nation — and  that  nation  a  monarcliy ;  as  the 
books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  are  the  liistory  of  God  and  his 
law  in  an  aristocracy  or  democracy ;  or  as  the  earlier  books 
are  the  history  of  God  and  his  law  in  the  family.  In  the 
Prophets,  and  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  have  glimpses 
of  what  is  to  be  the  history  of  God  and  his  law  in  the  world. 
Mark,  therefore,  the  prominence  given  to  the  erection  of  the 
temple ;  the  numerous  references  to  the  ancient  law,  especially 
when  the  two  kingdoms  were  drawing  to  their  end,  as  if  to 
account  for  their  decay  and  approaching  fall ;  the  frequent  in- 
terposition of  prophets,  now  rebuking  the  people,  and  now 
braving  the  sovereign  ;  the  deposition  and  succession  of  kings ; 
and  the  connection  everywhere  traced  between  what  seem  to 
be  mere  political  incidents  and  the  fidelity  or  idolatry  of  the 
age.'  ....  Were  nations  wise,  these  records  would  prove 
their  best  instructors ;  they  are  adapted  to  teach  alike  the 
world  and  the  church. 

51.  The  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  constitute  the  golden 
period  of  the  Jewish  state.     From  the  first,  David 
showed  the  utmost  anxiety  that  every  step  he  took  David  and 
towards  the  possession  of  the  kingdom  should  be  ° 

directed  by  God,  2  Sam.  ii.  1 :  1  Sam.  xxiii.  2,  4.  He  acted 
ever  as  "his  servant;"  and  when  established  in  his  kingdom, 
it  was  his  first  concern  to  promote  the  Divine  honor  and-  the 
religious  welfare  of  his  people  (2  Sam.  vi.  1-5 ;  vii.  1,  2). 
During  a  war  of  seven  years  he  never  lifted  his  sword  against 
a  subject,  and  at  the  end  of  it  he  punished  no  rebel  and  remem- 
bered no  offence  but  the  murder  of  his  rival  (2  Sam.  iv.  10-12). 
As  a  king,  therefore,  he  sought  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  and 
as  the  visible  representative  of  Jehovah,  he  took  his  proper 
place,  aspiring  to  no  other,  but  conforming  strictly  to  the 
spirit  of  the  theocracy.  It  was  to  this  character  of  Ids  admin- 
istration, probably,  rather  than  to  his  private  virtues,  that 

'See  2  Kings  v.-viii. ;  x.  31;  xvii.  13,  15,  37;  xviii.  4-6.     Elijah's 
history;  1  Kings  xv.  3-5:  2  Kings  xi.  17. 


492  DAVID   AND   SOLOMON. 

God  referred,  in  describing  him  "  as  a  man  after  his  own 
heart"  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14 :  see  also  Acts  xiii.  22),  who  was  to 
"execute  all  his  will."  It  is,  indeed,  impossible  to  vindicate 
all  his  acts,  or  to  regard  him  as  a  perfect  character.  And  yet 
when  we  look  at  the  piety  of  his  youth,  the  depth  of  his  con- 
trition, the  strength  of  his  faith,  the  fervor  of  his  devotion, 
the  loftiness  and  variety  of  his  genius,  the  largeness  and 
warmth  of  his  heart,  his  eminent  valor  in  an  age  of  warriors, 
his  justice  and  wisdom  as  a  ruler,  and,  above  all,  his  adherence 
to  the  worship  and  will  of  God,  we  may  well  regard  him  as  a 
model  of  kingly  authority  and  spiritual  obedience. 

Solomon  continued  the  policy  and  shared  the  blessing  of  his 
Character  f^'tb-sr.  His  dominions  extended  from  the  Mediter- 
of  Solomon  ranean  to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Red  Sea  and 
reign.  Arabia  to  the  utmost  Lebanon  (1  Kings  iv.  21,  etc.) 

The  tributary  states,  of  which  it  was  largely  composed,  were 
held  in  complete  subjection,  and  being  still  governed  by  their 
own  princes,  Solomon  was  "king  of  kings."  The  Canaanites 
who  remained  in  Palestine  became  peaceable  subjects  or  useful 
servants.  His  treasures,  also,  were  immense,  composed  chiefly 
of  the  spoils  won  by  his  father  from  many  nations,  and  trea- 
sured up  by  him  partly  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  temple 
to  the  Lord,  but  partly,  also,  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  the 
power  and  magnificence  of  the  kingdom.  The  wisdom  of 
Solomon  was  even  more  illustrious  than  his  wealth.  It  is 
celebrated  both  in  Scripture  and  in  Eastern  story.  Three 
thousand  proverbs  (of  which  many  remain)  long  gave  proof 
of  his  virtues  and  sagacity.  A  thousand  and  five  songs,  of 
which  we  have  Canticles  and  the  127th  Psalm,  placed  him 
among  the  first  Hebrew  poets ;  while  his  perfect  knowledge 
of  natural  history  was  shown  by  writings  which  were  long 
admired,  though  they  have  since  perished. 

His  very  greatness,  however,  betrayed  him.  His  treasures, 
wives,  and  chariots,  were  all  contrary  to  .the  spirit  and  precepts 
of  the  law  (Deut.  xvii.  16,  17).  His  exactions  alienated  the 
affections  of  his  people,  and,  above  all,  he  was  led  astray  by 


DAVID   AND   SOLOMON — THE   PSALMS.  493 

his  wives,  and  built  temples  to  Chemosh,  or  Peor,  the  obscene 
idol  of  Moab ;  to  Moloch,  the  god  of  Amnion  ;  and  to  Ashta- 
roth,  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians.  His  later  days,  therefore, 
were  disturbed  by  "  adversaries."  Jeroboam  did  "mischief" 
in  Edom  ;  Damascus  declared  its  independence  under  Rezin  ; 
and  Ahijah  was  instructed  to  announce  to  Solomon  himself 
that,  as  he  had  broken  the  covenant  by  which  he  held  his 
crown,  the  kingdom  should  be  rent  from  him  and  part  of  it 
given  to  his  servant.  There  is  reason  to  hope  that  these  just 
punishments  opened  his  eyes  to  the  enormity  of  his  sins,  and 
that  his  last  days  were  penitent.  His  reign,  on  the  whole,  was 
most  prosperous.  "  Judah  and  Israel  were  many,  as  the  sand 
which  is  by  the  sea  in  multitude,  eating  and  drinking  and 
making  merry."  From  Dan  even  to  Beersheba,  they  dwelt 
safely  every  man  "  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree." 

The  great  event  of  Solomon's  life  wa^  the  erection  of  the  temple.  As 
this  building  fulfilled  a  prophecy  (2  Sam.  vii.  13),  and  was 
a  symbol  of  God's  resting  with  the  people  (2  Sam.  vii.  6, 10), 
so  it  was  itself  both  a  prophecy  and  a  type.  A  type  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple and  of  the  church,  and  a  prophecy  of  God's  continued  presence 
(Jer.  vii.)  Its  history,  therefore,  is  an  index  to  the  history  of  the  Jews 
themselves.  When  it  fell,  they  were  scattered  ;  as  it  rose  from  its  ruins, 
they  gathered  around  it  again ;  and  history  dates  the  captivity,  with 
equal  accuracy,  from  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  or  from  the  first 
capture  of  Jerusalem  (see  |  450),  1  Kings  ix.  7,  8:  2  Chron.  vii.  20; 
all  Jer.  vii. :   Isa.  xliv.  28. 


Sec.  5. — The  Poetical  Books — Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon, 
Proverbs,  and  Ecclesiastes. 

THE  psalms. 

52.  The  book  of  Psalms  is  a  collection  of  sacred  hymns 
(vixvoi),  composed  at  dili'erent  times,  and  especially 
by  David,  2  Sam.  x.xiii.  1.  The  Hebrew  title  means  the  book, 
"praises;"  the  English,  which  is  taken  from  the  LXX,  means 
odes  adapted  to  music  (4'a^^«,  to  strike  a  chord);  an  appro- 
42 


ii. 

42-72. 

hi. 

73 

-89. 

iv. 

90- 

-106. 

V. 

107- 

-150. 

494  THE    PSALMS. 

priate  name,  as  most  of  the  pieces  were  intended  not  only  to 
express  religious  feeling,  but  to  be  sung  devotionally  in  pub- 
lic service. 

53.  The  Psalms  were  collected  and  arranged  by  Ezra  and 

his  companions  (B.  C.  450),  and  in  the  book  itself 
arrange^-''  there  is  evidence  of  its  being  formed  from  several 
""^"  "  smaller  collections.     In  the  Hebrew  and  LXX  the 

Psalms  are  divided  into  five  books,  each  of  the  first  three  con- 
taining the  compositions  of  some  particular  author. 

i,         1-41.     Consist  chiefly  of  David's  Psalms,  collected  perhaps  by 

Hezekiah :  see  Prov.  xxv.  1,  and  2  Chron.  xxix.  30. 

Psalms  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  xlii.-xlvii,  and  by  David, 

li.-lxv. ;  Ixxii. 
Psalms  by  Asaph,  Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.,  and  Korah,  Ixxxiv.- 

Ixxxix.,  mostly. 

Liturgic,  including  the  Hallelujah  Psalms  and  the  songs 

of  degrees ;    chiefly  collected  for  the  service  of  the 

second  temple. 

54.  Of  the  authors  mentioned  in  the  titles,  David  was  the 

largest  composer,  though  not  all  to  which  his  name 
is  prefixed  in  the  Hebrew  (73),  nor  the  additional 
ones  in  the  LXX  (12),  were  written  by  him.  Among  the 
former  are  Psa.  cxxxix.  and  cxxii.  (compare  LXX) ;  but  their 
Chaldaisms  and  style  point  to  a  later  date.  On  the  other 
hand,  Psa.  xcix.  and  civ.,  ascribed  to  him  in  the  LXX,  are 
probably  his.  Psa.  ii.  and  xcv.,  again,  which  are  not  men- 
tioned as  his  in  either  text,  are  ascribed  to  him  in  the  New 
Testament,  Acts  iv.  25,  26 :  Heb.  iv.  7.  The  name  of  Asaph, 
David's  chief  musician,  or  of  his  descendants,  is  connected 
with  twelve,  1.,  Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.  The  sons  of  Korah,  anothor 
family  of  choristers,  are  named  as  the  authors  of  eleven  more  ; 
to  this  family,  Eeman,  the  Ezrahite,  and  nephew  of  Samuel, 
belonged  (Psa.  Ixxxviii.  :  compare  1  Chron.  vi.  22,  33-88) :  and 
Ethan  is  named  as  the  author  of  Ixxxix.,  though  erroneously, 
if  he  were  a  contemporary  of  David's:  see  ver.  38-44.  Solo- 
mon's name  is  connected  with  Ixxii.  and  cxxvii. ;  but  probably 


THE   PSALMS.  495 

he  is  rather  the  subject  than  the  author  of  the  former.  Moses 
is  reputed  to  be  the  author  of  Psa.  xc,  and  the  following  ten 
are  ascribed  to  him  by  Jewish  critics,  but  without  good  ground  : 
See  xcvii.  8  and  xcix.  6.  The  anonymous  Psalms  have  been 
ascribed  to  various  authors.  The  LXX  mentions  Jeremiah  as 
the  author  of  cxxxvii.,  and  Haggai  and  Zechariah  as  the  au- 
thors of  cxlvi.,  cxlvii. 

55.  The  peculiar  value  of  the  Psalms  is  twofold : 

1.  They  are  models  of  acceptable  devotion.  Other  parts  of  revela- 
tion represent  God  as  speaking  to  man.  Here  man  is  rep- 
resented  as  speaking  to  God.  By  this  book,  therefore,  we  value, 
test  the  utterances  and  feelings  of  our  hearts.  Here  we  have  o'jons'of  de- 
a  rule  by  which  we  may  know  whether  they  are  healthy  voutfeeling. 
and  true ;  whether  the  fire  that  rises  from  within  is  of  God's  kindling 
or  of  our  own. 

2.  They  contain  predictions  of  the  history  of  our  Lord,  and  describe 

with  wonderful  literalness  his  sufferings  and  slorv  :  for  his 

„    .  -^  .  ..         1      i-       1  ■       1  r.         ••         Prophetic. 

sufferings  see  rsa.  xvi.;  xxn.;  xi. ;  lor  his  glory,  rsa.  u. ; 

xlv.;  Ixxii.;  ex.  Psa.  cxxxii.  11  foretells  his  connection  with  David. 
Psa.  cxviii.  22,  his  rejection  by  the  Jews.  Psa.  Ixviii.  18,  his  ascension 
and  the  gift  of  the  Spirit:  and  Psa.  cxvii.,  the  call  of  the  Gentiles:  see 
Rom.  XV.  11. 

The  Christian  church,  therefore,  takes  the  Psalms  as  her  own  lan- 
guage, or  as  the  language  of  her  Lord.  When  the  writer  speaks  of  his 
enemies,  we  understand  him  as  speaking  of  the  enemies  of  Christ  and 
his  church.  Generally,  however,  the  feelings  of  the  writer  are  iden- 
tical with  the  ordinary  feelings  of  Christians  ;  as,  when  he  describes 
the  confidence  and  love  which  have  been  common  to  true  believers  in 
all  ages:  see  Arnold's  Sermons  on  Interpretation,  p.  143;  see,  also,  the 
Paragraph  Bible,  Introduction  to  the  Psalms,  and  a  Note  appended  to 
them. 

In  a  purely  literary  point  of  view,  the  Psalms  have  been 
called,  not  inaiitly,  the  national  ballads  of  the  He- 

'  1      ./  '  Hebrew 

brew  race.  The  contrast  which,  so  regarded,  they  ballads, 
present  to  other  "national  ballads,"  is  sufficiently  striking. 

All  classes  of  writers  have  delighted  to  praise  these  compositions. 
Athanasins,  and  after  him,  Luther,  called  them  an  epitome 
of  the  Bible  ;  Basil,  and  after  him,  Bish.op  Hall,  "  acompend  i^i^cf/g 
of  theology."     "Not  in  their  Divine  arguments  alone,"  sa3'S 


496  PSALMS — ACCOBDING   TO    THEIR    CONTENTS. 

Milton,  "  but  in  the  very  critical  art  of  composition,  they  raay  be  easily 
made  to  appear  over  all  the  kinds  of  lyric  poesy  incomparable."  "  In 
lyric  flow  and  fire,"  says  a  more  modern  authority,  "in  crushing  force 
and  majesty  .  .  .  the  poetry  of  the  ancient  Scriptures  is  the  most  superb 
that  ever  burnt  within  the  breast  of  man" — Sir  D.  K.  Sandford.  To 
the  Christian,  however,  their  highest  praise  is  that  they  embody  the 
holiest  feelings,  have  supplied  utterances  to  the  emotions  of  the  best 
men  of  all  ages,  and  were  sung  by  Him  who,  though  "  he  spake  as  never 
man  spake,"  chose  to  breathe  out  his  soul,  both  in  praise  and  in  his  last 
agony,  in  the  words  of  a  psalm. 

This  book  is  quoted  in  the  New  Testament,  or  clearly  referred  to, 
upwards  of  seventy  times.  The  psalms  thus  quoted  or  referred  to  are 
marked  in  Table  (B),  thus :  * 

56.  Various  classifications  of  the  Psalms  have  been  proposed. 
Tholuck  divides  them,  accordinsr  to  their  matter,  into 

Arrange-  ° 

ment  of        songs  01  praise,  of  thanhso-ivino;,  of  complaint,  and 

Psalms  ac-  °  ■"■  .  a  o'  ±  ' 

oordinijto  of  instruction.  Others  arrange  them  under  hymns 
jects.  in  honor  of  God;  hymns  of  Zion  and  the  temple; 

hymns  of  the  Messiah  or  King;  plaintive  and  supplicatory- 
hymns,  and  religious  odes,  as  Psa.  xxiii.,  xci.,  cxix.  No  very  ac- 
curate classification  can  be  made,  for  the  contents  are  often  very 
various.    The  following  (A),  however,  is  practically  important.* 

1.  Didactic  Fsalms;  on  the  character  of  good  and  bad  men,  their 
happiness  and  misery,  i.,  v.,  vii.,  ix.-xii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvii.,  xxiv.,  xxv., 
xxxii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvi.,  xxxvii.,  1.,  lii.,  liii.,  Iviii.,  lxxiii.,.lxxv.,  Ixxxiv., 
xci.,  xcii.,  xciv.,  cxii.,  cxix.,  cxxi.,  cxxv.,  cxxvii.,  cxxviii.,  cxxxiii.;  on 
the  excellency  of  the  Divine  law,  xix.,  cxix. ;  on  the  vanity  of  human 
life,  xxxix.,  xlix.,  xc. ;  on  the  duty  of  rulers,  Ixxxii.,  ci. ;  on  humility, 
cxxxi. 

2.  Fsalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration ;  acknowledgments  of  God's  good- 
ness and  mercy,  and  particularly  of  his  care  of  good  men,  xxiii.,  xxxiv., 
xxxvi.,  xci.,  c,  ciii.,  cvii.,  cxvii.,  cxxi.,  cxlv.,  cxlvi. ;  acknowledgments 
of  his  power,  glory,  and  attributes  generally,  viii.,  xix.,  xxiv.,  xxix., 
xxxiii.,  xlvii.,  1.,  Ixv.,  Ixvi.,  Ixxvi.,  Ixxvii.,  xciii.,  xcv.-xcvii.,  xcix.,  civ., 
cxi.,  cxiii.-cxv.,  cxxxiv.,  cxxxix.,  cxlvii.,  cxlviii.,  cl. 

3.  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving ;  for  mercies  to  individuals,  ix.  xviii.,  xxii., 
XXX.,  xxxiv.,  xl.,  Ixxv.,  ciii.,  cviii.,  cxvi.,  cxviii.,  cxxxviii.,  cxliv. ;  for 

»Bickersteth's  "Christian  Truth." 


PSALMS — THEIR    DATE    AND    ORIGIN. 


497 


mercies  to  the  Israelites  generally,  xlvi.,  xlviii.,  Ixv.,  Ixvi.,  Ixviii.,  Ixxvi., 
Ixxxi.,  Ixxxv.,  xcviii.,  cv.,  cxxiv.,  cxxvi.,  cxxix.,  cxxxv.,  cxxxvi.,  cxlix. 

4.  Devotional  Psalms:  expressive  of  penitence,  vi.,  xxv.,  xxxii., 
xxxviii.,  li.,  cii.,  cxxx.,  cxliii. ;  expressive  of  trust  under  afflictions,  iii., 
xvi.,  xxvii.,  xxxi.,  liv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  Ixi.,  Ixii.,  Ixxi.,  Ixxxvi. ;  expressive  of 
extreme  dejection,  though  not  without  hope,  xiii.,  xxii.,  Ixix.,  Ixxvii., 
Ixxxviii.,  cxliii.  Prayers  in  time  of  severe  distress,  iv.,  v.,  xi.,  xxviii., 
xli.,  Iv.,  lix.,  Ixiv.,  Ixx.,  cix.,  cxx.,  cxl.,  cxli.,  cxliii.  Prayers  when  de- 
prived of  public  worship,  xlii.,  xliii.,  Ixiii.,  Ixxxiv.  Prayers  asking 
help  in  consideration  of  the  uprightness  of  his  cause,  vii.,  xvii.,  xxvi., 
XXXV.  Prayers  in  time  of  affliction  and  persecution,  xliv.,  Ix.,  Ixxiv., 
Ixxix.,  Ixxx.,  Ixxxiii.,  Ixxxix.,  xciv.,  cii.,  cxxix.,  cxxxvii.  Prayers  of 
intercession,  xx.,  Ixvii.,  cxxii.,  cxxxii.,  cxliv. 

5.  Psalms  eminently  prophetical,  ii.,  xvi.,  xxii.,  xl.,  xlv.,  Ixviii.,  Ixix., 
Ixxii.,  xcvii.,  ex.,  cxviii.,  mostly  Messianic. 

6.  Historical  Psalms,  Ixxviii.,  cv.,  cvi. 

The  following  Table  (B),  showins;  the  probable  Arrange- 
occasion  when  each  psalm  was  composed,  is  founded  ding  to  the 

:!^  ,,       occasion 

on  "  Townsend  s  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament.       and  order. 


Psalms. 


After  wliat  Scrip- 
ture. 


Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psalm  was 
composed. 


Book  I.,  in  rnr.  .Jewish  Division. 

Nchem.  xiii.  3 Written  by  David  or  Ezra,  and  placed  as  a  pre- 
face to  tlie  Psalms 

1  Chron.  xvii.  27...  On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan  to 
David — a  prophecy  of  Christ's  kingdom , 

2Sam.  XV.  29 On  David's  tlight  from  Absalom 

2  Sam.  xvii.  29 :Imring  the  flight  from  Al>sali>m, 

2  Sam.  xvii.  2!i jLHiriiig  the  llijiiit  from  Absalom 


1. 
2*.. 


3 

i(u).. 

5 

6 !l  Chron.  xxviii.  21 

2  Sam.  xvi.  U 

1  Cliroii.  xxviii.  21 

1  Sam.  xvii.  4,  or 
1  Chron.  xvi.  43... 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Sam.  xix.  3 


7 

8*(u).. 
9 


10.. 
11.. 


12(C) 

13, 14, 15 
16* 


1  Chron.  xxviii.  1 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Chron.  xvii.  27, 
or  1  Sam.  xxvii... 


Inserti'd  towards  the  end  of  David's  life. 

On  the  re[)roaches  of  Shimei , 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life. 
On  the  victory  over  Goliath 


During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

When  David  was  advtsed  to  fiee  to  the  moun- 
tains  

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

During  tlie  BaV)ylonish  captivity 

On  the  delivery  of  the  promi.se  by  Nathan  to 
David 


B.C. 


444 

1044 

U023 

I 

1 1015 
1023 
1015 
1063 

I   539 

I 

!  100-3 

\  101.5 

539 

1044^ 


Note. — The  six  psalms  marked  (?<).  are  regarded  by  Calmet  as  of  unknown  ilate 
and  authorsliip.  The  second  passage  of  Scripture  mentioned  after  five  psalm.s.  i.s 
regarded  by  him  as  the  proper  place  of  the  psalm.  P.salms  marked  (c)  and  (r),  lie 
thinks,  were  written  respectively  in  the  captivity,  and  on  the  return  from  it.  In 
the  other  jisalms  he  agrees  substantially  with  Townsend. 

a  Applied  to  our  Lord  by  Peter,  Acta  ii.  2.')-31;  and  by  Paul,  Acts  xiii.  35-36. 
42* 


498 


PSALMS — THEIR    DATE    AND   ORIGIN. 


Psalms. 


17 

18* 

19fi«) 

20,21 

22* 

23  (r),  24* 

25,  20,  27 

28,  29 

30 

31* 

32,  33 

3i 

35 

36.  37 

3S,  39,) 
40*  41,; 
42(c) 

Book  II. 

iS  (c) 

44* 

46* 

40 

47 

48 

49,  50 

51. 

52 

53 

54 

o5 

50 

67 

58 

.59 

60(f) 

61  (''•; 

62 

03  (r) 

64(c) 

65 

60 

67 

08* 

<W  (c) 

70,71 

72 

Book  III. 

73(c) 

74 

75  (c),  76 

77* 

78 

79 


After  what  Scrip- 
ture. 


1  Sam.  xxii.  19.. 

2  Pam,  xx.ii.  51 .. 

1  Cliron.  xxviii.  21 

2  Sam  X    19 

1  Chron.  xvii.  27 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21. 
orlChron.  xvi.43 

Dan.  vii.  28 , 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 
1  Chrdu.  xxi.  30... 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  12.... 

2  Ram.  xii.  15 

1  Sam.  xxi.  15 

1  Sam.  xxii.  19 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Cliron.  xxvni.21 

2  Sam.  xvii.  29 

2  Sam.  Kvii.  29 

2  Kin,!;s  xix.  7 

1  Ciiron.  xvii.  27... 

2  Chron.  xx.  26 

2  ('liron.  vii.  10 

Ezra  vi.  22 

I>an.  vii.  28 

2  Sam.  xii.  15 

1  Sam.  xxii. 19 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  23.... 

2  Sam.  xvii. 29 

1  Sam.  xxi.  15 

1  Sam.  xxiv.  22 

1  Sam.  xxiv.  22 

1  Sam.  xix.  17 

1  King.s  xi.  20 

1  Cliron.  xxviii.  21 

2  Sam.  xvii.  29 

1  Sam.  xxiv.  22..... 
1  Sam.  xxii.  19 

1  (;;)iron.  xxviii. 21 

Ezra  iii.  13 

Dan.  vii.  28 

2  Sam.  vi.  11 

1  t'iiron.  xxviii.  21 

2  Sam.  xvii.  29 

1  Cliron.  xxix.  19.. 


2  Kings  xix.  19.... 

.lor.  x.xxix.  10 

2  Kino-.s  xix.  35.... 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Chrou.  xxviii. 21. 

or2  Chron. xix.  5(3 

Jer.  x.xxix.  10 


Probable  occasion  on  vvhi<'h  each  Psalm  was 
compo.'-ed. 


On  the  murder  of  the  priests  by  Doeg 

On  the  conclusion  of  David's  wars 

Inserted  t<ivvards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  the  war  with  the  Ammonites  and  Syrians.... 
On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan;  or 

in  severe  persecution.. ..„ 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  the   dedication  of  the   threshing-floor  of 

Arauiiah  

On  David's  per.secution  by  Saul 

On  the  pardon  of  David's  adultery 

On  David's  leaving  the  city  of  Gath 

On  I'avid's  persecution  by  Doeg 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  hfe 

On  David's  flight  from  Absalom.... 

On  David's  flight  from  Absalom 

On  the  blasphemous  message  of  Rabshakeh.... 

On  the  dehvery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan 

On  the  victory  of  Jehoshapliat 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  into  the  temple 

On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Confession  of  David  after  his  adultery 

On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  treachery  of  the  Ziphims  to  David 

I)uringthe  flight  from  Absalom 

When  David  was  with  the  Pliilistines  in  Gath.... 

On  David's  refusal  to  kill  Saul  in  the  cave 

Continuation  of  Psalm  Ivii 

Un  Saul  surrounding  the  town  of  David 

On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  Joab 

Inserted  towarils  the  end  of  David's  life 

In  David's  per.secution  by  .Absalom 

Praver  of  David  in  the  wilderness  of  Engedi.... 

On  David's  persecution  by  Saul 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  laying  the  foundation  of  the  second  temple.. 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  first  removal  of  the  ark 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  Absalom's  rebellion ; 

On  Solomon  being  made  king  by  his  falhe.: 

On  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib 

On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple 

On  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib 

Diu'ing  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple _. 


B.C. 


1060 
1019 
101.-. 
1031) 

1044 
1015 

539 
1015 

1017 
luClt 
1034 

lUI'l) 

looo 

639 
lOl.i 
1023 


1023 

710 

1044  a 

aoo 

10U4 
515 
.539 

lo:u  b 

1060 
530 
lOtUI 
1023 
1000 
1058 
1058 
lOfil 
1040 
101.'. 
]02:i 
10.')S 

looo 

1015 

5;}5 

r>'.<:\ 
1045 
liil.i 
1023 
1016 


710 
588 
710 
539 
1015 

.568 


x  Explained  and  applied  to  our  Dord,  Heb.  i.  8,  9:  1  Pet.  lii.  22:  Eph.  i.  22:  Phil,  ii 
9-11. 

bTo  Asaph,  by  Eichhorn,  De  Wette,  and  RosenmuUer. 


PSALMS — THEIR    DATE    AND    ORIGIN. 


499 


Psalms. 


80 

81*  (m).. 

82 

83 


84  (c)., 

85  (c).. 

86 

87 

88  (c)., 
89 


Book  IV. 
no*  (c).... 

91  («) 

92,93*... 

94 

95* 

9fi 

97*  (r)  1 

98  (r)...  I 

99  (c)...  ( 
100  (/•)...  J 

101 

102* 

103 

104*  (r).. 


106  (r) 


105  (r)...) 
>)•••]■ 


1.36  (r). 


After  what  Scrip- 
ture. 


Dan.  vii.  28 

Ezra  ri. 22 

2  Chron.  xix.  7 

.Jer.  xxxix.  10  or 

2  Chron.  xx 

Ezraiii  13 

Ezra  i.  4 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 

Ezra  iii.  7 

Exod.  ii.  25 

Dan.  vii.  28 


Numb.  xiv.  45 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  10 

Dan.  vii.  2S 

Jer.  xxxix.  10 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 
1  Chron.  xvi.  43... 


2  Chron.  vii.  10.. 


Book  V. 

107 

108  (r) 

1U9 

110* 

111,112*1 
11-3. 114] 

115  (r) 

116,  117.... 

118* (r) 

119 

120  (c)...) 

121  (c)...  y 

122 j 

123 

124  (r) 

125 

126 

127,  128.... 

129 

130 

131  (r) 

132(c) 

133 (r) 

l:!4 

135  (r)...) 

)-; 


1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 
Dan.ix.27 

2  Sam.  xii.  15 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 

1  Chron.  xvi.  43.... 


Ezra  iii.  7 

1  Kings  xi.  20.... 
1  Sam.  xxii.  19... 
1  Chron.  xvii.  27. 

Ezraiii.  7 


2  Cliron.  xx.  26... 

Ezra  iii.  7 

1  Chron.  xvii  27. 
Neh.  xiii.  3 , 


1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 


Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Chron.  xxviii. 

Ezra  iii.  7 

Ezra  i.  4 

Ezra  iii.  7 . 


Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psalm  was 
composed. 


Duringthe  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple 

On  the  appointment  of  Judges  by  Jehoshaphat. 
On  the  desolation  caused  by  the  Assyrians 


On  the  foundation  of  the  .second  temple 

(hi  the  decree  of  Cyrus 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  the  return  from  tlie  Babylonish  cai^tivity.. 

During  the  afHiction  in  Egyi)t 

Duringthe  Babylonish  captivity 


On  the  shortening  of  man's  life,  &o 

After  the  advice  of  David  to  Solomon 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  from  Obed-edom's 
house , 


B.C. 


5.39 
515 

897 
588 

535 

536 
1015 

536 
1531 

539 


Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 1015 

On  the  near  termination  of  the  captivity 538 

On  the  pardon  of  David's  adultery |1034 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life :1015 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  from  Obed-edom's 
house ..' [1051 


On  the  return  from  the  captivity i  5.36 

On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  Joab 

On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg 

On  the  promise  by  Nathan  to  David 


1040 
lnHO 
1044  a 

536 

896 

536 

1044'' 


Ezra  iv.  24 ]0n  the  o 

Dan.  vii.  28 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 
1  Chron.  xv.  14 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  21 
Ezra  iii.  7 

2  Chron.  vii.  10 


On  the  return  from  the  captivity 

On  the  victory  of  .Jehoshaphat 

(^)n  the  return  froin  the  captivity 

On  the  promise  by  Nathan  to  David 

Manual  of  devotion  by  Ezra j  444"= 

I 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 1015 

Duringthe  Babylonish  captivity I  539 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 'lol5 

536 

536 

536 

535 

539 

1015 

1051 

1015 

.536 

1004 


On  the  return  from  the  captivity.. 

On  the  decree  of  Cyrus., 

On  the  return  from" the  captivity.. 


3  opposition  of  the  Samaritans., 
g  the  Babylonish  captivity 


During 

Inserted  towards  the  end  "of  David's 

On  the  second  removal  of  the  ark... 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's 

On  the  return  from  the  captivity 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  into  the  temple.. 


life., 
life!' 


aCited  by  our  Lord  to  prove  his  Divinity,  Matt.  xxii.  14:  by  Peter,  Acts  ii.  .32-36- 
Paul,  i.  Cor.  xv.  25-28 :  Feb.  vii.  1-28 ;  viii.  1. 

b  Cited  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  xxii.  42:  explained  by  Peter,  Acts  iv.  H:  1  Pet.  ii.  4,  5: 
Paul,  Rom.  ix.  32:  Eph.  ii.  20,21. 

c  Calmet,  and  most  commentators,  refer  this  psalm  to  the  captivity. 


500 


PSALMS — THEIR    TITLES. 


Psalms. 


137 

138 , 

139(m) 

140 

141 

142 

143 

144 

145 

146  to  160 


After  what  Scrip- 
ture. 


Dan.  vii.  28 

Ezra  vi.  13 

1  Chron.  xiii.  4 

1  Sam.  xxii.  19 

1  Sara,  xxvii.  1 

1  Sam.  x.xii.  1 

2  Sam.  xvii.  29 

2  Sam.  -xvii.  29 

1  Ciiron.  .xxviii.  lo 
Ezra  vi.  22 


Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psalm  was 
composed. 


During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.. 

Prayer  of  David  when   made  king   over   all 

Israel 

On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg 

Prayer  of  David  when  driven  from  .Judea 

Prayer  of  David  in  the  cave  of  AduUam 

During  the  war  with  Absalom 

On  the  victory  over  Absalom 

David,  when  old.  reviewing  his  past  life 

On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple 


B.C. 


r,39 
519 

1048 

1(M1) 

1  '55 

UitiO 
1053 
1  'oS 
1015 
515 


chronoiogi-        Adoptiner  this  arrangement,  the  Psalms  may  be 

cal  arrange-  -n     i     i  •      n 

ment.  classmed.  chronologically  thus  :  (G). 

B.  C.  1531.  Psa.  Ixxxviii.,  Heman  in  Egj-pt. 

B.  C.  1489.  Psa.  xc,  Moses  in  the  Wilderness. 

B.  C.  1063-1015.  David's  History  and  Experience,  ix.,  xi.,  lix., 
xxxiv.,  Ivi.,  cxlii.,  xvii.,  xxxv.,  lii.,  xxxi.,  Ixiv.,  cix.,  cxl.,  liv.,  Ivii., 
Iviii.,  Ixiii.,  xcvi.,  cv.,  cvi.,  cxxxii.,  cxli.,  cxxxix.,  Ixviii.,  ii.,  xvi., 
xxii.,  xlv.,  cxviii.,  Ix.,  cviii.,  xx.,  xxi.,  xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  li.,  ciii.,  iii., 
vii.,  iv.,  v.,  xlii.,  xliii.,  Iv.,  Ixx.,  Ixxii.,  cxliii.,  cxliv.  .  .  .  xviii.,  Ixii., 
XXX.,  xci.,  vi.,  viii.,  xii.,  xix.,  xxiii.,  xxiv.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxxviii., 
xxxix.,  xl.,  xli.,  Ixi.,  Ixv.,  Ixix.,  Ixxviii.,  Ixxxvi.,  xcv.,  ci.,  civ.,  cxx., 
cxxi.,  cxxii.,  cxxiv.,  cxxxi.,  oxxxiii.,  Ixxii.,  cxlv. 

B.  C.  1004.  On  the  removal  of  the  ark  to  the  temple,  xlvii.,  xcvii., 
xcviii.,  xcix.,  c,  cxxxv.,  cxxxvi. 

B.  C.  897-710.  From  Jehoshaphat  to  Hezekiah,  Ixxxii.,  xlvi.,  cxv., 
xliv.,  Ixxiii.,  Ixxv.,  Ixxvi. 

B.  C.  588.  On  the  Invasion  of  the  Assyrians,  Ixxiv.,  Ixxix.,  Ixxxiii., 
xciv. 

B.  C.  539.  In  the  Captivity,  x.,  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xxv.,  xxvi.,  xxvii., 
xxxvi.,  xxxvii.,  xlix.,  1.,  liii.,  Ixvii.,  Ixxvii.,  Ixxx.,  Ixxxviii.,  Ixxxix., 
xcii.,  xciii.,  cxxiii.,  cxxx.,  cxxxvii. 

B.  0.  538-G.  At  the  close  of  the  captivity,  and  on  the  return,  cii., 
Ixxxv.,  cxxvi.,  Ixxxvii.,  cvii.,  cxi.-cxiv.,  cxvi.,  cxvii.,  cxxv.,  cxxvii., 
cxxviii.,  cxxxiv. 

B.  C.  535.  At  the  rebmlding  and  dedication  of  the  temple,  Ixvi., 
Ixxxiv.,  cxxix.,  cxxxviii.,  xlviii.,  Ixxxi.,  cxlvi.,  cxlvii.-cl. 

B.  C.  444.     Ezra  completes  the  canon,  and  adds  i.,  and  cxix. 

The  date  and  occasions  of  these  psalms,  it  must  be  observed,  are  many 
of  them  conjectural.      Townsend's  opinion  of  the  occasion  of  the  fol- 


PSALMS — THEIR   TITLES.  501 

lowing  is  founded  on  internal  evidence  alone,  vii.,  xlvii.,  xlviii.,  Ixxxi., 
Ixxxii.,  Ixxxiv.,  xci.,  xcvii.-c,  cxix.,  cxxxix.,  cxlv.  For  the  rest,  he 
follows  Lightfoot,  Calmet,  Home,  Gray,  or  Hales.  Modern  inquiry  has 
added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  facts  on  which  the  dates  rest,  and  have 
thrown  doubts  on  the  accuracy  of  Townsend's  arrangement  of  Psalms 
xxv.-xxvii,  and  several  others.  See  Notes  of  Annot.  Par.  Bible,  Reli- 
gious Tract  Society,  vol.  i.  563-662. 

57.  All  the  Psalms  (except  34)  heave  titles,  v^^hich  are  as  old 
at  least  as  the  version  of  the  LXX,  but  not  of  inspired  authority. 
They  may  be  regarded  as  historically  accurate,  except  where 
there  is  internal  evidence  against  them. 

These  titles   give  either  the  name  of  the  author  (1),  or  directions  to 
the  musician  (2),  or  the  historical  occasion  (3),  or  the  litur- 
gical use  (4),  or  the  style  of  the  poetry  (5),  or  the  instru-    p^aim°^ 
ment  (6),  or  the  tune  (7),  to  which  the  psalm  is  to  be  sung. 
Sometimes  all  these  are  combined,  Psa.  Ix. 

1.  Moses,  Psa.  xc.  David,  of  Ixxiii.,  to  which  the  LXX  add  other 
twelve  psalms.  Solomon,  Asaph,  Heman,  Ethan,  and  the  sons  of  Korah 
are  also  named. 

2.  To  the  chief  musician,  is  prefixed  to  53.  Some  suppose  that  the 
music  was  by  him.  Gesenius  and  Ewald  regard  "  to"  as  meaning 
"by,"  and  refer  "  the  musician"  to  David. 

3.  Psa.  iii.,  vii.,  xviii.,  xxxiv.,  li.  lii.,  liv.,  etc. 

4.  Psa.  xvii.,  Ixxxvi  ,  xc,  cii.,  cxlv.,  etc. 

5.  Psa.  xlvi.,  Ixv.,  xlviii.,  xvi.     For  6  and  7,  see  below. 

The  following  are  the  terms  found  at  the  beginning  of  Psalms.  The 
meaning  is  not  easily  ascertained,  and  even  in  the  ancient  versions 
there  is  very  great  diversity.  The  authorized  version  leaves  most  of 
them  untranslated,  and  Coverdale  generally  omits  them.  Luther  pre- 
ferred to  translate  them  with  what  accuracy  he  could.  We  put  first  the 
meaning  which  is  most  probable. 

The  word  translated  "upon,"  or  "on,"  is  appropriate,  whether  it 
refer  to  the  subject  of  the  psalm,  or  to  the  instrument  or  cleff  on  which, 
or  the  tune  to  which  the  psalm  was  sung. 

Aijeleth  Shachar,  i.  e.  hind  of  the  morning  (sun  or  dawn,  =  to  be  sung 
to  the  tune  beginning  with  these  words  (Jewi.sh  critics),'  or  on 
the  Messiah  or  David,  who  is  supposed  to  be  so  called  (Luther 
Hengstenberg,  Tholuck),  Psa.  xxii. 


502  PSALMS — THEIR   TITLES. 

Alamoth,  i.  e.  virgins,  and  so  =  "  for  treble  voices"  (Gesenius,  Hengsten- 
berg,  Tholuck),  Psa.  xlvi. 

Al-taschith,  i.  e.  destroy  thou  not,  =  to  be  sung  to  the  tune  of  the  ode 
beginning  with  these  words,  Psa.  Ivii.-lix.,  Ixxv. 

Degrees,  i.  e.  of  the  steps,  or  of  ascension,  =  a  pilgrim's  song  for  those 
going  up  to  Jerusalem,  especially  from  captivity,  see  Psa.  cxxii.-iv. 
(Lowth,  Ewald,  etc.),  or  =  a  song  ascending  by  degrees  from  clause 
to  clause,  as  in  Psa.  cxxi.  (De  Wette,  Gesenius),  or=:a  song  to  be 
sung  in  ascending  the  steps  of  the  inner  court  of  the  temple  (Jew- 
ish critics),  or  =  a  song  sung  by  the  upper  choir  (Luther,  Tholuck), 
Psa.  cxx.-cxxxiv. 

Gittith,  =  a  Gath  instrument  or  tune,  or  the  vintage-melody,  Psa.  viii., 
Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv. 

Ifiggaion,  =  instrumental  music,  Psa.  ix.,  xvi.,  or  =  meditation  (Heng- 
stenberg,  Tholuck). 

Jeduthun,  Psa.  xxxix.,  Ixii.,  Ixxvii. :  see  1  Chron  xxv.  1,  3. 

Jonath-elem-rechoMm,  i.  e.  the  mute  dove  among  strangers,  =  the  tuna 
so  called,  or  =  the  subject  of  the  psalm,  David  at  Gath,  Psa.  Ivi. 

Leannoth,  =  to  be  sung,  Psa.  Ixxxviii. 

Mahalath,  =zlute,  or  a  tune  so  called,  or  =  a  dancing-tune,  Psa.  liii., 
Ixxxviii. 

Maschil,  =  a  didactic  poem  (Hengstenberg,  Tholuck),  or  =  a  skilful 
poem  (Gesenius,  De  Wette),  Psa.  xiii. 

Michtam,z=Si  golden  or  excellent  psalm,  or^a  mystery,  i.  e.  a  psalm 
with  a  hidden  meaning  (Hengstenberg),  or  on  hidden,  i.  e.  experi- 
mental religion,  or  ^  a  written  poem  (michtav),  Gesenius,  Rosenm., 
Tholuck,  see  Isa.  xxxviii.  9:  Psa.  xvi.,  Ixvi.-lx. 

Muth-labban,  2=  on  the  death  of  his  son,  or  of  Goliath  (Chald.),  or  =  on 
an  instrument,  or  to  a  song  so  called,  or  with  a  slight  variation  in 
the  vowels  =  with  virgin's  voice  for  boys,  i.  e.  male  trebles  :  or  to 
Benaiah,  1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20:  Psa.  ix. 

Neginoth,=^  stringed  instruments,  Psa.  iv.,  vi.,  liv.,  Ivi.,  Ix.,  Ixi.,  Ixxvi. 

Nehiloth,  =  wind  instruments,  or  =  the  lots  (i.  e.  of  the  good  and  bad), 
Psa.  v. 

)&ZaA,  =  pause,  i.  e.  in  vocal  music,  or  =  exalt  (the  voice),  i.  e.  forte,  or 
=  exalt  (Jehovah),  (Kimchi,  Ewald,  De  Wette),  70  times  in  Psa.  iii., 
in  Habb.,  or^Da  Capo. 

Sheminith,  i.  e.  an  eighth  =  bass  (1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21),  or  =  an  eight- 
stringed  instrument,  Psa.  vi.,  xii. 

Shiggaion,  =  a  wandering,  or  excited  song,  or  =  an  elegy  (Gesenius, 
Rosenm.,  De  Wette,  Tholuck),  Psa.  vii. 

Shushan,  i.  e.  a  lily  =  a  very  beautiful  song,  or  instrument  so  called, 


SONG    OF   SOLOMON.  503 

Psa.  Ix.,  xlv.,  Ixix.,  Ixxx. ;  with  eduth  added,  i.  e.,  lily  of  testimony 
=  name  of  tune  or  instrument  (Gesenius,  Tlioluck),  or  =  a  beau- 
tiful subject  of  admitted  excellence  (Hengstenberg),  Psa.  Ix.,  Ixxx. 

58.  In  studying  the  Psalms,  two  rules  of  interpretation  are 
of  prime  importance. 

(i.)  Ascertain  the  author,  the  historical  origin,  and  the  obvious  scope 
of  the  Psalm.  Tables  B  and  C  will  give  the  first  two,  and  Table  A  the 
last. 

(ii.)  Carefully  consider  the  historical  meaning  of  its  terms  and  allu- 
sions, and  ascertain  from  New  Testatament  quotations,^  or  from  the 
general  tenor  of  the  Gospel,  how  it  is  to  be  applied,  either  to  Christ  or 
to  the  Christian  Church.  Though,  perhaps,  every  Psalm  is  connected  in 
its  origin  and  allusions  with  an  economy  which  was  "  to  vanish  away," 
all  are  no  less  closely  connected  in  sentiment  and  applicability  with  the 
economy  that  "  abideth ;"  and  wisely  studied,  the  whole  book  maj^  be 
made  our  own,  and  become  to  us  the  expression  of  the  holiest  feelings 
in  the  holiest  form. 

THE    SONG   OF    SOLOMON,  B.  C.  1001. 

59.  The  universal  voice  of  antiquity  ascribes  this  poem  to 
Solomon,  and  internal  evidence  confirms  this  testi- 
mony.    His  songs  were  a  thousand  and  iive,  1  Kings 

iv.  32 ;  and  this  is  called,  in  Hebrew  idiom,  the  song  of  songs, 
tlae  best,  that  is,  of  them  all. 

This  book  has  always  been  ranked  among  the  canonical 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  not  quoted, 
indeed,  in  the  New,  but  it  formed  part  of  the  Jew-  '''"°""^'  ^' 
ish  Scriptures  (Jos.  Antiq.  viii.  2-5,  and  Contr.  Ap.  i.  8),  was 
translated  by  the  authors  of  the  LXX,  is  included  in  all  an- 
cient catalogues,  and  is  attested  expressly  by  Melito  (2d  cen- 
tury), Origen  (d.  253),  Jerome  (5th  century),  the  Jewish 
Talmud,  and  Theodoret  of  Cyprus  (450  A.  D.) 

On  what  occasion  it  was  written  is  not  certain.  The  imagery  seems 
derived  from  the  marriage  of  Solomon,  either  with  Pharaoh's  daughter 
(1  Kings  iii.  1;  vii.  8;  ix.  24,  compared  with  Song  i.  9;  vi.  12),  or  with 

»  See  chapter  vi. 


504  SONG  OF  SOLOMON — CONTENTS. 

some  native  of  Palestine,  espoused  some  years  later  (chap.  ii.  1),  of  noble 

birth  (vii.  1),  though  inferior  to  her  husband  (i.  6). 

Whatever  the  occasion  of  the  poem,  we  find  in  reading  it  two  char' 

acters,  who  spea.k  and  act  throughout ;  the  one  called  Shelomoh  (the 

peaceful),  and  the  other  by  the  same  name  with  a  feminine  ending,  Shu- 

lamith,  like  Julius  and  Julia,  i.  6  ;  iii.  11 ;  vi.  13  ;  viii.  12.    There  is  also 

a  chorus  of  virgins,  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  ii.  7  ;  iii.  5  ;  v.  8,  9.    Towards 

the  close,  two  brothers  of  Shulamith  appear,  viii.  8,  9 ;  see  i.  6.    As  in  all 

ancient  poems,  there  are  no  breaks  to  indicate  change  of  scene  or  of 

speakers.    In  detecting  these  changes,  we  are  guided  partly  by  the  sense, 

but  chiefly  by  the  use  in  the  original  of  feminine  and  mas- 
Outline.  J      J  D 

culiue  pronouns,  of  the  second  or  third  person.     A  neglect 

of  this  distinction  has  much  obscured  the  English  version. 

i.  Shulamith  speaks,  i.  2-6  :  then  in  dialogue  with  Shelomoh ;  Shul. 
i.  7:  Shel.  i.  8-1 1:  Shul.  i  12-14:  Shel.  i.  15.  Shul.  i.  xvi.-ii.  1 :  Shel. 
ii.  2 :  Shul.  ii.  3. 

ii.  Shulamith  now  rests,  sleeps  and  dreams  (Shelomoh  addressing  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem,  and  charging  them  not  to  wake  her,  ii.  7 ; 
iii.  5) :  ii.  4-6  ;  viii.-iii.  4. 

iii.  The  daughters  of  Jerusalem  see  a  nuptial  procession  approaching, 
iii.  6-11. 

iv.  Dialogue  between  Shelomoh  and  Shulamith.  Shelomoh  speaks, 
iv.  1-16  (as  far  as  "  flow  out"),  Shul.  iv.  16:  Shel  v.  1. 

V.  A  night  scene;  Shulamith  seeking  for  Shelomoh;  meets  and  con- 
verses with  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem;  Shul.  v.  2-8:  daughters  of 
Jerusalem,  v.  9:  Shul.  v.  10-16:  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  vi.  1:  Shul. 
vi.  2,  3. 

vi.  Morning  scene;  Shelomoh  visits  his  garden  early,  and  meets  Shu- 
lamith ;  Shel  vi.  4-10 :  Shul.  vi.  11,  12 ;  the  dialogue  continuing  to 
viii.  8. 

vii.  The  brothers  of  Shulamith  are  introduced  ;  the  brothers  speak, 
viii.  8,  9  :  Slml.  answers  them,  viii.  10-12:  Shel.  speaks,  viii.  13  :  and 
Shul.  answers,  closing  the  scene,  viii.  14. 

Literally  regarded,  the  whole  of  this  poem  is  a  description  of  wedded 
love ;  one  of  the  noblest  of  our  affections,  and  one  wliich 
rTv'ncv'^"  *^^''  ^°^'^  ^^^  employed  as  a  kind  of  type  of  his  own.  In 
this  aspect,  the  book  gives  a  beautiful  representation  of  the 
fientiments  and  manners  which  prevailed  among  the  Israelites,  on  con- 
jugal and  domestic  life.  But  the  poem  had,  no  doubt,  a  higher  aim. 
The  names  of  the  two  chief  characters  are  as  significant  as  any  in  "  Bun- 
yan's  Allegory."     The  sudden  change  from  the  singular  pronoun  to  the 


SONG   OF   SOLOMON — CONTENTS.  505 

plural  (i.  4,  etc.),  indicates  that  Shulamith  must  be  taken  collectively. 
Both  she  and  Shelomoh,  moreover,  appear  in  positions  which,  literally- 
regarded,  are  highly  improbable,  v.  7 ;  ii.  14-16  ;  iv.  8.  And  from  the 
earliest  times,  Jews  and  Christians  have  applied  the  whole  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  chosen  people  of  God,  and  their  relation  to  him.  These 
views  are  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  throughout  the  Bible,  the  union  of 
Christ  and  his  Church,  or  of  God  and  his  ancient  people,  is  represented 
under  the  same  endearing  relation  as  that  which  this  book  discloses ; 
see  especially  Psa.  xlv.:  Isa.  liv.  5,  6;  Ixii.  5;  .ler.  ii.  2;  iii.  1:  Ezek. 
xvi.  10,  13:  Hos.  ii.  14-23;  Matt.  ix.  15;  xxii.  2;  xxv.  1-11:  John 
iii.  29:  2  Cor.  xi.  2:  Eph.  v.  23-27:  Rev.  xix.  7-9;  xxi.  2-9;  xxii.  17. 

Much  of  the  language  of  this  poem  has  been  misunderstood  by  early 
expositors.  Some  have  erred  by  adopting  a  fanciful  method 
of  explanation,  and  attempting  to  give  a  mystical  meaning  terpretatioii 
to  every  minute  circumstance  of  the  allegory.  In  all  figu- 
rative representations  there  is  always  much  that  is  mere  costume.  It 
is  the  general  truth  only  that  is  to  be  examined  and  explained.  Oth- 
ers, not  understanding  the  spirit  and  luxuriancy  of  Eastern  poetry,  have 
considered  particular  passages  as  defective  in  delicacy,  an  impression 
which  the  English  version  has  needlessly  confirmed,  and  so  have  ob- 
jected to  the  whole ;  though  the  objection  does  not  apply  with  greater 
force  to  this  book  than  to  Hesiod  and  Homer,  or  even  to  some  of  the 
purest  of  our  own  authors.  If  it  be  remembered  that  the  figure  em- 
ployed in  this  allegory  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  in  Scripture ;  that  in 
extant  oriental  poems  it  is  constantly  employed  to  express  religious 
feeling;^  that  many  expressions  which  are  applied  in  our  translation  to 
the  person,  belong  properly  to  the  dress  ;''  that  every  generation  has  its 
own  notions  of  delicacy  (the  most  delicate  in  this  sense  being  by  no 
means  the  most  virtuous);  that  nothing  is  described  but  chaste  affec- 
tion ;  that  Shulamith  speaks  and  is  spoken  of  collectively  ;  and  that  it 
is  the  general  truth  only  which  is  to  be  allegorized;  the  whole  will  ap- 
pear to  be  no  unfit  representation  of  the  union  between  Christ  and  true 
believers  in  every  age. 

Properly  understood,  (his  portion  of  Scripture  will  minister  to  our 
holiness.     It  may  be  added,  however,  that  it  was  the  practice  of  the 

»See  examples  in  Lowth's  Lectures  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  30,  31; 
Clarke  or  Rosenmiiller  on  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Stuart  on  the  Canon; 
Sir  W.  Jones's  Works,  il  469  ;  As.  Res.,  353 ;  and  in  Kitto's  Bible 
Readings. 

» Chap.  V.  10,  14 ;  vii.  2. 


506  PROVERBS. 

Jews  to  withhold  the  book  from  their  children  till  their  judgments 
were  matured. 

THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS,  (ABOUT  B.  C.  1000). 

60.  The  book  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  contains  more 
than  the  title  indicates.  A  proverb  is  a  short  sen- 
tence, conveying  some  moral  truth  or  practical  lesson 
in  a  concise,  pointed  form,  and  sometimes  the  name  is  applied 
to  enigmatical  propositions  of  the  same  moral  or  practical 
tendency.  In  this  book,  however,  we  have,  in  addition,  many 
exhortations  to  prudence  and  virtue,  with  eulogies  on  true 
wisdom.  These  latter  form  the  subject  of  the  first  nine  chap- 
ters. The  last  two  chapters,  moreover,  are  from  the  pen  of 
another  author.  Those  that  are  Solomon's  are  part,  probably, 
of  the  3,000  proverbs  he  is  recorded  to  have  spoken,  1  Kings 
iv.  32,  and  formed,  besides  the  Canticles  and  Ecclesiastes,  the 
only  works  of  his  whiqji  were  undoubtedly  inspired.  He 
sought  wisdom  rather  than  any  other  gift,  and  God  honored 
his  request  by  granting  him  a  larger  measure  of  it  than  was 
enjoyed  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  To  communicate  a 
portion  of  what  he  had  received  for  the  lasting  benefit  of 
others  was  the  aim  of  this  collection.  The  proverbs,  from  the 
25th  to  the  29th  chapters  inclusive,  were  collected  by  the  men 
of  Hezekiah,  among  whom  were  Hosea  and  Isaiah. 

Proverbial  instruction  is  common  in  the  early  history  of  most  nations, 
and  especially  in  the  East.  This  style  of  communication  excites  atten- 
tion, exerciaes  ingenuity,  is  favorable  to  liabits  of  reflection,  and  fastens 
truth  upon  the  memory  in  a  form  at  ouce  agreeable  and  impressive. 
The  elegance  and  force  of  the  proverbs  of  Solomon  are  increased  by  the 
poetic  parallelisms  in  which  they  are  written.  Nearly  every  sentence 
is  antithetical  or  explanatory,  and  attention  to  corresponding  clauses 
will  often  fix  the  reading  and  determine  the  sense. 

The  leading  aim  of  the  writer  is,  as  stated  at  the  outset,  to  "give  a 

voung  man  knowledge  and  discretion."     This  book  is,  for 
Aim.  J         o  o  ' 

practical  ethics,  what  the  book  of  Psalms  is  for  devotion. 

It  has  lessons  for  every  age  and  condition.     All  may  draw  from  it  the 

piost  excellent  counsels ;  and  the  man  who,  possessed  of  the  sound 


PROVERBS — AIM.     _  507 

principles  of  piety,  shall  form  his  life  by  the  rules  of  this  volume  can- 
not fail  to  attain  honor  and  happiness.  The  wisest  authors  have  done 
little  more  than  dilate  on  the  precepts  and  comment  on  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon. 

Though  most  of  his  rules  are  based  chiefly  on  considerations  of  pru- 
dence, strictly  religious  motives  are  either  presupposed  or  expressly 
enjoined.  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is,"  with  him,  "the  beginning  of 
■wisdom,"  i.  7;  ix.  10.  His  morality  is  based  on  religion.  Vice,  more- 
over, is  condemned,  and  virtue  enforced,  by  appeals  to  the  holiest 
motives  ;  as  the  authority  of  God,  xvi.  6 ;  his  exact  knowledge  of  men's 
hearts  and  ways,  v.  21 ;  xv.  11;  the  rewards  of  righteousness,  and  the 
punishment  of  wickedness,  by  his  just  appointment,  xix.  29;  xxiii. 
17-19 ;  xxvi.  10.  Practical  wisdom,  therefore,  resting  upon  and  rising 
out  of  religious  charaacter,  is  the  aim  of  this  portion  of  the  inspired 
volume. 

Ponder  its  lessons,  form  your  opinion  of  men  and  things  according 
to  them,  and  treasure  them  in  your  memory  as  the  best  rules  of  pru- 
dence. 

The  book  may  be  divided  into  five  parts: — 

i.  Containing  a  connected   discourse  on  the  value   and 

,      .  .     ,   .  .    ,  .     .  Divisions. 

attainment  ot  true  wisdom,  i.-ix. 

ii.  Extending  from  x.-xxii.  16,  comprises  proverbs,  strictly  so  called, 

expressed  with  much  force  and  simplicity, 
iii.  Pueaching  from  xxii.  17-24,  contains  renewed  admonitions  on  the 

study  of  wisdom,  as  in  part  i. 
iv.  Containing  proverbs  selected  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah ;  by  those, 

that  is,  whom  he  employed  to  restore  the  service  of  the  Jewish 

church.     These  are  also  true  proverbs,  xxv.-xxix. 
V.  Consisting  of  chaps,  xxx.  and  xxxi.,  contains  the  wise  instructions 

of  Agur  to  his  pupils  Ithiel  and  Ucal,  and  lessons  addressed  to 

Lemuel  by  his  mother.     Who  these  persons  were  is  not  known. 

The  proverbs  of   chap.  xxx.  are  chiefly  enigmatical,  and  chap. 

xxxi.  gives  a  picture  of  female  excellence  adapted  to  that  age 
and  country.- 

The  description  of  Wisdom  given  in  chap.  i.  20-23 ;  viii. ;  and  ix. 
applies  emphatically  to  the  wisdom  of  God,  revealed  and  embodied  in 
his  Son,  and  to  the  Son  himself,  as  the  eternal  Word.  Compare  John 
i.  1 ;  xiv.  10  with  chap.  viii.  Pre-intimations  of  immortality  are  also 
given  in  chaps,  iv.  IS;  xii.  28;  xiv.  32;  xv.  21. 

The  nature  and  consequences  of  sin  are  implied  in  the  very  terms 
which  describe  holiness,  i.  20;  see  also  i.  24;  xvi.  5;  xxi.  4;  xxiv.  9; 
and  that  holiness  is  a  Divine  gift,  is  plainly  implied  in  i.  23. 


508  PBOVEEBS — CONTENTS. 

61.  In  expounding  and  applying  the  maxims  of  this  book 
-,  ,     „        there  are  two  golden  rules. 

Rules  for  " 

applying 

the  pro-  I    Xjiije  all  general  laws,  some  of  them  have  occasional 

verbs.  °  . 

exceptions.  Not  all  are  unlimited  or  universal,  ior  ex- 
ample, Prov.  X.  27,  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  prolongeth  days,  but  the 
years  of  the  wicked  shall  be  shortened."  Such  is  often  the  rule :  but 
Abel  was  murdered  and  the  life  of  Cain  prolonged.  Jonathan  and 
Saul — the  one  a  very  brother  of  David,  the  other  an  apostate — perish 
in  the  same  battle :  "  the  corn  cut  down  with  the  weeds,  though  to 
better  purpose."  Men  are  less  likely  to  harm  us  if  we  be  followers  of 
that  which  is  good,  and  yet  persecution,  because  of  our  goodness,  is 
supposed,  1  Pet.  iii.  13.  In  truth,  God  has  to  teach  us  a  doable  lesson 
— that  he  ccrlainly  will  punish,  and  that  he  will  punish  hereafter. 
The  shortening  of  the  years  of  the  wicked — present  punishment — 
teaches  the  first:  the  lengthening  of  their  years — the  postponement  of 
punishment — the  second.  Hence  both  the  exception  and  the  rule. 
Prov.  xvi.  7,  "  AVhen  a  man's  ways  please  the  Lord,  he  maketh  even 
his  enemies  to  be  at  peace  with  him."  So  it  was  with  Abraham  and 
the  Israelites,  with  Solomon  and  Jehoshaphat;  so  it  was  not  with 
David,  or  with  Paul. 

2.  The  force  and  significancy  of  these  maxims  will  be  most  clearly 
seen  and  felt,  if  they  be  studied  in  the  light  of  Scripture  examples. 
They  are  comprehensive  laws,  understood  best  when  examined  in  par- 
ticular cases. 

The  following  instances  are  taken  from  Nichol's  Treatise 
on  this  book ;  an  admirable  specimen  of  biblical  exposition. 

Prov.  i.  7,  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge: 
but  fools  despise  wisdom  and  instruction."  (Rehoboain,  1  Kings  xii.  13; 
Eli's  sous,  1  Sam.  ii.  25 ;  Athenian  philosophers.  Acts  xvii.  18). 

Prov.  i.  10,  "  My  son,  if  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not." 
(Adam,  Gen.  iii.  6  ;  Balaam,  Numb.  xxii. ;  Jehoshaphat,  1  Kings  xxii.  4 ; 
prophet  of  Judah,  1  Kings  xiii.  15-19,  24;  Micaiah's  firmness,  1  Kings 
xxii.  13,  14). 

Prov.  i.  32,  "  The  prosperity  of  fools  shall  destroy  them."  (The 
Israelites,  Deut.  xxxii.  15-25:  Hos.  xiii.  6;  Tyre,  Ezek.  xxviii.  2,  16, 
17  ;  Sodom,  Ezek.  xvi.  49). 

Prov.  iii.  5,  6,  "Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine  heart;  and  lean  not 
unto  thine  own  understanding.  In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  him, 
and  he  shall  direct  thy  paths."     (Asa,  2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15 ;  llezekiah. 


PROVERBS — CONTENTS.  509 

2  Kmgs  xix.   14,  etc. ;  Abraham's  servant,  Gen.  xxiv.  12-27 ;  Nehe- 
miah  ii.  4 :  Ezra  viii.  21-23 ;  David,  1  Sam.  xxx.  6-8). 

Prov.  iv.  14,  "  Enter  not  into  the  paths  of  the  wicked."  (Lot,  Gen. 
xiii.  10-13 ;  David,  1  Sam.  xxvii.  1). 

Prov.  iv.  18,  19,  "  The  path  of  the  just  is  as  the  shining  light.  (The 
■wise  men,  Matt.  ii.  1-13  ;  Nathanael,  John  i.  46-51 ;  the  eunuch.  Acts 
viii.  27-40;  Cornelius,  Acts  x. ;  Paul,  2  Cor.  iii.  18).  "  The  way  of 
the  wicked  is  as  darkness  ;  they  know  not  at  what  they  stumble." 
(Ahab,  1  Kings  xviil  17;  the  Jews,  Ezek.  xviii.  29:  Jer.  v.  19,  25. 
Also,  their  ignorance,  that  the  cause  of  their  present  miseries  is  their 
rejection  of  the  Messiah,  Deut.  xxviii.  29). 

Prov.  V.  22,  "His  own  iniquities  shall  take  the  wicked  himself." 
(Agag,  1  Sam.  xv.  33 ;  Adoni-bezek,  Judges  i.  7 ;  Haman,  Esther,  vii. 
10;  Judas,  Matt,  xxvii.  3-5). 

Prov.  ix.  8,  "  Rebuke  a  wise  man,  and  he  will  love  thee."  (David 
loved  Nathan ;  Peter  loved  our  Lord,  John  xxi.  17 ;  the  two  disciples 
constrained  their  reprover  to  abide  with  them,  Luke  xxiv.  25,  29). 

Prov.  X.  2,  "  Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing."  (TjTe,  Ezek. 
xxvi.  15  :  xxvii.  :  xxviii. ;  the  rich  man,  Luke  xvi.  23).  "  But  righte- 
ousness delivereth  from  death."  (Noah,  Gen.  vii.  1,  with  Heb.  xi.  7: 
Dan.  v.  6,  Belshazzar  contrasted  with  Daniel). 

Prov.  X.  7,  "The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed."  (Elisha,  2'Kings 
xiii.  21;  Jehoiada,  2  Chron.  xxiv.  15,  etc.;  Dorcas,  Acts  ix.  36,  etc.; 
Mary,  Mark  xiv.  9)  "  But  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot."  (Absa- 
lom, 2  Sam.  xviii.  17;  Jehoiakim,  Jer.  xxii.  18,  19;  Jezebel,  2  Kings 
ix.  37;  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  2  Kings- xiii.  xiv.  xv.). 

Prov.  X.  8,  "  The  wise  in  heart  will  receive  commandments."  (David, 
2  Sam.  vii. ;  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  John  ii.  4,  5 ;  the  nobleman, 
John  iv.  50).    "  But  a  prating  fool  shall  fall."    (Amaziah,  2  Kings  xiv.). 

Prov.  X.  24,  "  The  fear  of  the  wicked,  it  shall  come  upon  him." 
(The  Canaanites,  Josh,  v.;  Belshazzar,  Dan.  v.;  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxii.; 
Haman,  Esther  vii.  7-10).  "  But  the  desire  of  the  righteous  shall  be 
granted."  (Hannah,  1  Sam.  i. :  Esther  iv.  16 ;  viii.  15-17  ;  Simeon. 
Luke  ii.  29,  30 :  see  also  Psa.  xxxvii.  4 :  John  xvi.  23,  24). 

Prov.  X.  25,  "  As  the  whirlwind  passeth,  so  is  the  wicked  no  more." 
(Elah,  1  Kings  xvi.  9;  Zimri,  1  Kings  xvi.  18,  19).  "But  the  righte- 
ous is  an  everlasting  foundation."  (Abraham,  Gen.  xvii.  1-8;  David, 
2  Sam.  vii.  16 :  See  also  Matt.  vii.  24,  25). 

Prov.  xi.  2,  "  When  pride  cometh,  then  cometh  shame."     (Miriam, 
Numb.  xii.  10;  Uzziah,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  16-21;  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan. 
iv.  30,  etc.).     "But  with  the  lowly  is  wisdom."     (Daniel,  "Dan.  ii.  30; 
Joseph,  Gen.  xli.  10.) 
43* 


510  PROVERBS — CONTENTS. 

Prov.  xi.  5,  6,  "  The  righteousness  of  the  perfect  shall  directhis  way: 
but  the  wicked  shall  fall  by  his  own  wickedness.  The  righteousness 
of  the  upright  shall  deliver  them :  but  transgressors  shall  be  taken  in 
their  own  naughtiness."  (Haman,  Esther  vii.  10;  viii.  7:  Daniel's 
accusers,  Dan.  vi.  24,  etc. ;  Ahithophel's  death,  2  Sam.  xvii.  23,  con- 
trasted with  David's  restoration  to  his  throne). 

Prov.  xi.  10,  "  When  it  goeth  well  with  the  righteous,  the  city  re- 
joiceth.  (Mordecai,  Esther  viii.  16).  "  When  the  wicked  perisheth, 
there  is  shouting."  (Sisera,  Judges  v.;  Athaliah,  2  Kings  xi.  13,  20: 
see  Rev.  xix.  1-3). 

Prov.  xi.  21,  "Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  wicked  shall  not  be 
unpunished."  (Tower  of  Babel,  Gen.  xi.  4,  etc. ;  the  kings  who  com- 
bined together,  Josh.  ix.  1,  2;  Adonizedec,  Josh.  x.).  "But  the  seed 
of  the  righteous  shall  be  delivered."  (Mephibosheth,  2  Sam.  xxi.  7; 
Solomon,  1  Kings  xi.  12,  34;  Abijam,  1  Kings  xv.  4;  the  Israelites 
often,  Exod.  iii.  15,  17:  2  Kings  viii.  19. 

Prov.  xi.  25,  "  The  liberal  soul  shall  be  made  fat,  and  he  that 
watereth  shall  be  watered  also  himself."  (Abrahani,  Gen.  xiii.  9,  14; 
widow  of  Zarephath,  1  Kings  xvii.  10,  etc. ;  the  Shunamite,  2  Kings  iv.). 

Prov.  xii.  5,  "  The  counsels  of  the  wicked  are  deceit."  (Geshem, 
Neh.  vi.  2;  Ishmael,  Jer.  xli.  1-7;  Daniel's  accusers  to  Darius,  Dan. 
vi.  8  ;  Herod's  to  the  wise  men.  Matt.  ii. ;  the  Pharisees  respecting 
the  tribute  money.  Matt.  xxii.  15 ;  the  Jews  laying  wait  for  Paul,  Acts 
xxiii.  15). 

Prov.  xii.  11,  "  Pie  that  followeth  vain  persons  is  void  of  understand- 
ing." (Followers  of  Abimelech,  Judges  ix. ;  and  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  xv.; 
of  Theudas  and  Judas,  Acts  v.  36,  37). 

Prov.  xii.  13,  "  The  wicked  is  snared  by  the  transgression  of  his  lips; 
but  the  jitst  shall  come  out  of  trouble."  (Adonijah,  1  Kings  ii.  23; 
Daniel's  accusers,  Dan.  vi.  24;  the  Jews,  Matt,  xxvii.  25). 

Prov.  xii.  15,  "  The  way  of  a  fool  is  right  in  his  own  eyes."  (Lot's 
sons-in-law,  Gen.  xix.  14;  Pharisees,  John  ix.  34).  "But  he  that 
hearkeneth  unto  counsel  is  wise."  (Moses,  Exod.  xviii.  19-24;  Apollos, 
Acts  xviii.  24-26;  Pharaoh,  Gen.  xli.  37-45;  Jacob,  Gen.  xliii.  11; 
Nathanael,  John  i.  46,  47). 

Prov.  xii.  19,  "  The  lip  of  truth  shall  be  established -for  ever."  (Caleb 
and  Joshua,  Numb.  xiii.  14;  Nathan  to  David,  2  Sam.  vii.  12-17,  with 
Luke  i.  32).  "  But  a  lying  tongue  is  but  for  a  moment."  (Gehazi, 
2  Kings  v.;  Ananias,  Acts  v.). 

Prov.  xii.  25,  "  Heaviness  in  the  heart  of  man  maketh  it  stoop,  but 
a  good  worH  maketh  it  glad."     (Nehemiah,  Neh.  ii.  1,  2 ;  the  woman 


PEOVERBS — ECCLESIASTES.  511 

that  was  a  sinner,  Luke  vii.  38,  50;  Mary  Magdalene,  John  xx.  11-18; 
see  also  Luke  xxiv.  17-32). 

Prov.  xiii.  7,  "There  is  that  ra'aketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing." 
(Haman,  Esther  v.  13 ;  church  of  Laodicea  contrasted  with  the  church 
of  Smyrna,  Rev.  iii.  17;  ii.  9;  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxi.  4,  16,  22).  There  is 
that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches."  (Matthew,  Luke  v. 
27,  28;  Paul,  2  Cor.  vi.  10:  Phil.  iii.  8). 

Prov.  xiii.  24,  "  He  that  spareth  his  rod  hateth  his  son  ;  but  he  that 
loveth   him   chasteneth  him   betimes."     (Eli,  1  Sam.  iii.  13 ;    David, 

1  Kings  i.  5,  6. 

Prov.  xiv.  6,  "A  scorner  seeketh  wisdom,  and  findeth  it  not."  (Athe- 
nian philosophers,  Acts  xvii.  18 ;  Herod,  Luke  xxiii.  8 ;  the  Jews  look- 
ing for  the  Messiah,  and  yet  rejecting  Christ,  Acts  xiii.  41 ;  John,  ix. 
29).  "  But  knowledge  is  easy  to  him  that  understandeth."  (David, 
Psa.  cxix.  18,  98-100;  see  also  Jas.  i.  5:  Matt.  xi.  25). 

Prov.  xiv.  8,  "  The  wisdom  of  the  prudent  is  to  iinderstand  his  way." 
(Job  xxviii.  28 :  Deut.  iv.  6 :  Eccles.  xii.  13).  "  But  the  folly  of  fools 
is  deceit."  (Gehazi,  2  Kings  v.  20,  27;  Daniel's  accusers,  Dan.  vi.  24; 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Acts  v.  1-11). 

Prov.  xiv.  32,  "  The  wicked  is  driven  away  in  his  wickedness." 
(Hophni  and  Phinehas,  1  Sam.  iv.  11).  "  But  the  righteous  hath  hope 
in  his  death."     (Jacob,  Gen.  xlix.  18  ;  Stephen,  Acts  vii.  55-60 ;  Paul, 

2  Tim.  iv.  6-8 ;  Peter,  2  Pet.  i.  14,  16 ;  iii.  13). 

Prov. XV.  1,  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath."  (The  Reubenites, 
Josh.  xxii.  15,  21-30 ;  Gideon,  Judges  viii.  1-3 ;  Abigail,  1  Sam.  xxv. 
23,  etc.)  "  But  grievous  words  stir  up  anger."  (Rehoboam,  2  Chron. 
X.  13,  etc. ;  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  xv.  39  ;  Saul  and  Jonathan,  1  Sam. 
XX.  30-34). 

Prov.  XV.  10,  "  Correction  is  grievous  to  him  that  forsaketh  the  way." 
(Asa,  2  Chron.  xvi.  10 ;  the  Jews,  Isa.  i.  5 :  Jer.  v.  3 :  John  viii.  40). 
"And  he  that  hateth  reproof  shall  die."  (Amaziah,  2  Kings  xiv.  11: 
2  Chron.  xxv.  27 ;  the  Jews,  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  15-17  :  Luke  xix.  42,  43). 

\  ECCLESIASTES  (b.  C.  997). 

62.  The  English  name  of  this  book,  which  is  taken  from  the 
Greek  version,  signifies  (as  does  the  Hebrev^)  one  who  convenes 
or  addresses  an  assembly,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  accurately  ex- 
pressed by  the  term  "the  preacher."  The  illustrious  prince, 
the  author  of  the  book,  though  so  richly  endowed  with  wis- 
dom, turned  away  from  God  and  sought  happiness'  Auihoi-ship. 


512  ECCLESIASTES. 

in  earthly  and  idolatrous  practices,  1  Kings  xi.  1-13 ;  but  in 
liis  latter  years,  being  made  sensible  of  his  folly,  he  here 
records  his  experience.  Perhaps  the  truths  here  given  were 
"proclaimed"  by  him  in  public;  nor  was  it  unbecoming  his 
station  or  character  thus  to  inform  those  who  crowded  from 
all  parts  to  his  court,  to  be  instructed  by  his  wisdom.  The 
book  is  further  interesting,  as  it  supplies  satisfactory  evidence 
of  the  fact  that,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Solomon  re- 
pented of  his  unholy  practices  and  licentious  principles,  if  in 
such  a  course,  as  is  probable,  he  had  imbibed  them. 

The  great  design  of  this  book  is  evidently  to  show  the  utter  insuffi- 
ciency of  all  earthlj^  pursuits  and  objects,  as  the  chief  end 
t?  e'lwok  °^  ^'^^'  ^^  confer  solid  happiness,  and  then  to  draw  men  off 
from  the  ajyparent  good  to  the  only  real  and  permanent 
good — the  fear  of  God  and  communion  with  him.  "  Vanity  of  vanities, 
all  is  vanity,"  is  its  first  lesson.  "  Fear  God,  and  keep  his  command- 
ments," is  its  last.  In  accomplishing  this  design  the  writer  gives  us 
a  dramatic  biography  of  his  own  life,  not  only  recording,  but  reacting 
the  successive  scenes  of  his  own  search  for  happiness;  reciting  past  ex- 
perience, and  in  his  fervor  becoming  the  various  phases  of  his  former 
self  He  shows  us,  moreover  (and  tliis  is  a  subordinate  design  of  the 
book),  how  men  ought  to  demean  themselves  amidst  the  various  disap- 
pointments with  which  they  will  have  to  contend.  Hence  the  warnings 
and  counsels  with  wliich  his  descriptions  of  vanity,  and  exhortations 
to  make  the  fear  of  God  and  the  performance  of  moral  and  religious 
duties  our  chief  good,  abound. 

The  difficulty  and  vividness  of  the  narrative  are  greatly  increased  by 
The  author  ^^^^  form  in  which  it  is  written.  The  author  appears  to  be 
is  for  the  for  the  moment  what  he  himself  describes.  He  seems  to 
he  de-  have  (what  our  older  writers  call)  fyttes  of  study  (i.  12-18), 

scribes.  p£  i^xurj'-  (ii.  1-11),  of  grossness  and  refinement,  of  convi- 
viality and  misanthropy ;  fyttes  of  building,  and  of  book-making,  all 
ending  in  coUap.'-es  of  bitterest  disappointment  We  have  in  succession 
the  man  of  science  and  the  man  of  pleasure  becoming  fatalist,  mate- 
rialist, epicm-ian,  and  stoic;  speaking  in  each  character  much  truth, 
and  interposing  some  earnest  enlightened  interludes,  the  fruits  of  his 
maturer  wisdom;  and  at  last  we  have  the  noblest  style  of  man — the 
humble  and  penitent  believer.  Nor  is  it,  be  it  observed,  that  he  has 
given  us  descrijitions  merely  of  these ;  he  has  given  us,  in  his  own  per- 
son, the  men  themselves. 


ECCLESIASTES — ITS  PECULIARITIES.         513 

If  this  fact  be  kept  in  view,  the  meaning  of  several  passages  will  be 
plain.  Many  of  his  conclusions  are  the  expressions  of  strong 
shrewd  sense;  others  of  them  are  eminently  holy  and  spirit-  aviDlieT'' 
ual  (v.  1-3  ;  vii.  29  ;  xi.  5;  xii.  1,  8) ;  others,  again,  are  but 
partially  true,  and  some  are  absolutely  false  (iii.  19 ;  ii.  16 ;  ix.  2). 
Many  efforts  have  been  made,  in  vain,  to  harmonize  these  last  with 
other  parts  of  Scripture,  or  with  other  sayings  of  Solomon.  But  it  is 
not  thus  they  are  to  be  explained.  Each  picture  is  the  likeness  of  a 
sagacious  disappointed  worldling,  with  added  lights  thrown  in  from  a 
Divine  source.  The  book  is  a  narrati.ye  of  fantastic  hopes  and  blank 
failures,  with  descriptions  somewhat  stronger  than  truth,  and  appro- 
priate to  each.  The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  is,  that  we  are  to 
fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments.  TJiat  conclusion  is  true,  as  are 
many  of  the  incidental  warnings  and  appeals ;  but  much  of  the  matter 
it  includes  is  not.  And  on  this  principle  the  whole  must  be  explained. 
A  comparison  may  illustrate  both  the  argument  and  the  end.  As  the 
45th  Psalm  is  a  lesser  Canticles,  so  we  have  a  lesser  Ecclesiastes  in  the 
73d. 

While  all  agree  that  the  main  design  of  the  book  is  to  exalt  religion 
as  man's  "chief  end,"  different  views  (it  may  be  added) have  been  taken 
of  the  illustrations  and  arguments.  Some  have  held  that  the  grand 
lesson  is,  the  vanity  of  everything  earthly  apart  from  godliness,  and 
with  such,  every  illustration  and  every  part  is  true.  Luther,  on  the 
other  hand,  thought  the  lesson  of  the  book  to  be — be  godly,  and  con- 
cerning everything  else,  be  tranquil ;  for  life  is  not  worth  your  care. 
Within  certain  limits  both  views  are  just.  Apart  from  religion,  all 
things  cire  vain,  though  not  equally  Ya,m;  and  with  religion  nothing 
can  harm  us,  though  even  then  wisdom  and  follj''  are  not  indifferent: 
nor  does  one  thing  happen  alike  to  all.  Some,  again,  put  the  remarks 
that  are  untrue  into  the  mouth  of  objectors,  while  otliers  put  them  as 
questions.  The  sounder  view  of  tlie  whole  is  certainly  the  one  we  have 
given.* 

Note,  that  in  Ecclesiastes,  wisdom  is  used  in  the  sense  of  science,  or 
sagacity  ;  in  Proverbs,  it  is  identical  with  picti/. 

It  is  a  strange  proof  of  the  depravity  of  our  nature  that  ^h^t    "" 
modern  infidels  (Frederick  the  Great,  Voltaire,  and  others) 
have  warmly  praised  those  parts  of  Ecclesiastes  in  which  Solomon 
records  the  false  principles  which  his  folly  had  for  the  moment  led  him 
to  maintain.     The   true  wisdom  of  the  book   they  entirely  disregard, 
chap.  xii. 

»  Stowe,  Stuart,  Dr.  Hamilton,  and  others. 


514 


JOSHUA    I.-VIII. — EPITOMIZED. 


The  canonicity  of  Ecclesiastes  is  recognized  by  the  early 
Christian  writers,  and  though  the  book  is  not  for- 
mally quoted  by  our  Lord  or  his  apostles,  there  are 
several  references  to  it  in  the  New  Testament. 


Canonicity. 


By  the  Jews  it  was  not  reckoned  one  of  the  poetical  books,  and 
indeed  the  whole,  except  iii.  2-8;  vii.  1-14;  xi.  17;  xii.  7,  is  written 
in  prose. 

Sec.  6. — The  whole  Aufi-ANGED  and  Epitomized  with 
OCCASIONAL  Helps. 

63.  From  the  Entrance  into  Canaan  to  the  Death  of  Solomon, 

(475  years). 

Part  I.  (25  years;. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C.  1.  Conquest  of  Canaan  (7  years).^ 

1451.  God's  charge  to  Joshua,  Josh.  i.  1-9. 

Eccl.  y.  41.        Spies  sent  to  Jericho  ;  Eahab  receives  them,   Josh.  ii. 

1  m.  1  d.  Joshua  reminds  Reuben,   etc.,  of  their  engagement 

(c/.   Numb,  xxii.);    they  promise  obedience.     The 

Israelites   directed  concerning  the  passage  of  the 

Jordan.     God  encourageth  Joshua, 

"Josh.  i.  10-18;  iii.  1-13. 
10  d.  Passage  of  the  Jordan   (A.  M.   2553) ;    a  memorial 

erected ;  the  Canaanites  alarmed, 

Josh.  iii.  14-17  ;<=  iv.  \^  v.  1. 

1451,  Circumcision  renewed  ;  the  Passover;  manna  ceases, 

Gilgal.  Josh.  V.  2-12. 

The  Captain  of  the  Lord's  host  appears  to  Joshua,  see 

230;  miraculous  capture  of  Jericho  ;  a  curse  on  the 

rebuilder  of  it,         Josh.  vi.  1  f  v.  13-15;  vi.  2-27. 

The  Israelites  discomfited  through  Achan's  sin ;  he  is 

destroyed,  Josh.  vii. 

Capture  of  Ai  by  stratagem,  Josh.  viii.  1-29. 

»Josh.  xiv.  7,  10. 

•^  For  this  order,  see  Bedford's  Scrip.  Chron.,  quoted  in  Gray,  p.  147, 
or  Townsend,  i.  495.  'iii.  15;  Jordan  overflows;  see  §404. 

^  iv.  19 ;  40  years,  less  five  days:   ^  358  b. 
'  For  order,  see  Faber's  Horaj  Mos.,  ii.  107. 


JOSHUA    IX-XXIV.— EPITOMIZED. 


515 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 
Gilgal. 

1450—14-15. 

1444. 

Ebal  and 

Gerizim. 


1444. 


Hebron,  Kir- 

jath  Arba, 
Josh.  xxi.  11. 

1444. 
Shiloh. 


1427. 

Shechem, 

Sychar  N.  T. 

1426. 
Shechem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


The  Gibeonites  obtain  a  league  with  Joshua,  Josh,  ix.* 

Conquest  of  several  kings  in  succession,         Josh,  x."" 

Tiie  rest  of  the  conquests.  Josh.  xi. 

The  law  written  on  a  stone  altar  (c/.  Deut.  xxvii.)anJ 

proclaimed  to  all  the  people,  Josh.  viii.  30-35." 

Reuben,  etc.,  return  to  their  land  on  the  eastern  side 

of  Jordan ;  they  erect  an  altar  of  memorial ;  Israel 

offended,  ask  an  explanation,  Josh.  xxii. 

2.   General  Division  of  the  Land. 


Enumeration  of  conquests,  [Josh.  xii.]. 

Land  not  yet  conquered,  [Josh.  xiii.  1-6'. 

Joshua  divides  the  land ;  the  nine  tribes  and  a  half 
receive  their  portions  by  lot;''  the  Levites  not  to 
receive  land,  [Josh.  xiii.  7-14;  xiv.  1-5]. 

Inheritance  of  Reuben,  eta,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Jordan,  [Josh.  xiii.  15-331. 

Inheritance  of  Caleb,      [Josh.  xiv.  6-15;  xv.  13-19  . 

Lot  of  Judah,  [Josh.  xv.  1-12,  20-63]. 

Lots  of  Ephraim  and  half  of  Manasseh, 

[Josh.  xvi. ;  xvii.]. 

The  tabernacle  set  up,  Josh,  xviii.  1. 

Lots  of  the  other  tribes ;  Joshua's  inheritance, 

[Josh,  xviii.  2-28;  xix.]. 

Cities  of  refuge  appointed,  Josh.  xx. 

Levitical  cities,  [Josh.  xxi.]. 

3.  Last  Acts  of  Joshua,  etc. 


Joshua's  charge  to  the  elders  of  Israel,      Josh,  xxiii." 
Joshua  addresses    the  tribes  and   renews   the  cove- 
nant. Josh.  xxiv.  1-28. 
Death  and  burial  of  Joshua,             Josh.  xxiv.  29-31. 
Burial  of  Joseph's  bones,  etc.,            Josh.  xxiv.  32,  33. 


»  The  Gibeonites  remained  for  ages  a  monument  of  the  trutli  of  Jew- 
ish history ;  as  are  now  the  Jew.s. 

*>  God  thus  proved  his  power  over  the  objects  of  Canaanitish  worship. 

<=  For  order,  see  Horsley's  Bib.  Crit.  i.  260,  and  compare  chap.  i.  14 ; 
it  immediately  follows  the  close  of  the  war. 

•■  Though  these  divisions  were  made  by  lot,  each  tribe  received  such 
an  inheritance  as  fulfilled  the  predictions  of  Jacob  and  Moses ;  thus 
illustrating  the  faithfulness  of  God. 

.«  Ver.  3,  mark  how  God  is  honored :  see  193. 


516 


JUDGES   I.-X. — EPITOMIZED. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 


1425, 
Bocliim. 

1413. 


140fi, 
Gibeah,  Jeba. 


1402-1394. 
1354-1336. 

1316-1296. 

1256. 

Bethlehem, 

Beit-el-lahm. 

1249, 

Shechem, 

1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


64.  (Part  II). 
Interregnum  and  Oovernment  of  Judges  (330  years). 

Conquests  after  Joshua's  death,  Judg.  i.  1-26. 

Nations  not  subdued  by  Israel,  Judg.  i.  27-36. 

The  a^igel  of  the  Lord  rebukes  the  Israelites  for  not 
driving  out  the  Canaanites,  Judg.  ii.  1-5. 

Commencement  of  idolatry  in  Israel,     Judg.  ii.  6-13. 

Account  of  Micah  and  his  image,  Judg.  xvii. 

A  party  of  Danites  having  robbed  Micah  of  his  image, 
established  themselves  in  Laish  (afterwards  Dan) 
and  set  up  idolatry,*  Judg.  xviii.*" 

History  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine;  slaughter 
of  the  Benjamites,  etc.,         [Judg.  xix. ;  xx. ;  xxi.]. 

The  captivities  of  Israel  for  idolatry,  and  their  de- 
liverance by  Judges,  Judg.  ii.  14-23 ;  iii.  1-4. 

Captivity  of  tlie  eastern  Israelites  for  8  years  to  Meso- 
potamia ;  Othniel,  judge,  Judg.  iii.  5-11. 

Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  18  years  to 
Moab;  Ehud,  judge,  Judg.  iii.  12-30. 

Captivity  of  the  western  Israelites  to  the  Philistines; 
Shamgar,  judge,  ■  Judg.  iii.  31. 

Captivity  of  the  northern  Israelites  for  20  years  to 
the  Canaanites ;  Deborah,  judge,  song  of  Deborah 
and  Barak,  Judg.  iv. ;  v. 

Captivity  of  the  eastern  and  northern  Israelites  for  7 
years  to  Midian,  Judg.  vi.  1-6. 

The  history  of  Ruth,  an  ancestress  of  the  Messiah, 

Ruth  i.-iv." 

Gideon,  judge ;  is  invited  by  the  angel  of  the  covenant, 
and  delivers  Israel  from  Midian  ;  refuses  to  be  made 
king,  Judg.  vi.  7-40;  vii.;  viii. 

Ursurpation  of  Abimelech;  Jothan's  fable,     Judg.  ix. 

Tola  and  Jair,  judges,  Judg.  x.  1-5. 


*  This  idolatry  continued  to  the  days  of  Eli,  and  was  resumed  by 
Jeroboam,  1  Sam.  iv.  10,  11.  Hence,  probably,  the  omission  of  Dan 
from  the  sealed  ones,  Rev.  vii. 

''  That  these  five  chaps,  belong  to  this  early  age  is  clear;   Dan  was  • 
not  yet  settled,  xviii.  1 ;  Phinehas,  the  grandson  of  Aaron,  was  living, 
XX.  28,  and  the  iniquity  of  Gibeah  is  mentioned,  Hos.  x.  9,  as  the  first 
open  sin  of  Israel  in  Canaan. 

<=  Compare  Ruth  i.  1,  with  Judg.  vi.  4,  the  only  famine  mentioned  in 
Judges:  see,  for  other  reasons,  Gray,  p.  166. 


JUDGES   X — 1   SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 


517 


Date  and  Place. 


P   C 
1206-1188. 

1187. 
1182-1157. 
1156-1116. 

1156. 

1155. 
Shiloh. 

1143. 
1136-1117, 

Shiloh. 

1116, 

Gaza. 

1116. 

Ebenezer. 

Ashdod,  Azo- 

tus,  Acts  viii. 

40;  Shdood, 

30  w.  Jerus. 

1112, 

Mizpeh. 

1095, 

Raniah,  in 

Ephraim. 


Evertt  or  Narrative 


1096, 

Ramah. 

Mizpeh. 

Gilgal, 

N.  E.  Jericho. 

1094. 


The  Philistines  and  Ammonites  oppress  Israel  for  18 
years  ;  Jephthah  ;  his  vow,  "        Judg.  x.  6-18  ;  xi. 

Slaughter  of  Ephraim  by  the  Gileadites,  Judg.  xii.  1-6. 

Ibzan,  r^lon,  and  Abdon,  judges,  Judg.  xii.  7-15. 

The  Philistines  oppress  Israel  40  years,  Judg.  xiii.  1. 

Birth  of  Samson,  Judg.  xiii.  2-25. 

Birth  of  Samuel;   HannaKs  song,  1  Sam.  i.;  ii.  1-11. 

The  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons,*  1  Sam.  ii.  12-21. 

Call  of  Samuel,  1  Sam.  iii. 

Marriage  of  Samson  ;  his  exploits, 

Judg.  xiv;   XV.  1-19;  [xvi.  1-3 

Judgment  of  Eli's  house,       1  Sam.  ii.  22-36,  [22-25 

Capture  and  death  of  Samson, 

Judg.  [xv.  XX.] ;  xvi.  4-31. 

Israel  twice  defeated  by  the  Philistines;  ark  taken  and 
Eli's  son  slain;  death  of  Eli,       1  Sam.  iv.  [19-22]. 

The  ark  placed  in  the  house  of  Dagon ;  removed  to 
Ekron  {Akir),  then  to  Bethshemesh  {Ain  Shems), 
thence  to  Kirjah-jearim,. where  it  remains  till  re- 
moved by  David,  Town.  i.  612, 

1  Sam.  v.;  vi.;  vii.  1,  2. 

Samuel,  judge;  he  moves  the  Israelites  to  repent- 
ance ;  the  Philistines  discomfited,  1  Sam.  vii.  3-17. 

Samuel  appoints  his  sons  judges ;  their  corrupt  govern- 
ment; the  Israelites  ask  for  a  king;  God  bids  Samuel 
hearken  to  them,  1  Sam.  viii. 

65.  (Part  III.) 

The  Reign  of  Saul  (40  years).''' 


Samuel  privately  anoints  Saul  as  king,  and  gives  him 
three  signs,  1  Sam.  ix. ;  x.  1-16. 

Saul  chosen  and  proclaimed  king,  1  Sam.  x.  17-27. 
Saul  rescues  Jabesh-Gilead  ;  is  inaugurated  as  king; 
Samuel's  address  to  Israel,  1  Sam.  xi.  xii. 

Saul  gathers  an  army  against  the  Philistines ;  he  dis- 
obeys Samuel,  and  is  warned  of  his  rejection  from 
the  kingdom,  1  Sam.  xiii.  1-15. 

The  Philistines  discomfited ;  Saul's  rash  oath  endangers 
Jonathan;  the  people  rescue  him  ;  Saul's  victories; 
his  family,  1  Sam.  xiii.  16-23  ;  xiv. 


»  On  the  chronology  of  this  part  of  the  book  of  Judges,  see  Town. 
Bend,  i.,  592,  or  Calmet. 
b  Acts  xiii.  21. 
44 


518 


1    SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED    AND   ARRANGED. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 
1080. 

1064, 

Bethlehem. 


1063. 


1062. 
Gibeah 
Naioth. 

1062. 

1061. 

Nob  and  Gath. 

AduUam. 


Nob. 
Keilah. 


1060, 
Ziph. 

1059, 
Engedi,  Ha- 
zezon  Tamar, 

1058. 

Ziph. 

1057. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Saul  smites  the  Amalekites ;    spares  Agag  and  the 

best  of  the  spoil;  denounced  by  Samuel,  1  Sam.  xv. 

Samuel  secretly  anoints  David  at  Bethlehem,  as  future 

king,  1  Sam.  xvi.  1-13. 

David's  victory  over  Goliath ;  Jonathan  loves  David, 

1  Sam.  xvii.  1-40,  55,  56,  41-54,  57,  58 ;  xviii. 

1-4:  Psa.  ix.» 

David's  victories  ;  Saul's  melancholy  ;  he  attempts  to 

kill  David, 

1  Sam.  xviii.  5-9;  xvi.  14-23  ;>'  xviii.  10-16. 

David  marries  Saul's  daughter ;  Saul  makes  various 

attempts  to  kill  him  ;  David  flees  to  Samuel ;  Saul 

sends  after  him,         1  Sam.  xviii.  17-30;  xix.  1-3: 

Psa.  xi:  1  Sam.  xix.  4-24:  Psa.  lix. 

David's  covenant  with  Jonathan,  1  Sara.  xx. 

David  flees  to  Ahimelech  (where  his  lie  costs  the  Uvea 

of  the  priests  of  the  house  of  Eli),  then  to  Achish; 

.  feigns  madness,  1  Sam.  21:  Psa.  Ivi. ;  xxxiv. 

David  iees  again,  joined  by  several  followers, 

1  Sam.  xxii.  1:   Psa.  cxlii. :  1  Sam.  xxii.  1  I.  p.  and 

2.    [1  Chron.  xii.  8-18]:    2  Sam.  xxiii.  13-17:    1 

Chron.  xi.  15-19. 

David  goes  to  Mizpeh,  then  to  Hareth  ;  slaughter  of 

the  priests  by  Saul,  1  Sam.  xxii  3-19 : 

Psa.  lii. ;  cix. ;  xvii. ;  cxl. ;  xxxv. ;  Ixiv. 

Abiathar  joins  David  ;  David  defeats  the  Philistines, 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  1 ;  xxii.  20-23  ;  xxiii.  B,-:  2-5,  7-12, 

Psa.  xxxi. 
Saul  pursues  David ;  an  invasion  obliges  him  to  re- 
turn, 
1  Sam.  xxiii.  13-23:  Psa.  liv.:  1  Sam.  xxiii.  24-28. 
Saul  pursues  David;  David  spares  Saul's  life;  Saul 
confesses  his  fault, 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  29 ;  xxiv. :  Psa.  Ivii. ;  Iviii.;  Ixiii. 
Death  of  Samuel ;  David  and  Nabal,  1  Sa-m.  xxv. 
David  again  spares  Saul's  life,  1  Sam.  xxvi. 

David  flees  to  Achish,  1  Sam.  xxvii.  1-7.   Psa.  cxli.: 
several  resort  to  him,  [1  Chron.  xii.  1-7]. 

David  makes  an  excursion  on  the  Amalekites  and  re- 
pairs to  Gath  with  the  booty,     1  Sam.  xxviii.  8-12. 


»  See  Lightfoot  and  Town.  i.  638. 

»>  The  order  here  is  fixed  by  Bishop  Horsley.  Compare  xvii.  33, 
38,  39,  42,  56,  with  xvi.  18,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  xvi.  14-23  belongs  to 
a  later  period  than  xvii.  1-40. 

«  See  Townsend  on  the  order. 


2   SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 


519 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

1056. 


Gilboa, 
{Diehel  Gilbo). 

Ziklag  (16 
S.W.Gath?). 


Hebron, 

1056. 

Acts  xiii.  21. 

1054. 


1049, 

Hebron, 

Jerusalem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


1048, 


1046, 

from  Ivirjath 

Jearim  to 

house  of 

Obededom, 

thence  to 

Ziou,Psa.cxxxii, 


The  Philistines  prepare  for  war,  and  advance  to 
Shunem ;  David  accompanies  them  ;  Saul  consults 
the  witch  of  Endor,  1  Sam.  xxviii. 

David  dismissed  from  the  army  of  the  Philistines  ;  on 
his  way  back  to  Zil^lag  he  is  joined  by  several, 

1  Sam.  XXIX. :  [1  Chron.  xii.  19-22]. 

On  his  return  to  ZikLag,  David  finds  that  it  had  been 
sacked  by  Amalek,  and  his  family  taken;  he  pur- 
sues Amalek,  and  smites  them,  1  Sam.  xxx. 

Saul,  defeated  in  battle  and  his  sons  slain,  kills  him- 
self, 1  Sam.  xxxi. :  [1  Chron.  x.  1-14]. 

An  Amalekite  pretends  to  have  slain  Saul,  and  is  put 
to  death  by  David,  2  Sam.  i.  1-16. 

David's  lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan, 

2  Sam.  i.  17-27. 

66.  (Part  IV.) 

The  Reign  of  David  (40  years.) 

David  acknowledged  as  king  of  Judah, 

2  Sam.  ii.  1-7. 

Ishbosheth  proclaimed  king  of  Israel,  2  Sam.  ii.  8-11. 

Civil  war  ensues  ;  David  waxes  stronger  ;  Abner  and 
Ishbosheth  treacherously  slain, 

2  Sam.  ii.  12-32;  ill.;  iv. 

David  made  king  over  all  Israel ;  his  troops  ;  he  dis- 
possesses the  Jebusites  of  the  hill  of  Zion,  and  dwells 
there,  2  Sam.  v.  1-3;  xxiii.  8-12;  [xviii.  39] ;  v.  4, 
5,  6-10:  1  Chron.  xi.  1-3;  [xii.  23-40];  xi.  10-14, 
20  [26-47],  4-9. 

Hiram  of  Tyre  congratulates  David ;  David's  family ; 
he  twice  defeats  the  Philistines, 

2  Sam.- v.  11-25,=^  [13-17] ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  1-17. 

David  removes  the  ark ;  Uzzah,  not  being  a  Levite, 
smitten  for  touching  the  ark  (see  Numb.  iv.  15) :  2 
Sam.  vi.  1-11  ;  vi.  12-23:  Psa.  Ixviii.,  cxxxii.,  cv., 
xcvi.,  cvi. :  1  Chron.  xiii.  1^,^  5-14;  xv.  1-16,  43  ; 
[5-24].<^ 

David  forbidden  to  build  the  temple  ;  great  blessings 
promised  him  ;  his  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  2  Sam. 


*  Ver.  24 :  see  2  Kings  vii.  6. 

''  Townsend,  following  Chronicles,  places  the  removal  of  the  ark  after 
David's  conquest  of  Zion,  and  reads  xiii.  1-4  after  2  Sam.  v.  1-3. 
Ver.  4  :  see  vi.  31. 


520 


2   SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.C. 


1041. 


1038—1037, 

Medeba. 

1036  and  1034, 

Jerusalem. 

1033. 


1031. 
1028. 

1025. 

1024. 


1024. 

Bahurim. 

Jerusalem. 

Mahanaim, 

65  N.  E. 
Jerusalem. 
Ephraim. 


1023. 
1021. 


vii. :  1  Chron.  xvii. :  Psa.  ii.,  xlv.,  xxii.,  xvi.,  cxviii., 

ex. 
Victories  over  Philistia,  Moab,  Syria,  and  Edom, 

2  Sam.  viii.:  1  Chron.  xviii. ;  Psa.  Ix.,  cviii. 
David's  kindness  to  Mephibosheth,  2  Sam.  ix.* 

David  defeats  Aramon  and  Syria, 

[2  Sam.  X.]:  1  Chron.  xix. :  Psa.  xx.,  xxi. 
Siege  of  Kabbah ;  David's  adultery  and  murder, 

2  Sam.  xi.  1;  [xi.  2-12,  23];   26-31:  1  Chron    xx. 

1,  3.   Psa.  li.,  xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  ciii.'' 
Birth  of  Solomon;  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son,  forceth 

his  sister  Tamar,   David's  only  daughter;    David 

fails  to  punish  this  injury, 

2  Sam.  xii.  [24,  25 ;  xiii.  1-22]. 
Absalom  kills  Amnon,  and  flees,  2  Sam.  xiii.  23-39. 
Absalom  brought  back,  and  restored  to  his  father's 

presence,  2  Sara.  xiv.  1-7,  15-17,  8-14,<=  18-33. 

Absalom  raises  a  revolt  against  David, 

2  Sam.  XV.  1-12.<> 
David  and  his  followers  flee;  Zadok  and  Abiathar 

sent  back  with  the  ark  ;  Hushai  desired  by  David 

to  join  himself  to  Absalom  to  circumvent  Ahitho- 

phel's  counsels,  2  Sam.  xv.  13-37 :  Psa.  iii. 

Ziba's  treachery  to  Mephibosheth  ;  Shimei  curses  Da- 
vid, 2  Sam.  xvi.  1-14  ■  Psa.  vii. 
Hushai    defeats   Ahithophel's    counsel ;    Ahithophel 

hangs  himself,  2  Sam.  xvi.  15-23  ;  xvii.  1-26. 

David  furnished  with  provisions,  chiefly  by  Barzillai, 

2  Sam.  xvii.  27-29:  Psa.  xiii., ^  xliii.,  Iv.,  iv.,  v., 

Ixii.,  cxliii.,  cxliv  ,  Ixx.,  Ixxi. 
Absalom  defeated  and  slain  by  Joab,       2  Sam.  xviii. 
David    returns ;    Shimei    pardoned ;    Mephibosheth 

exposes    Ziba's    treachery ;    David's   gratitude   to 

Barzillai,  2  Sam.  xix  ;  xx.  3. 

Revolt  of  Sheba  (at  Abel),  2  Sam.  xx.  1,  2,  4-26. 

The  three  years'  famine,  2  Sam.  xxi.  1-14. 


a  See  1  Sam.  xx.  15. 

*>  Psa.  li.  is  David's  penitential  Psalm,  and  Psa.  ciii.  his  Psalm  of 
thanksgiving  on  being  forgiven.  The  punishment  was  remitted ;  but  as 
a  chastisement,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  David's  life  was 
embittered.  <^  The  sense  requires  this  change  (Horsley). 

"•  XV.  7 :  40  years,  i.  e.  after  David's  anointing  (Liglitfoot),  or  read  4, 
as  Josephus,  Syriac,  Hales. 

«  David  crosses  Jordan,  Psa.  xiii.  6. 


2   SAMUEL — 1    CHRONICLES — AERAKGED. 


521 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Nanative. 


B.C. 
1019. 


1018. 


1016, 
Jerusalem, 


1016, 

Gibeon,  Jih, 

17  N.  W. 

Gilgal, 


Last  wars  with  the  Philistines;  David's  praise  for 
victories  ;  his  enemies  subdued,  2  Sam.  xxi.  15-22  :  i. 
[xxii.  2-51]:  1  Chron.  xx.  4-8:  Psa.  xviii. 

David,  in  pride,  numbers  Israel ;  the  plague,  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  1-9;^  x.-xxv.:b  1  Chron.  xxi.  1-5;  xxvii.  23, 
24 :  xxi.  6,  7,  8-30. 

David  prepares  materials,  and  instructs  Solomon  as  to 
the  building  of  the  temple,  1  Chron.  xxii. 

Adonijah's  rebellion ;  Solomon  anointed  and  pro- 
claimed David's  successor;  Adonijah  submits, 

]  Kings  i.  [l-4].e 

David  arranges  the  courses  of  the  priests,  etc., 

[1  Chron.  xxiii.-xxvi.] 

Arrangement  of  the  state  officers, 

[1  Chron.  xxvii.  1-22,  25-34.] 

David  calls  a  solemn  assembly,  and  exhorts  both  them 
and  Solomon  to  the  work  of  the  temple ;  the  offer- 
ings of  the  princes  and  people ;  David's  thanks- 
giving; Solomon  acknowledged  as  king,  1  Chron. 
xxviii.  [11-21]:  xxix.  1-25:  Psa.  Ixxii.,  xci.,  cxlv. 

David's  final  charge  to  Solomon ;  directs  Joab  and 
Shimei  to  be  put  to  death  ;  David's  last  words  ;  his 
death,  1  Kings  ii.  1-9 :  2  Sam.  xxiii.  1-7 :  1  Chron. 
xxix.  26-30:   1  Kings  ii.  10,  11. 

Psalms  of  David,  of  which  the  date  and  occasion  are 
not  known,  Psa.  vi.,  viii.,  xii.,  xix.,  xxiii.,  xxiv., 
xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxxviii.,  xxxix.,  xl.,  xli.,  Ixi.,  Ixv., 
Ixix.,  Ixxviii.,  Ixxxvi.,  xcv.,  ci.,  civ.,  cxx.,  cxxi., 
cxxii.,  cxxiv.,  cxxxi.,  cxxxiii.,  cxxxix. 

67.  (PartV.) 

The  Reign  of  Solomon  (40  years). 

Solomon's  burnt-olfering ;  God  giving  him  a  choice, 
he  asks  for  wisdom  ;  wealth  and  honor  added  to 
him,  1  Kings  [ii.  12];  lii.  4-15:*  2  Chron.  i.  1-5* 
[6-12]. 


»  Samuel  omits  the  standing  army  (300,000),  which  Chronicles  in- 
cludes, and  Samuel  includes  Jerusalem  (30,000),  which  Chronicles  omits: 
Bee  Lightfoot. 

^  Ver.  13,  i.  e.  three  full  additional  years:  compare  1  Chron.  xxi.  12. 
See  §  358  (d.) 

«  On  the  order,  see  Townsend,  who  differs  here  from  Lightfoot. 

*  Passages  marked  thus  ("^)  give  the  fuller  narrative. 
44* 


522 


1    KINGS. — 1    CHRONICLES. — ARRANGED. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

iai5, 

Jerusalem. 


Tyre,  Tsur, 

1U2  N.  Jer. 

1012, 

Jerusalem. 
1012—1005, 
1  Kings  vi. 

1-37. 

1005, 
Jerusalem. 


1002. 


1001, 
Jerusalem. 


993, 
Jerusalem. 

980—977. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Solomon's  wise  judgment, 

1  Kings  iii.  15-28  :*  [2  Chron.  i.  13]. 
Adonijah  and  Joab  put  to  death;  Abiathar  deposed; 

Shimei  not  to  leave  Jerusalem,     1  Kings  ii.  13-38. 
Solomon  obtains  materials  and  men  for  tlie  building 

of  the  temple,  1  Kings  v.  1-18 .  [2  Chron.  ii.  1-18]. 
Shimei  put  to  death  for  going  to  Gath,  1  Kings  ii. 

39-46. 
Solomon  marries  Pharaoh's  daughter,  1  Kings  iii.  1-3. 
The  building  of  the  temple,  1  Kings  vi.  1-8,  [15-36]; 

[vii.  13-50] :  vi.  9-14,  37,  38;  vii.  51 :  [2  Chron.  iii. 

1-9],^  [3,  4,  22],  [10-14];  [iii.  15-iv.  22];  [v.  1]. 
The  dedication  of  the  temple,  1  Kings  viii.  1-11,  62- 

64,  12-61,  65,  66:  2  Chron.  [v.  2-14;"  vii.  4-7; 

vi.-vii.  3,  8,  10] :  Psa.  xlxii.,'=  xcvii.,  xcviii.,  xcix., 

c,  cxxxv.,  cxxxvi. 
Other  buildings  of  Solomon :  God  makes  a  covenanit 

with  him,  1  Kings  vii.  1-12;  [ix.  1-9]:  2  Chron. 

vii.  11-22. 
Acquisitions    of    Solomon ;    he   carries    out    David's 

arrangements  for  the  temple  services,  1  Kings  ix. 

10-14,  15-25  :  [2  Chron.  viii.  1-10,  12-16]. 
Pharaoh's  daughter  brought  by  Solomon  to  his  new 

palace,  1  Kings  ix.  24:  [2  Chron.  viii.  11]. 

Solomon's  song  upon  the  occasion,         [Cant,  i.-viii]."* 
The  greatness  of  Solomon,  1  Kings  iv.  1-28,  [2-19] ; 

X.  26 ;  ix.  26-28 ;  x.  14-25,  27-29 :   [2  Chron.  ix. 

26,  25;  i.  14:  viii.  17,  18;  ix.  13-21,  24;  i.  15-17; 

ix.  27,  28]. 
The  wisdom  of  Solomon,  1  Kings  iv.  29-33  :  [2  Chron. 

ix.  22]:  Prov.  i.-xxxi;  [v.;  vi.  24-35;    vii). 
Solomon's  fame  ;  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  1  Kings 

iv.  34;  X.  1-13  :  (2  Chron.  ix.  23,  1-12). 
Solomon's  wives  seduce  him  into  idolatry ;  Hadad  and 

Eezon  stirred  up  against  him,        1  Kings  xi.  1-25. 


*  Ver.  3,  of  the  first  measure,  i.  e.  the  larger  cubit  used  before  the 
captivity,  nearly  a  yard. 

^  Ver.  11,  "white  raiment,''  additional  to  1  Kings.  The  Jews  offered 
the  sacrifice,  then  prayed,  and  then  the  fire  descended ;  hence  this  order 
(Townsend). 

'  Psa.  xlvii.  5 :  see  2  Chron.  v.  13.  The  other  Psalms  are  all  appro- 
priate to  this  service,  and  were  probably  used.  The  date  of  their  com- 
position is  not  known. 

■*  Compare  iv.  8 ;  vii.  4,  with  2  Chron.  viii.  6. 


PROPHETICAL    BOOKS. 


523 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 
977. 


976, 
Jerusalem. 


976, 
Shechem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Ahijah    predicts  to    Jeroboam    the    division    of   the 

kingdom;    Solomon  seeks  to  kill    Jeroboam,  who 

flees  into  Egypt,  1  Kings  xi.  26-40. 

Solomon  writes  Ecclesiastes,  probably  as  an  ejfpres- 

sion  of  repentance, 

Eccl.  or  the  Preacher,  i.-xii;  [iii.-xi.  8], 
Death  of  Solomon  ;  Rehoboam  his  son  succeeds, 

1  Kings  xi.  41-43 :  [2  Chron.  ix.  29-31], 

68.   The  Division  of  the  Kingdom. 

On  the  accession  of  Rehoboam,  the  people,  headed  by 
Jeroboam,  demand  a  relaxation  of  burdens, 

1  Kings  xii.  1-5:  [2  Chron.  x.  1-5]. 

Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  young  men  instead  of 
the  old  men,  Rehoboam  refuses  the  request  of  the 
people,  1  Kings  xii.  6-15 :  [2  Chron.  x.  6-15]. 

Ten  tribes  revolt;  Judah  and  Benjamin  adhere  to 
Rehoboam,  and  form  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 

1  Kings  xii.  16-19:  [2  Chron.  x.  16-19]. 

The  ten  tribes  make  Jeroboam  their  king,  and  form 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  1  Kings  xii.-xx. 


CHAPTER  III. 

historical  and  prophetical  books  from  the  death  of 
solomon  to  the  close  of  the  old  testament  canon. 

Sec.  1. — Brief  Historical  View  of  this  Period. — The 

Prophets  in  Connection  with  History. 


69.  With  the  reign  of  Solomon  ended  the  glory  of  Israel. 
The  kingdom  was  thenceforth  dismembered.     Ten 
tribes,  of  which  Ephraim  was  chief,  separated  from 
the  rest,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of   Israel ;    Judah,  with 


The  division. 


524  PROPHECY   AND   HISTORY. 

wlaich  Benjamin  was  now  united,  alone  remaining  faithful  to 
•the  house  of  David.  To  the  latter,  however,  most  of  the  Le- 
vites,  and  many  who  feared  God  out  of  all  the  tribes,  ulti- 
mately adhered,  2  Chron.  xi.  13-16. 

70.  The  history  of  these  kingdoms  presents  striking  con- 
f ,        trasts  and  instructive  lessons. 

Israel  from 
the  division 

to  the  de-  Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  and  himself  an  Ephrai- 

stniction  '.  °  '  /. 

of  tlie  mite,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  God,  and  a  conditional 

"ig  om.  promise  was  given  that  his  kingdom  should  be  as  David's 
(1  Kings  xi.  38).  But  Jeroboam  had  neither  the  faith  nor  the  obedi- 
ence of  David.  To  preserve  the  independence  of  his  kingdom,  he 
established  a  separate  priesthood,  and  set  up  idol- altars  and  images  at 
Dan  and  Bethel.  He  thus  framed  a  system  of  idolatry,  denied  practi- 
cally the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  and  perpetuated,  in  an  exag- 
gerated form,  the  evil  for  which  the  kingdom  had  been  rent  from  Solo- 
mon (Deut.  xxviii.  15:  1  Kings  xi.  11).  Unhappily,  the  people  shared 
his  feelings,  and  through  his  influence  idolatry  became  ever  after  part 
of  the  national  religion.  He  himself,  therefore,  is  branded  in  history 
as  "Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin." 

From  the  time  of  Jeroboam,  the  first  king,  to  Hoshea,  the  nineteenth 
and  last,  we  find  no  one  king  free  from  the  charge  of  general  depravity. 
Of  king  after  king,  it  is  said  that  he  "did  that  which  was  evil  in  the 
Bight  of  the  Lord."  Jehu,  indeed,  destroyed  the  prophets  of  Baal,  and 
for  his  partial  obedience  was  rewarded  with  enlarged  temporal  blessing ; 
but  he  "  took  no  heed  to  walk  in  the  law  of  the  Lord,  for  he  departed 
not  from  the  sin  of  Jeroboam,  who  made  Israel  to  sin."  The  nation 
copied  their  kings.  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  but  it  needed,  in  Eli- 
jah's days,  a  direct  revelation  to  discover  them  ;  and  out  of  the  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  whom  Israel  was  composed,  but  7,000  are  mentioned 
as  not  having  bowed  the  knee  unto  Baal. 

This  fearful  condition  was  the  more  guilty  because  of  the  warnings 
which  had  been  given.  Jeroboam  knew  why  God  had  rejected  Solo- 
mon, and  was  himself  repeatedly  rebuked  by  Ahijah  and  others. 
Within  fifty  years  appeared  the  prophets  Jehu  and  Micaiah.  Elijah  and 
Elisha;  the  two  latter  working  more  miracles  than  any  prophet  had 
wrought  since  the  days  of  Moses  and  Joshua.  A  few  j^ears  after  their 
protracted  ministry  came  Jonah,  Hosea,  and  Amos.  All  the  messages 
of  these  prophets  were  confirmed  by  Divine  chastisements^,  Jeroboam 
and  his  family  were  cut  off,  as  were  Baasha  and  Zimri.  In  the  254 
years  of  the  monarchy,  nine  different  families  occupied  the  throne,  and 


PROPHECY   AND    HISTORY.  525 

nearly  tlieir  entire  history  is  made  up  of  bloodshed  and  confusion. 
Zecliariah,  the  son  of  Jeroboam  the  second,  was  slain,  after  a  reign  of 
six  months,  by  Sliallum  ;  and  he,  after  a  reign  of  one  month,  by  Mena- 
heni,  his  son  and  successor.  Pekahiah  was  assassinated  by  Pekah,  and 
Pekah  is  put  to  death  by  Hoshea;  while  most  of  this  wickedness  is 
ascribed  to  an  unhallowed  adherence  to  the  policy  and  idolatries  of 
tlieir  first  king,  1  Kings  xiv.  9,  10:  2  Kings  xvii.  21-23.  He  thought 
that  policy  essential  to  the  stability  of  his  throne ;  it  proved  the  ruin 
both  of  himself  and  of  his  kingdom.  There  is,  indeed,  "a  way  that 
seeineth  right  unto  a  man,  but  the  end  thereof  are  the  ways  of  death." 

The  distrust  of  Divine  power  and  contempt  of  Divine  law  in  which 
these  evils  originated,  proved  the  means  as  well  as  the  primary  cause 
of  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom.  Pekah  sought  an  alliance  with 
Ptczin  of  Syria  against  Ahaz  of  Judah.  Pekah  was  at  first  victorious, 
and  Ahaz,  copying  the  sin  of  his  neighbor,  aj^plied  for  help  to  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  son  of  Pul,  king  of  Assyria.  He  came  and  chastised  the  Isra- 
elites, carrying  into  Media  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  beyond  Jordan, 
and  making  the  rest  tributary.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  cap- 
tivity, and  might  have  proved  a  salutary  warning  (738  B.  G.)  Ten 
years  later,  So,  king  of  Egypt,  alarmed  at  the  power  of  Assyria,  induced 
Hezekiah  and  Hoshea  to  withhold  the  tribute  which  their  predecessors 
had  engaged  to  pay.  This  revolt  brought  up  Shalmaneser,  the  son  of 
Tiglath-Pileser,  with  a  large  host;  and  in  the  end  Samaria  fell ;  Hoshea 
was  carried  to  Nineveh,  and  Israel  was  annexed  to  the  Assyrian  crown. 

The  conquered  country  was  afterwards  peopled  by  settlers  from  the 
region  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  They  intermarried  with  those  of 
the  Israelites  who  had  remained,  and  ultimately  took  the  name  of  Sa- 
maritans. At  first  they  served  the  "God  of  the  country,"  and  "wor- 
shipped idols;"  but  Josiah  having  destroyed  the  altar  at  Bethel,  and 
carried  his  reformation  even  into  Zebulon,  they  rested  in  a  system  of 
belief  nearly  as  pure  as  that  of  the  Jews,  though  less  regular  in  some 
of  its  observances.  What  became  of  the  ten  tribes  is  not  known.  Cus- 
toms, rites,  and  features  like  theirs  have  been  discovered  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Many  of  them  seem  to  have  returned  at  different  periods 
to  their  own  land.  Cyrus  addressed  his  proclamation  to  all  the  people 
of  Jehovah  (Ez.  i.  1-3),  and  some  of  the  rites  connected  with  the  con- 
secration of  the  temple  imply  that  there  were  present  remnants  of  all 
the  tribes ;  while  many  Israelites  seem  to  have  been  settled  in  Galilee 
and  Persea  long  before  the  days  of  our  Lord  (1  Mac.  v.  9-21). 

71.  Very  different  were  the  destinies  of  Judah.      jjistory 
Of  twenty  kings,  all  descendants  of  David,  who  for      of  judah- 


526  PROPHECY   AND   HISTORY. 

388  years  occupied  the  throne,  six  are  mentioned  with  great 
praise  (Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Hezekiah,  and 
Josiah),  and  others  are  commended.  Several,  however,  were 
fearfully  wicked  ;  Jehoram,  Ahaz,  Manasseh,  and  Amon,  intro- 
ducing idolatrous  worship  into  the  temple  itself,  and  filling 
Jerusalem  with  blood. 

The  fatal  error  of  the  Jews,  politically  and  religiously,  was  their  alli- 
ance with  idolaters,  originating,  as  it  did,  in  worldliness  and  distrust, 
and  tending  to  conform  them  to  their  idolatrous  neighbors.  Ahaz 
Bought,  as  we  have  seen,  the  aid  of  Tiglath-Pileser  against  the  kings 
of  Israel  and  Syria;  and  though,  at  first,  he  was  delivered  from  im- 
pending evil,  he  really  received  from  the  Assyrians  "no  help  at  all." 
The  payment  of  a  heavy  tribute  was  the  first  immediate  result  of  this 
alliance,  and  other  results  soon  followed.  It  cost  Hezekiah  most  of 
his  treasure,  and  but  for  special  interposition  would  have  cost  him  his 
throne.  Manasseh  it  cost  his  liberty,  and  Josiah  (who  felt  himself 
bound  to  appose  the  progress  of  Necho  eastward  to  Carchemish),  his 
life.  Jehoahaz,  his  son,  was  carried  captive  to  Egypt.  Jehoiakim  (the 
brother  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz),  who  owed  his  crown  to  Necho,  was 
Bet  aside  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Shortly  afterwards,  his  son  Jeconiah 
was  deposed  by*the  same  monarch  and  taken  to  Babylon,  Zedekiah, 
the  uncle  of  Jeconiah,  and  the  third  son  of  Josiah,  being  made  king, 
after  a  solemn  oath  of  allegiance,  in  his  room.  Tempted  by  Pharaoh 
Hophra,  and  against  the  remonstrance  of  Jeremiah,  he  revolted,  and  a 
third  time  Nebuchadnezzar  came  against  Jerusalem.  After  a  siege  of 
eighteen  months,  the  city  was  taken  at  midnight;  most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants were  put  to  death,  the  children  of  Zedekiah  were  slain,  and  he 
himself  (his  eyes  put  out)  was  carried  in  chains  to  Babylon.  At  the 
same  time,  or  a  few  months  later,  Nebuzaradan,  the  general  of  Nebuch- 
adnezzar, burned  the  city,  destroyed  the  temple,  and  carried  off  the 
remainder  of  the  sacred  vessels  and  the  greater  part  of  the  nation,  a 
few  poor  only  being  left  to  till  the  soil. 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  colonize  the  country, 
as  had  been  done  in  the  case  of  Israel ;  the  providence  of  God  thus 
keeping  it  vacant,  to  be  reoccupied  by  the  people  on  the  completion  of 
their  captivity.  On  the  first  visit  of  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Jerusalem 
(606),  he  carried  off  to  Babylon  Daniel  and  his  companions :  on  the 
second,  when  he  took  away  Jeconiah  (597),  Ezekiel  also  was  taken ; 
Jeremiah  and  the  other  prophets  of  the  captivity  being  left  in  the 
land. 


PROPHECY   AND    HISTORY.  527 

72.   Comparing  these  flicts  with  j^rophecy,  we  have  some 
instructive  conclusions.     All  the  events  thus  hastily 
sketched  were  foretold,  and  yet  in  every  case  the  pi-op'hwj  "^ 
fulfilment  of  prophecy  involves  a  moral  lesson,  and  know'iedge 
in  no  case  does  it  supersede  the  freedom  of  the  freedo™^'^ 
human  agency  which  accomplished  it.  siwiitymus- 

tratfd"  in 
Ahijah,  for  example,  foretells  the  division  of  the  king-  tory. 
dom,  the  captivity  of  Israel,  and  even  the  place  where  they 
were  to  be  scattered  (1  Kings  xiv.  15).  Isaiah  foretells  the  overthrow 
of  Samaria,  as  Hosea  had  done,  and  the  date  ;  the  preservation  of 
Judah,  and,  finally,  its  destruction  by  Babylon,  then  a  feeble  and 
friendly  state ;  the  catastrophe  is  hopeless  to  Samaria,  "for  Ephraim 
is  to  be  broken  from  being  a  people ;"  but  not  to  Judah,  for  a  restora- 
tion is  promised.  The  person  and  name  of  the  restorer,  his  country 
then  scarcely  known,  the  restoration  effected  by  the  destruction  of 
Babylon,  with  the  circumstances  of  the  siege,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city 
and  of  the  temple — all  these  events,  and  many  others,  are  foretold, 
and  we  read  in  Scripture  of  the  accomplishment  of  these  prophecies ; 
but  in  every  case  the  moral  lesson  and  the  freedom  of  human  agency 
remain  undisturbed.  Jeroboam's  appointment,  for  example,  was  not 
kindness  to  him,  but  chastisement  to  the  degenerate  family  of  David ; 
and  its  immediate  cause  was  the  folly  of  Rehoboam,  who  acted  under 
the  excitement  of  human  passions,  irrespective  of  the  Divine  predic- 
tion. What  change  a  race  of  pious  kings  in  Israel  might  have  made 
in  the  destiny  of  that  people  need  not  be  conjectured;  but  the  final 
overthrow  'of  its  actual  kings,  though  foretold,  was  not  less  a  fit  con- 
sequence of  their  sins ;  which  sins,  however,  were  repeatedly  rebuked. 
The  prophecy  was  still  moral,  and  human  agency  still  free.  The  failure 
of  Sennacherib  in  his  attack  upon  Jerusalem  was  foretold:  and  it  was 
the  fitting  result  of  his  defiance  "  of  the  Holy  One  of  Israel"  (Isa. 
xxxvii.  23).  Ilezekiah's  deliverance,  too,  though  foretold,  was  no  less 
a  blessing  vouchsafed  to  a  humble  praying  frame.  Both  Judah  and 
Israel,  again,  might  have  been  punished  immediately  by  God;  but  in 
fact,  both  nations  were  suffered  to  work  out  their  own  punishment. 
Their  disobedience  was  the  verj^  agency  employed  for  the  fulfilment  of 
the  Divine  word.  Everywhere  in  prophecy  we  have,  as  Davidson 
has  remarked,  God's  overruling  power  and  man's  agency  concurring 
to  complete  predictions,  and  that  completion  ia,  moral  end,  in  con- 
formity to  a  sentence  of  the  Divine  law."  In  some  of  the  narratives 
of  the  Bible  we  have  the  first  and  second  only ;  as  when  Anion,  a 


628  PROPHETS — ARRANGED. 

wicked  prince,  called  his  son  Josiah  (1  Kings  xiii.  2),  not  knowing  the 
prediction  till  he  had  fulfilled  it;  or  as  when  Csesar  Augustus  issued  a 
decree  that  brought  Mary  to  Bethlehem  (Luke  ii.  4) ;  or  as  when  the 
cry  of  "  Galilee"  by  the  Jewish  crowd  sent  Jesus  to  Herod  (Luke 
xxiii.  5).  But  in  the  prophets  we  have  generally  the  three  combined: 
Divine  power,  human  agency,  and  such  dispositions  of  heart  in  all 
concerned  as  make  the  fulfilment  of  predictions  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  of  the  moral  government  of  God.  The  fact  may  involve 
mystery,  but  it  is  not  therefore  the  less  instructive  or  true.  See,  for 
examples,  1  Kings  xxii.  34:  2  Kings  ix.  34-37,  and  the  fulfilment  of 
Jer.  xxix.  10-15. 

The  books  '^^'  ^'^^  books  of  this  period  may  be  arranged 
epitomized.   an,j  briefly  epitomized  as  follows  : 

(1).  1  Kings  xii.-2  Kings  xvii.  1  Giving   the    history   of    Judah    and 

2  Cheon.  xii.-xxxi.»  i      Israel  from  the  division  of  the  king- 

dom to  the  captivity  of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser :  254  years. 

Jonah  ;  history  of  his  mission  to  Nineveh. 

Joel  :  the  desolation  of  Judah ;  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit ;  judg- 
ments against  different  nations. 

Amos  :  prophecies  concerning  different  nations  and  Israel. 

HosEA:  warns  Israel ;  foretells  overthrow,  and  points  to  latter  days. 

Isaiah  :  various  predictions  and  warnings  to  Israel  and  Judah ; 
also  to  various  nations,  i.-xxxvi. ;  history,  xxxvi.-xxxix. ;  the 
return  and  the  latter  days,  xl.-end. 

Micah  ;  prophecies  to  Israel  and  Judah,  and  on  the  latter  days. 

Nahum:  just  after  the    destruction  of  Samaria,  he  foretells  the 
destruction  of  Nineveh. 
(2.)  2  Kings  xviii.-xxv.        1  Giving  the  history  of  the  decline  and  fall 

2  Chkon.  xxxii.-xxxvi.  i  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  the 
captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar :   184  years. 

Isaiah,  Nahum  :  see  above. 

Zephaniah  :  warns  Judah ;  prophesies  against  various  nations ; 
speaks  of  the  return  and  the  latter  days. 

Jeremiah  :  in  Jerusalem  and  Egypt,  gives  predictions  concerning 
Judah,  Israel,  and  various  nations,  i.-xxxix.,  xlvi.-l.,  xl.-xly., 
chiefly  historical ;  li.  not  his. 

Habakkuk  :  prophesies  on  the  return  and  on  the  Chaldees. 

•  2  Chron.  gives  the  history  of  Judah  only,  not  twenty  verses  being 
devoted  to  Israel ;  both  books  contain  many  additional  facts. 


PROPHETS— ARRANGED.  529 

Daniel:  in  Babylon,  history,  i.-vi.;  prophesies  on  various  king- 
doms and  Christ,  vii.-ix.  (x.-xii. :  see  under  3). 
Obadiah  :  prophesies  of  Edora  and  the  latter  days. 
EzF.KiEL ;    on    the    Chebar,  gives    various    predictions  on    Israfl, 
Judah,  heathen  nations,  and  the  latter  days. 
(3.)  Haggai,  Zechariah  :  at  Jerusalem,  536-520,  B.  0  "] 

Daniel:  x.-xii.,  at  Babylon.  i 

Esther:  in"  Babylon:  Nehemiah,  in   Babylon   and   at   Jeru-   f 

salem,  457-445,  B.  C.  j 
Giving  an  account  of  successive  restorations  under  Zerubbabel 
(536,  B.  C);  Uzra  (457,  B.  C);  and  Nehemiah  (445,  B.  C.) ; 
the  rebuilding  and  final  completion  of  the  temple,  with  pro- 
phecies of  various  kingdoms  (Dan.)  and  the  latter  days. 
Malachi  :  rebukes  the  corruptions  of  Divine  service  ;  foretells  the 
coming  of  "  Elijah"  and  of  our  Lord,  436-397,  B.  C. 

45 


530 


PROPHETS    IN   ISRAEL. 


A  Table  of  the 

Prophe' 

„s, 

showing 

w 

^"hen 

they  prophesied. 

Kings  of 

Judah.           ; 
B.C.                       I 

O  1A 

H     1-5 

1 

\  i 

-     1-5 

-I 

< 

I 

a 
< 

< 

O 



a 

03     «! 

1 

_  _ 

< 

to 

z 

a 
p. 
w 
IS] 

< 

a 

< 

B 
■< 

< 

Kings  of 
Israel. 

Amaziah,  819 

Jeroboam  II.,  825 

Pin 

. 

Uzziah,  810 

Ton 

Interregnum  784 

T^Trt 

Mr-naliem.  772 

*ie.c\ 

Pekahiah,  761 

Jotliam,  758 

htKA 

Pekali,  760 

Aliaz,  74-2 
•7^A 

i?on 

Anarcliy.  739 

Hezekiah,  727 

Hosea.  730 

Tin 

1 

o 
►-»» 

)-H 
rc 

•-J 

I 

SO 

c-t- 

I't 
"    o 
.W3 

P    D- 

T              -J   2 
•^  era 

SO                    < 
^                    <t) 

S.         ? 
•^          3 

■  o              S 
=-i               a* 

"<! 

S    Malaehi,    be- 
t\veen  430  and 
420. 

700 

Manasseh,  698 

^^^       Anion,  643  " 
„^^      Josiah.641 

fi^O 

;; 

Jehoahaz,  610 

Jehoiakim.  610  . 

fiOO 

Jeconiah.  599 

*'^*^Dest.ofJeru-" 
^(^f^     salem,  588 

=;70 

f^fiO 

'i^iO 

540 

Zerubbabcl536  . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

T 

I 

* 

"^ift 

The  date  after 
Joel  is 


each  king's  name  indicates  the  commencement  of  his  reign — 
placed  tvi'ice,  as  it  is  doubtful  at  which  period  he  lived. 


nature  of  later  prophecies.  531 

Sec.  2. — The  Nature  of  Prophecy  during  this  Period. 
Predictions  arranged. 

74.  The  prophetic  spirit  which  we  have  seen  revived  in  the 
days  of  Samuel  and  David  (Pt.  ii.  §  45),  becomes  p^„  i^g^s  of 
yet  more  active  during  the  later  period  of  the  t'^'s  period. 
Jewish  history.  We  have  in  succession  sixteen  prophets, 
whose  writings  remain,  in  addition  to  the  authors  of  some  of 
the  Psalms  and  the  large  class  who  appeared  in  Israel  and 
Judah,  such  as  Elijah  and  Elisha,  without  leaving  any  per- 
manent records  of  their  teaching.  Of  the  prophets  whose 
writings  are  included  in  Scripture,  Jonah,  Amos,  Hosea,  ad- 
dressed the  Israelites  before  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  as  did 
both  Isaiah  and  Micah,  though  tliese  latter  prophesied  to 
Judah  chiefly.  After  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes,  Jere- 
miah prophesied  briefly  concerning  them,  as  did  Ezekiel. 
Most  of  the  prophecies,  howe-ver,  are  devoted  to  the  destinies 
of  Judah,  of  heathen  nations,  and  of  the  church. 

75.  A  synoptical  view  of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  will  be 
seen  in  §  76,  and  though  not  minutely  accurate  it  will  synoptioai 
give  a  just  idea  of  the  topics  and  connection  of  the  prophetic** 
whole.  Its  partial  inaccuracy,  or  rather,  incomplete-  J'essonF' 
ness,  is  owing  to  the  fact,  that  events  foretold  are  so  taught  by  it. 
closely  connected  with  one  another,  and  predictions  so  blended 
with  moral  instruction,  that  they  can  be  grouped  only  according 
to  the  aim  or  general  purpose  of  each.  This  has  been  done,  and 
the  lessons  taught  by  this  view  are  both  obvious  and  important. 

1.  Comparing  this  table  of  prophecy  with  the  miracles  of  the  Old 
Testament,  it  will  be  seen  that  as  prophecy  gains  greater  compass  and 
clearness,  the  evidence  of  miracle  is  withdrawn.  Before  the  later  era 
of  prophecy  begins,  in  the  days,  for  example,  of  Elijah,  miracles  are 
comparatively  frequent ;  but  even  then  we  have  nothing  equal  to  those 
of  Moses  and  Joshua.  Now  they  cease.  Prophetic  revelation  is  en- 
larged, and  having  its  fulfilment  as  it  enlarges,  it  supplies  the  place  of 
all  other  evidence.  How  strikingly  it  illustrates  the  infinite  import- 
ance of  the  Gospel  to  notice  that,  to  sustain  and  prove  Christ's  mission, 
all  forms  of  ancient  evidence  combine.  He  fulfils  old  predictions  and 
gives  new  ones ;  while  his  very  person  and  life  form  a  miraculous  em- 
bodiment of  power,  wisdom  and  love. 


532  NATURE   OF   LATER    PROPHECIES. 

2.  Prophecy  ^n  the  subject  of  heathen  nations  becomes  most  copious 
in  the  age  when  these  nations  seem  to  triumph  tlie  most.  Their  victo- 
ries, and  the  boasting  idolatrous  spirit  tliese  victories  cherished,  severely 
tried  the  faith  of  true  believers,  and  seemed  to  shake  the  credit  of  their 
religion,  Psa.  Ixxix.,  Ixxx. :  Lament.  The  pride  of  the  conquerors  is 
therefore  rebuked,  and  the  faith  of  the  church  confirmed  by  a  series  of 
predictions  denouncing  the  overthrow  of  the  very  nations  whose  suc- 
cesses are  foretold.  See  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  to  various  nations ; 
of  Nahum  to  Assyria ;  of  Habakkuk  to  the  Chaldeans ;  of  Obadiah  to 
Edom ;   Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel. 

3.  The  gradual  extension  of  Divine  revelation,  so  as  not  only  to 
include  a  larger  range  of  topics,  but  to  reach  various  nations,  is  highly 
instructive.  Jonah  and  Nahum  address,  in  their  written  prophecies. 
Gentiles  only.  Gentiles  only  are  also  the  theme  of  the  prophecies  of 
Habakkuk  and  Obadiah,  and  in  most  of  the  other  prophets  whole 
chapters  are  devoted  to  them.  Plainly,  God  is  not  the  God  of  one  place 
or  people.  His  providence  rules  over  the  earth,  and  all  people  are 
subject  to  Him.  Heathen  nations,  it  is  true,  are  introduced  into  Scrip- 
ture predictions,  as  into  Scripture  history,  because  of  their  connection 
with  the  church  or  chosen  nation,  but  the  lesson  remains.  All  are 
"within  his  government,  and  it  is  distinctly  intimated  that  all  are  by 
and  by  to  become  obedient  to  his  law. 

4.  It  will  be  remarked,  also,  that  the  era  of  the  decline  and  fall  of 
the  temporal  kingdom  (both  of  Israel  and  Judah)  is  the  very  era  selected 
for  the  fullest  and  most  expressive  disclosure  6f  a  new  spiritual  king- 
dom. As  the  first  dispensation  seems  hastening  to  decay,  the  objects 
and  promises  of  the  second  are  set  forth  to  our  view.  All  the  prophets 
who  speak  of  the  ruin  speak  also  of  the  restoration,  and  blend  with  the 
restoration  predicted  blessings,  such  as  had  never  yet  been  possessed. 
This  arrangement  clearly  indicates  the  unchangeableness  of  the  Divine 
counsel.  And  it  does  more.  It  displays  Divine  mercy.  In  the  heart 
of  the  devout  Jew,  under  a  dispensation  which  promised  temporal 
blessing  as  the  token  of  Divine  favor,  prophecy  and  recent  events  must 
have  created  the  utmost  perplexity.  The  threatened  and  actual  visita- 
tions were  all  deserved ;  but  in  that  fact  he  found  no  relief.  To  quiet  the 
agitations  of  his  afflicted  faith,  the  evangelical  prophecies  were  inter- 
posed. By  means  of  them,  the  hopes  of  the  church  were  sent  on  into 
the  more  distant  future  and  present  anxieties  were  alleviated.  As, 
therefore,  at  fir.=it,  prophecy  enlightened  the  darkness  of  fallen  nature, 
so  now  it  lightens  the  darkness  of  misused  or  neglected  grace.  How 
much  even  insjiired  prophets  needed  this  consolation  may  be  gathered 
from  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  from  several  of  the  Psalms, 
Psii.  Ixxix.  4,  9;  Ixxiv.  2,  20. 


NATUEE   OF   LATER   PROPHECY.  533 

In  the  meantime,  also,  the  spirituality  of  true  religion,  and  the  na- 
ture of  that  work  on  which  it  is  founded,  are  more  clearly  disclosed. 
The  prophets  bring  out  the  true  meaning  of  the  ancient  law,  insisting 
on  the  inferiority  of  ritual  worship,  and  indicating  with  quite  evan- 
gelical plainness  the  great  Sacrifice  of  the  cross,  the  Divine  nature,  and 
the  ultimate  rule  of  the  sufferer,  Isa.  liii.  :  Dan.  ix.  How  touching, 
that  this  clearer  revelation  of  the  spirituality  of  religion  should  be 
made  at  a  time  when  all  public  religious  institutions  were  corrupt,  and 
after  the  temple  itself  had  been  destroyed. 

5.  The  most  remarkable  lesson  remains.  While  nearly  all  the  pro- 
phets point  to  the  Gospel  and  the  reign  of  our  Lord,  each  speaks  in 
language  at  once  appropriate  and  peculiar.  All  foretell  a  glorious  future, 
and  the  same  glorious  future;  but  the  terms  in  which  they  foretell  it 
are  taken  either  from  impending  evil  or  contemplated  good.  That 
future  is  the  opposite  of  present  calamity,  or  it  is  the  completion 
of  present  blessing.  Joel,  for  example,  foresees  desolating  invasions 
of  .Tudah,  but  in  the  end  the  scene  of  desolation  is  Egypt  and  Edom; 
while  Judah  shall  dwell  forever,  and  Jerusalem  from  generation  to 
generation,  iii.  19,  20.  Amos  foresees  the  overthrow  of  both  Samaria 
and  Zion  ;  but  beyond  these  calamities  he  beholds  a  different  scene. 
"  In  that  day  I  will  raise  up  the  tabernacle  of  David  that  is  fallen  .  .  , 
and  I  will  build  it  as  in  the  days  of  old,"  ix.  11.  And  such  is  the  char- 
aster  of  all  predictions  till  the  end  of  the  captivity.  Restoration  liter- 
ally is  the  first  theme ;  but  the  predictions  that  foretell  it,  borrow  from 
it  phraseology  intended  to  express  the  glory  of  the  latter  days. 

After  the  captivity,  the  building  of  the  temple  is  the  first  theme  of 
inspired  predictions.  Haggai  foretells  its  coming  glory,  ii.  6-9 ;  and, 
under  the  type  of  Zerubbabel,  the  victories  of  our  Lord,  ii.  21-23. 
Zechariah  foretells  its  completion,  i.  16,  17 ;  and  by  the  symbolical  act 
of  crowning  Joshua  the  priest,  connects  with  this  work  the  coming  of 
him  whose  name  is  the  Branch  (Isa.  iv.  1 ;  xi.  1 :  Jer.  xxiii.  5),  who  shall 
luild  the  temple  of  the  Lord  and  bear  the  glory,  vi.  10-15.  Malachi 
again  appears  after  the  temple  is  built.  What  was  then  wanting  was 
sincere  worship  and  a  holy  priesthood,  i.  10,  11 ;  iii.  10.  He  therefore 
foretells  a  new  covenant,  and  the  coming  of  a  messenger  who  shall  pu- 
rify the  sons  of  Levi ;  so  that  the  offering  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  shall 
"be  pleasant  unto  the  Lord,  as  in  the  days  of  old,"  iii.  4.  Here,  there- 
fore, as  elsewhere,  prophecy  takes  its  pliraseology  from  the  condition 
of  the  people  to  whom  it  Was  addressed.  It  foretells  an  early  blessing, 
and  in  terms  which  make  this  blessing  a  pledge  and  type  of  infinitely 
richer  blessings  to  be  bestowed  in  the  more  distant  future.  Important 
rules  of  interpretation  are  sugsested  by  this  fact. 
45* 


634 


THE   PROPHETS    ORDER, 

76.  Tabular  View  of  the  Prophets,  showing  the 


Passages  chiefly 


Moral,  Devotional 

To  Israel 

To  Judah 


niSTOEICAL.. 


Prophktic  (a)- 
Israel 


Judah., 


Assyria,  Nineveh 
Babylou,Chaldea 


Egypt. 


Ethiopia . 
Edom 


Moab 

SyriiUis 

'lyre 

Other  nations.. 


PRnpHETIC  (b) — 

Our  I^ord's  first 
eominy 


Events      subse- 
quent, where — 
Israel  is  named 


iii.  4. 


Amos, 

810—785. 


i.  2,  iv.  b 


1.  XVll. 


Judah    « 


Gentiles- 


Egypt  converted 

A.^'r-yria    "  

Moab  restored... 
Elam       "  


i.  11. 

ii.  1 
i.  1,  iii.  5 

i.  0 
Amnion, 
i.; 

Pbilistia, 
i. 


Hosea, 

800—725. 


IV.-XIU. 

iv.  16,  etc.; 

xii.  2 


V.  8-vi.3 


Lsaiah, 
765—698. 


ix.  11-15 


ix.  12 

See  -Vets 
XV.  17 


xi.l;  xiii.  14 


xiii.l4 


xlv. 


xxv.-xxvii.  11 

ix.  8-21 :  .Kxviii. 

i.-v. ;  xxii.  H,  etc.; 

xxix.;  XXX. 

xxxvi.-xxxix. 


vii.   1-25  [xiv.  24- 
viii.;ix.8;  J  28;  xvii. 
XV.  11    1 
xxii.ljxxiv.  Lviii.  5-9 
Iii. 


IX.;  iiv. ;  XXX.;  xxxi. 
xiii.;  xiv.  24-28;  xxi. 


xvni. 
xxi.  11 

XV.;  xvi. 
vii.  1-9;  viii.;  xvii. 

xxiii. 
Arabia,  xxi.  13,  etc. 


vii.  14;  ix.;  xl.-lxiii. 


►-55 


1.8- 
ii.  12 


I  n.Hi 
1  vi. 


27 


xxviii.  5; 
X.  20,  etc. 


vin. 


xxn.  XX ; 
xxiv.   14, 
etc.  ix.; 
i.-v.; 
xxvii.-xxxv. 


xix. 18-23 
xix.  23-25 


X.- 

xii, 
xl. 

to 

Ixvi. 


z,n 


ii.  28 


ii.28 
iii. 


ii.l2 

iv.  5 

and 

L  vii. 


AND   SUBJECTS   OF   THEIR   PROPHECIES. 

order  and  chief  subjects  of  their  prophecies. 


535 


SI     . 

a  ro 


0/  o 


Jeremiah, 
626—5^5. 


«" 


Lam.  i.-v. 


ii.l3 


ii.  12 


ii.  9 


Amnion, 

ii.; 
Philistia, 

ii. 


111.8--( 


xxvni.;  XXIX.;  xxxii. 
1-25 ;  xxxvi-xliii, 
7;  lii. 

XXX.;  xxxi. 


i.-xxv.;  xxvn.;  xxix. 
xxx.-xxxi.:  xxvi.; 
xxxiii. ;  xxxiv.  ; 
xliv.;  xlvi.  2G;  1. 


XXV.  12;  xxxvii.;  1 

Ii. 
xliii. ;  xliv.  29;  xlvi.; 


xlix.  7 :  Lam.  iv.  21 

xlviii. 
xlix.  23. 


Amnion,  xlix.;  Phi- 
listia, xlvii.;  Ara- 
bia, Persia,  xlix. 


xxxi.  22;  XXX. 


XXX. ; 

xxxiii. 
xxxi. 

xxiii.  ^ 


■!  iii.  13 


Daniel, 

GU6— 534. 


I.;  VI. 


J-  cc 


^  CO 

O  ^^ 


ii.  36;  iv. 
19 ;  V.  25 


xlviii.  47. 
xlix.  39. 


Persia, 
Grecia, 
Rome, 
xi. ;  the 
four 
king  vii, 

ix.  24-26; 
vii.  13 


vn.;  xn. 


Ezekiel,  B  C. 
595—536. 


1.;  n. 
10- 
19 


J  xvii 
1  xxi. 


ix.-xxiv.;  xxxni.: 
xxxvi.;  xxxvii.; 
xxxix.-xlviii.? 


-18 


xxix.-xxxi. 

XXX.  4-6 
xxv.-xxxv. 

XXV. 

xxvi.-xxviii. 
Amnion,   xxi.  28; 
XXV.;    Philistia, 
do. ;    Gog, 
xxxviii.;  xxxix. 


xxxiv.  23,  etc. 


.£3 


sz  c.  ci 

*T-«   CO         • 


i.  1-7;  vii 


i.7-vii. 
xi. 


I.;   u. 
iii.  7- 
18 


VI. 
X. 

xxxix. 

xxviii.;        I       23, 
xxix.  21  ;  i.     etc. 
xxxvi. 25; 
x.x.xiv.20, 
2';  xl.-xlviii. 


ii.7,  ii.10,11; 
9      ix.  9; 
xi.l2; 
xii.  10; 
vi.  13; 
i.7 


,  ji. 
7, 


i.(  vn 
viii.- 
xiv. 


ni.  IV 
1-3 


iii.  4 


536  JONAH. 

Sec.  3. — The  Books  of  Jonah,  Joel,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah, 

MicAH,  Nahum. 

THE  BOOK  OF  JONAH  (b.  C.  840-784). 

77.  Jonah,  succeeded  Elislia  as  tlie  messenger  of  God  to  the 
^  ,       ,      ten   tribes,   and  flourished  between   120    and    180 

Liate  and  ' 

history.  years  after  the  death  of  Solomon.  He  probably- 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz,  when  Hazael  was  fulfilling  the 
predictions  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  viii.  12;  x.  32.  He  foretold 
the  enlarged  territory  and  brief  prosperity  of  Israel  under 
Jeroboam  the  second,  in  whose  reign  the  prophet  himself 
probably  lived,  2  Kings  xiv.  25.  He  was  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher,  in  Zebulun  or  Galilee,  and  is  thus  a  proof  of  the 
falsehood  of  the  statement  of  the  Pharisees,  that  out  of 
Galilee  cometh  no  projjliet,  John  vii.  52.  He  is  certainly  the 
most  ancient  of  the  prophets  whose  writings  have  come  down 
to  us. 

This  book,  with  the  exception  of  chap,  ii.,  is  a  simple  narrative,  and 
relates  that  Jonah,  being  sent  on  a  mission  to  Nineveh 
(which  was  at  that  time  the  chief  city  of  the  Gentile  world, 
and  was  distinguished  equally  for  its  magnificence  and  its  wickedness), 
attempts  to  flee  to  Tarshish  ;  but  being  overtaken  by  a  storm,  he  is  cast 
into  the  sea,  swallowed  by  a  great  fish,  and  continues  in  its  belly  three 
days  (chap  i.) ;  when,  earnestly  praying  to  God,  he  is  delivered,  chap.  ii. 
At  the  renewed  command  of  God,  he  goes  to  Nineveh  and  announces 
its  destruction ;  upon  which  the  Ninevites,  believing  his  words,  fast, 
pray,  repent,  and  are  graciously  spared,  cliap.  iii.  Jonah,  fearing  to 
he  thought  a  false  prophet,  peevishly  repines  at  the  mercy  of  God,  and 
wishes  for  death.  Leaving  the  city,  he  is  sheltered  by  a  gourd,  which, 
however,  shortly  withers;  and  Jonah,  manifesting  great  impatience  and 
rebellion,  is  shown,  by  his  concern  about  the  gourd,  the  propriety  of 
God's  mercy  to  Nineveh,  chap.  iv. 

That  this  book  is  a  strictly  historical  narrative,  is  evident  not  only 
from  the  plain  meaning  of  the  language  employed,  but  also  from  the 
manner  in  which  the  existence  and  ministry  of  Jonah,  together  with 
the  main  facts  of  his  history,  are  referred  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  xii. 
39-41 ;  xvi.  4 ;  Luke  xi.  29,  30),  who,  explicitly  recognising  his  pro- 
phetical office,  as  he  does  that  of  Elijah,  Isaiah,  and  Daniel,  represents 


JONAH — LESSONS — JOEL.  537 

his  being  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  as  a  real  miracle ;  grounds  upon  it,  as 
a  fact,  the  certainty  of  a  future  analagous  event  in  his  own  history : 
and  after  mentioning  the  prophet's  preaching  at  Nineveh,  and  the 
repentance  of  the  inhabitants,  concludes  by  declaring  respecting  him- 
self, "Behold!  a  greater  than  Jonah  is  here." 

As  Jonah  himself  has  generally  been  considered  the  author  (a  con- 
clusion which  the  Chaldaisms  of  the  original  confirm),  the  record  of  the 
sin  of  the  prophet  affords  another  illustration  of  that  strict  regard  to 
truth  which  characterizes  the  inspired  volume. 

The  spiritual  lessons  in  this  narrative  are  highly  instructive.  The 
prophet  is  in  his  own  person  a  prophetic  sign  of  Christ. 
The  miracle  of  his  deliverance  from  his  three  days  of  deatli  lessons, 
is  "the  fullest  and  nearest  shadow  of  Christ's  lying  in  the 
grave  which  the  Scripture  aftbrds"  (Cradock).  The  first  image,  there- 
fore, which  meets  us  in  the  opening  of  the  prophetic  canon  is  one  that 
shadows  forth,  though  dimly,  the  great  fact  of  the  resurrection  of  our 
Lord  (Davison). 

The  whole  narrative  presents,  too,  the  most  striking  contrast  between 
the  tender  mercy  of  God,  and  the  rebellion,  impatience,  and  selfishness 
of  his  servant;  and  further,  between  the  readiness  with  which  the 
Ninevites  repented,  at  the  preaching  of  a  prophet  who  visited  them  as 
a  stranger,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  Israelites  treated  the  servants 
of  Jehovah,  who  lived  and  labored  amongst  them. 

At  the  same  time,  it  might  serve  to  teach  the  people  of  Israel  that 
the  Divine  regard  and  compassion  were  not  confined  to  them  alone, 
but  were  extended  to  other  subjects  of  God's  government;  also  to 
intimate  to  them  their  high  destiny,  in  carrying  the  tiding  of  salvation 
to  the  pagan  world,  and  to  keep  up  the  expectation  of  that  happy 
period,  when  repentance  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins  should  be  preached 
in  the  name  of  Christ  to  all  nations.  If  not  a  formal  type,  the  history  is 
a  real  example  of  the  genius  of  the  gospel. 

To  all,  the  book  furnishes  encouragement  to  humiliation  and  prayer; 
to  faithfulness  in  puhlishing  God's  word  to  the  guilty,  and  to  implicit 
resignation  to  his  will. 

THE    BOOK    OF   JOEL,    B.    C.    810-795. 

78.  We  have  no  account  in  the  Bible  of  the  personal  his- 
tory of  Joel,  nor  does  tradition  give  much  light  in  relation  to 
him.  He  was  the  son  of  Pethuei  (Joel  i.  1),  and  it  is  said, 
of  the  tribe  of  Reuben.     It  is  inferred  from  his  writings,  that 


538  JOEL. 

lie  lived  in  Judah,  probably  not  later  tlian  the  reign  of 
Uzziah,  which  extended  from  810  B.  C,  to  758  B.  C. ;  for 
when  he  mentions  the  enemies  of  his  country,  he  names  the 
Phoenicians,  Philistines,  Idumeans,  and  Egyptians,  chap.  iii. 
4-19,  but  makes  no  reference  to  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians ;  which  he  probably  would  have  done,  had  those  two 
empires  been  already  formidable  to  the  Jews.  The  whole 
book  indicates,  moreover,  that  the  prophet  lived  at  a  time, 
when  the  people  of  Judah  had  not  fallen  into  that  extreme 
depravity,  which,  in  later  times,  drew  down  upon  them  such 
heavy  chastisements.  Uzziah  had  indeed  begun  to  lift  up  his 
heart,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  16  :  but  the  evil  seems  as  yet  rather  a 
subject  of  prophecy  than  of  history,  though  given  in  histori- 
cal form.  He  was  contemporary  with  Hosea  and  Amos  ;  and 
as  they  addressed  Israel,  so  he  addressed  Judah. 

In  the  first  chapter,  (i.-ii.  11),  the  prophet  delineates,  with  most 
graphic  force,  an  impending  devastation,  successive  armies 
of  locusts  (i.  4),  and  burning  drought  (ver.  18,  19),  repre- 
senting in  this  form,  probably,  the  calamities  consequent  upon  coming 
invasions. 

He  then  exhorts  to  penitence,  fasting,  and  prayer  (ii.  12-17), 
promising  the  removal  of  these  evils,  and  rich  evangelical  blessings.  He 
foretells  in  the  clearest  terms,  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (ii.  18-31 : 
Acts  ii.  1-21 ;  x.  41),  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  a  prediction 
given  with  such  force,  as  to  be  in  some  measure  descriptive  of  the  final 
judgment  (ii.  30:  Matt.  xxiv.  29). 

In  chap,  iii.,  he  foretells  of  the  assembling  of  the  nations  in  the 
valley  of  the  Judgment  of  the  Lord  (Jehoshaphat),  and  their  destruc- 
tion, the  establishineut  of  Jerusalem  as  the  holy  city,  and  the  glorious 
state  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  church  in  the  days 
of  the  Messiah. 

His  style  is  remarkably  clear  and  elegant;  obscure  only  towards  the 
close,  where  its  beauties  are  shaded  by  allusions  to  events 
^*^'  ^'  not  yet  accomplished.     The  double  destruction  foretold  in 

chaps,  i.-ii.  11,  the  first  by  the  locusts,  the  second  by  the  enemies  of 
whom  they  were  harbingers,  is  painted  in  terms  that  are  reciprocally 
metaphorical,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the  two-fold  character  of  the 
description.     (Gray.) 


JOEL — AMOS.  539 

Joel  was  held  in  great  I'everence  by  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is  quoted 
by  both  Peter  and  Paul,  Acts  ii. :  Rom.  x.  13. 

79.  There  are  different  views,  it  may  be  added,  on  tlie 
meaning  of  the  description  given  in  chaps,  i-ii.,  xii. 

Some  regard  the  whole  as  literal,  and  apply  it  either  to  the  famine 

and  drought,  of  which  Amos  speaks,  iv.  7,  8 ;    or  to  the 

seven  years  of  famine,  that  desolated  Jud»a  in  the  days  of  „,fT'";^,^ 
•^  '  ^  cnapM.  1.,  11. 

Joram,  2  Kings  viii.  1-3.  Others  regard  the  description  as 
figurative,  and  apply  it  to  the  invasion  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  Shalmaneser, 
Sennacherib,  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  or  to  the  subjugation  of  the  country 
by  Assyrians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Others,  as  Olshausen, 
combine  these  views,  and  deem  it  a  description  of  impending  calamity 
generally,  both  literal  and  figurative.  "  Locust"  is  certainly  used  with 
this  double  reference  in  Scripture  (see  symbols),  and  in  the  second 
chapter,  expressions  are  used  with  apparently  a  double  aspect,  as  like 
expressions  were  afterwards  used  by  our  Lord,  Matt,  xxiv.,  referring 
to  an  earlier  and  a  final  visitation.  Indeed,  as  all  great  and  Divine 
deliverances  prefigure  or  represent  the  deliverance  of  the  Cross,  so  all 
great  punitive  visitations  supply  figures  for  describing  the  Judgment. 

THE   BOOK    OF   AMOS,    B.    C.    810-785. 

80.  Amos  appears  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Hosea, 
and  like  him,  was  sent  to  the  ten  tribes.     Both  pro- 
phesied during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam 

II.,  and  Amos  saw  his  first  vision  "two  years  before  the 
earthquake,"  which  happened,  as  we  learn  from  Zechariah, 
in  the  days  of  Uzziah  (Zech.  xiv.  5,  see  also  Isa.  v.  25). 

He  appears  to  have  prophesied  in  Bethel  (vii.  10-13),  but 
he  did  not  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  being  an  inhabi- 
tant, and  probably  a  native,  of  Tekoa,  a  city  south  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  on  the  borders  of  the  vast  open  pastures  ("  wilder- 
ness"), of  the  hill  country  of  Judah.  By  profession  he  was 
a  herdsman,  and  a  dresser  of  sycamore  trees  (vii.  14)  :  "  Not 
a  prophet,  or  prophet's  son,"  ^.  e.,  not  trained  to  that  ofHce, 
butcallpd  by  an  irresistible  Divine  commission  (iii.  8;  vii.  15), 
to   prophesy  unto    Israel.      To   this   fact   he    alludes,  when 


540  AMOS. 

Amaziah,  the  idolatrous  priest  of  Bethel,  charged  him  with 
conspiring  against  Jeroboam.  His  previous  occupation  ought 
to  have  removed  all  suspicion  of  political  connection  with  the 
house  of  David,  and  to  us  it  illustrates  the  grace  which 
selects  its  ministers  "  from  the  tents  of  the  shepherd,  as  well 
as  from  the  jDalace  of  the  sovereign,"  qualifying  each  for  the 
duties  to  which  he  is  called,  see  1  Cor.  i.  27,  29. 

Amos  speaks  of  himself  as  the  author  of  these  prophecies  (vii.  8  ; 
viii.  1 ,  2),  and  his  prophetic  character  is  established  by  the  testimony 
of  Stephen  the  first  martyr,  and  James  (Acts  vii.  42,  43;  xv.  15-17), 
and  by  the  exact  fulfihnent  of  his  predictions.  This  book  is  enume- 
rated in  all  the  early  lists  of  canonical  authors  (see  Part  i.  ^  160). 

The  style  of  Amos  is  simple,  but  by  no  means  deficient  in  picturesque 
beauty.  His  manner  of  life  may  be  traced  in  the  illustrations  he 
selects ;  which  are  taken  mostly  from  rural  employments :  many  of 
them  are  original  and  striking,  while  all  have  a  life  and  freshness  of 
nature.  His  knowledge  of  events  of  remote  antiquity  (ix.  7),  and  of 
others  more  recent,  not  elsewhere  recorded  (vi.  2),  the  regular  course 
of  his  thoughts,  and  the  correctness  of  his  language,  all  tend  to  show 
that  the  responsible  and  often  dangerous  (iii.  12),  occupation  of  a 
shepherd  was  still  as  favorable  to  mental  culture,  as  in  the  days  of 
Moses  and  David. 

The  people  of  Israel  were  now  rapidly  filling  up  the  measure  of  their 
sins.  The  mission  of  Amos  was,  therefore,  rather  to  threaten  than  to 
console.  He  rebukes,  among  other  things,  the  corruption  of  their 
manners,  which  kept  pace  with  their  prosperity:  he  charges  the  great 
men  with  partiality  as  judges,  and  violence  towards  the  poor:  and  he 
foretells,  as  a  punishment  from  God,  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  in 
a  foreign  country  ;  a  prediction  accomplished  about  sixty  years  after- 
wards, when  Shalmaneser,  the  king  of  Assyria,  destroyed  the  king- 
dom. 

This  book  begins  with  announcing  Divine  judgments  against  the 
states  around  Judaea,  and  against  the  two  Hebrew  nations 
themselves^  (1,  2).  The  prophet  then  sets  before  the 
Ephraimites  their  sins  in  detail :  what  God  has  done  to  bring  them 
back  to  himself;  how  they  may  return  to  God;  and  the  chastisements 
which  were  in  reserve  for  their  obduracy  (iii.-vi.).  This  is  followed 
by  symbolical  visions,  representing  successive  punishments  to  be  in- 

»  Fulfilled  in  the  victories  of  Assyria  and  Babylon. 


.  AMOS — HOSEA.  541 

flicted  on  the  Israelites,  each  more  severe  than  the  preceding.  The 
certainty  and  the  near  approach  of  their  ruin  is  declared  (viii.  9-14). 
But,  beyond  this  calamity,  the  prophet  is  commissioned  to  foretell  new 
things  in  tlie  distant  future.  And  he  concludes,  with  assurances  that 
God  will  not  utterly  destroy  the  house  of  Israel ;  but  after  sifting  and 
cleansing  it  among  the  nations,  will  raise  it  again  to  more  than  its 
former  glory,  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  (ix.  11-15).  In  the 
blessing  of  this  kingdom,  the  Gentiles  are  also  to  share  (see  Acts  xv. 
16, 17). 

THE   BOOK    OF   HOSEA,    B.    C.    800-725. 

81.  Hosea  was  probably  a  native  and  inhabitant  of  Israel. 
He  lived  during  the  reigns  of  the  last  six  or  seven  of  its  kings, 
from  Jeroboam  II.  to  Hoshea,  a  period  of  about  sixty  years. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah,  though  he  began  to  pro- 
phesy some  time  before  him  (Isa.  i.  1 :  Hos.  i.  1). 

The  prophecies  of  Hosea  are  directed  almost  exclusively  to  the  ten 
tribes.  He  addresses  them  under  the  title  of  Israel,  of  Samaria,  which 
had  been,  since  the  days  of  Omri,  their  capital;  of  Ephraim,  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  tribes,  to  which  Jeroboam,  their  first  king  belonged. 
The  idolatry  which  commenced  in  his  days  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  had  now 
been  continued  for  more  than  150  years,  and  had  diffused  every  form 
of  vice  among  all  classes.  The  last  short  interval  of  outward  pros- 
perity, under  Jeroboam  II.,  was  soon  followed  by  general  anarchy  and 
decay.  The  kings  and  princes  were  murderers  and  profligates  (vii.  3-7) : 
the  idolatrous  priests  had  spread  their  shameful  festivals  and  their  de- 
ceitful oracles  all  over  the  land  (iv.  12-14;  x. ;  xii. ;  xiii.  2):  the  great 
parties  in  the  state  resorted  for  help  sometimes  to  Assyria,  at  other 
times  to  Egypt  (2  Kings  xv.  19;  xvii.  4);  while  the  whole  nation  relied 
entirely  on  human  help  (v.  13;  vii.  8-12;  viii.  9,  10;  x.  13,  etc.); 
worldly  and  sinful  objects  were  pursued  with  the  same  eagerness  by 
Ephraim  as  by  Canaan  (xii.  7,  8):  a  listless  security  blinded  all  minds 
(v.  4;  xii.  8);  giving  place  in  the  moment  of  danger  to  a  repentance 
merely  of  tlie  lips  (vii.  16):  and,  what  was  the  root  of  all  the  other 
evils,  God  and  his  word  were  forgotten  (iv.  1-6;  viii.  12). 

This  condition  the  prophet  most  earnestly  condemns,  using  the  ex- 
pressive figures  of  adultery  to  reprove  their  idolatry;  figures  which 
imply  the  violation  of  a  solemn  covenant,  and  the  alienation  of  the 
aifeotions  of  the  people  from  God.  These  lessons  were  illustrated  in 
the  assassination  of  four  kings  successively,  and  in  the  general  disor- 
ders of  the  state. 


542  HOSEA. 

For  sixty  years  these  warnings  and  appeals  were  continued,  without 
success— a  bright  example  of  persevering  fidelity  under  the  greatest 
discouragements. 

As  Hosea  speaks  in  these  prophecies  in  the  first  person  (iii.  1,  2,  3), 
no  doubt  he  compiled  them  himself.  They  contain  many  specific  pre- 
dictions, literally  fulfilled,  and  the  book  is  cited  by  Matthew,  by  Paul, 
and  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  ii.  15.  Rom.  ix.  25,  26:  1  Cor.  xv.  35:  Matt. 
ix.  12,  13 ;  xii.  7. 

Considering  the  long  period  to  which  the  ministry  of  Hosea  extended, 
it  may  appear  surprising  that  his  writings  are  comprised  within  bo 
small  a  compass ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
others  of  the  prophets,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this  book  con- 
tains all  that  he  ever  uttered.  Such  portions  only  of  his  inspired  com- 
munications are  recorded  as  the  Holy  Spirit  saw  fit  to  preserve  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Jews,  and  the  world. 

The  language  of  Hosea  is  to  us  peculiarly  difiicult.     His  style  is  very 

concise    and    abrupt,    abounding   with   figures   and    meta- 
Style.  . 

phors,  which  are  often  much  intermixed  ;  and  the  transitions 

from  one  subject  and  figure  to  another,  are  frequent  and  sudden.     The 

particular  occasions  on  which  his  prophecies  were  delivered,  are  in 

themselves   rarely  obvious,   and   are  never   specified   by  the   author. 

Some  parts  of  them,  however,  are  peculiarly  pathetic,  animated,  and 

sublime. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  of  his  predictions  are  those  in  which  he 
foretells  the  captivities  and  sufferings  of  Israel  ■,^  the  deliverance  of  Ju- 
dah  from  Sennacherib,  a  figure  of  salvation  by  Christ;''  the  punishment 
of  Judah  and  her  cities  ;<=  the  present  state  of  the  Jews  A  their  future 
conversion  and  union  with  the  Gentiles  under  the  Messiah  f  and  the 
call  of  our  Saviour  out  of  Egypt  ;<■  while  the  final  ransom  of  his  people 
from  death  and  the  grave  is  celebrated  in  the  loftiest  strains.? 

All  these  predictions  are  not  equally  clear;  but  the  evangelical  tenor 
of  most,  nothing  can  exceed.  These  predictions  are  blended  in  the 
original  with  a  form  of  phraseology  closely  allied  to  the  phraseology 
of  the  ancient  law  (Hengstenberg). 

Chaps,  vi.,  xiii.,  xiv.,  are  peculiarly  rich  in  statements  adapted  to 
awaken  those  feelings  of  penitence  and  faith  which  become  the  Chris- 
tian and  the  church  in  every  age. 

»  V.  5-7 ;  ix.  3,  6-11 ;  x.  5,  6,  15 ; .  xiii.  16. 

"^  i.  7;  compare  2  Kings  xix.  35.  "=  v.  10;  viii.  14. 

d  iii.  4.  e  i.  10 ;  ii.  23  ;  i.  11 ;  iii.  5  ;  xiv.  4,  8. 

f  xi.  1  (see  Matt.  ii.  15);  vi.  2  (see  1  Cor.  xv.  4). 

s  xiii.  14  (see  1  Cor.  xv.  55). 


HOSEA — ISAIAH.  543 

This  book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  comprising,  1st,  A  sym- 
bolical narrative,  chaps,  i.-iii. ;  and,  2dly,  Prophetic  discourses,  chaps. 
iv.-xiv. 

1.  The  first  part  gives  a  symbolical  representation  of  the  past,  present 
and  future  liistory  of  the  people  of  God.  It  describes  their  adoption, 
their  rebellioft  and  infidelities,  their  chastisement  and  rejection,  the 
conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  future  repentance  and  restoration 
of  Israel.  These  three  chapters  are  an  abridgement  of  the  whole  book, 
and  the  gracious  promises  which  they  contain,  and  which  are  not 
noticed  in  the  seven  following  chapters,  re -appear  in  the  eleventh,  and 
close  the  book. 

2.  In  the  second  part,  containing  several  prophetic  discourses  deliv- 
ered at  difl'erent  times,  the  things  which  have  been  before  revealed  un- 
der a  symbolical  form,  are  further  illustrated  by  the  most  vivid  images. 
It  begins  with  rebukes  and  threatenings,  which  present  to  view  in  the 
foreground  various  frightful  calamities  ;  but  by  degrees  the  horizon  be- 
comes clear,  and  the  glory  of  the  latter  time  shines  forth  with  unclouded 
lustre. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  latter  chapters  of 
the  book  chronologically,  but  without  success.  The  general  drift  is 
clear,  but  the  writer  has  given  us  no  other  indication  of  the  order  of 
the  several  prophecies  than  their  place  in  the  book  itself. 

The  narrative  of  Hosea's  marriage  we  have  described  as  symbolical. 
Some  (Augustine,  Grotius,  Horsley),  regard  it  as  literal  history ;  others 
suppose  that  a  marriage  with  an  Israelitish  woman  is  all  that  is  in- 
tended ;  but  most  (Jerome,  Rosenm.,  Louth,  Hengs.),  regard  it  as  alle- 
gory onl}%  or  as  a  vision.  It  may  be  added  that  the  narrative-exactness 
of  the  whole,  and  the  use  of  names,  are  as  consistent  with  the  supposi- 
tion that  it  is  a  parable  or  vision,  as  with  the  supposition  that  it  is  a 
real  occurrence  which  is  described,  Ezek.  xxiii. :   Luke  xvi.  20-31. 

THE    BOOK    OF    ISAIAH,  (b.  C.  765-698). 

82  Though  Isaiah  has  given  incidentally  decisive  evidences 
of  his  humility,  his  pity  for  his  countrymen,  and  for  the  na- 
tions M^hose  desolations  he  iinnounced,*  he  has  told  us  very 
little  of  his  own  history.  He  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
office  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  he  continued 
to  prophesy  during  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah; 
perhaps,  also,  during  a  portion  of  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  Of 
his  parentage  nothing  is  known,  though,  as  his  father's  name 

»vi.  5;  Ixvi.  2;  xxi.  3 ;  xvi.  9. 


544  ISAIAH. 

is  mentioned,  the  Jews  concluded  that  he  was  a  prophet. 
They  add  that  Isaiah  belonged  to  the  royal  house,  and  that 
he  was  father-in-law  of  Manasseh,  by  whom  they  say  he  was 
put  to  death,  being  sawn  asunder  for  contradicting  or  adding 
to  the  Mosaic  law*  (Isa.  vi.  1,  compare  with  Exod*  xxxiii.  20). 
His  wife  is  styled  a  prophetess  (viii.  3),  and  he  had  two  sons, 
whose  names  and  history  were  intended  to  illustrate  and  en- 
force his  predictions  (vii.  3 ;  viii.  3,  4).  His  name  means 
"salvation  of  Jehovah,"  and  is,  in  a  large  degree,  descriptive 
of  his  character  and  writings.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
spelt  (from  the  LXX  and  Vulgate)  Esaias.  His  father  was 
often  confounded  with  Amos,  the  prophet,  whose  name  (Di?33>. 

Amos)  the  Septuagint  writes  in  the  same  way  as  the  name  of 
Amos  (fi?3»,  Amotz),  the  father  of  Isaiah,  ''AjtAwj. 

The  duration  of  his  ministry  is  not  known.  The  whole  of 
the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  etc.,  to  Hezekiah,  amount  to  112  years. 
From  the  last  year  of  Uzziah  to  the  14th  of  Hezekiah,  when 
we  last  find  traces  of  Isaiah  in  history  (2  Kings  xx.  1  :  Isa. 
xxxviii.  1),  is  forty-seven  years,  and  if,  according  to  Jewish 
tradition,  he  survived  till  the  days  of  Manasseh,  he  must  have 
been  more  than  100  years  old. 

When  Isaiah  entered  on  his  office  the  throne  was  occupied  by  Uzziah 
or  Azariah.  His  general  character  was  that  of  integrity  and  piety ; 
and  under  his  reign  the  nation  enjoyed  great  temporal  prosperity.  He 
was  a  worshipper  of  the  true  God  ;  though  he  failed  to  remove  the 
groves  and  high  places  established  for  idolatrous  worsiiip.  Uzziah  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Jothayn,  whose  general  character  was  like  that  of 
his  father;  but  the  idolatrous  altars  were  still  allowed  to  remain,  and 
owing  to  the  increase  of  luxury  and  sensual  indulgence,  true  piety  de- 
clined more  and  more.  The  next  king,  Ahaz,  was  a  very  wicked  and 
\  idolatrous  prince  ;  and  his  reign  was  \fery  disastrous.  The  law  of  God 
was  broken  in  the  most  reckless  manner,  and  the  temple  not  only  de- 
faced and  plundered,  but  at  last  shut  up.  During  this  period  Isaiah 
came  forward  publicly  as  a  reprover  of  sin ;  but  his  counsels  and  warn- 
ings were  disregarded.  Hezekiah's  character  was  the  reverse  of  that 
of  his  father.     He  abolished  idolatry,  restored  the  temple  and  worship 

»  See  Heb.  xi.  37. 


ISAIAH — GENUINEKESS.  545 

of  Jehovah,  and  relieved  the  people  from  foreign  oppression.  He 
treated  Isaiah  with  great  respect,  and  during  the  agitating  occurrences 
of  his  reign  the  prophet  had  an  important  part  in  directing  the  public 
counsels. 

83.  The  life  of  Isaiah  includes  the  last  years  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  Under  Jeroboam  II.,  the  contemporary  of  Uzziah, 
Samaria  had  flourished,  but  for  several  years  it  had  been 
ruled  by  usurpers,  and  at  length,  in  the  sixth  year  of  Heze- 
kiah,  the  kingdom  was  overthrow^n,  and  its  inhabitants  re- 
moved. 

His  prophecies,  however,  have  little  reference  to  the  condition  of 
Israel,  and  are  directed  chiefly  to  Judah. 

The  relation  of  Judah  to  neighboring  nations  it  is  important  to 
remember.  With  Moab,  Edom,  and  the  Philistines,  Judah  had  repeated 
conflicts.  Though  within  the  boundaries  of  Judah,  and  subdued  by 
David,  they  were  constantly  endeavoring  to  maintain  an  independent 
position,  and  during  the  reign  of  godless,  feeble  kings,  their  efforts 
■were  generally  successful.  Assyria  had  increased  in  strength,  and  was 
extending  her  conquests  on  all  sides.  Egypt  had  been  subdued  by 
Ethiopia,  and  both  countries  had  been  united  under  one  dynasty. 
Assyria  and  Egypt  were  both  preparing  for  a  coming  struggle,  and 
each  in  succession  sought  the  alliance  of  both  Judah  and  Israel.  The 
safest  policy,  whether  we  regard  the  temporal  interests  or  the  religious 
character  of  the  Jewish  kingdoms,  was  clearly  to  stand  aloof  from 
both  Babylon,  as  Havernick  has  shown,  was  at  this  time  an  inferior 
kingdom,  struggling  against  Assj^ria  for  independence,  and  rising  slowly 
into  importance.  Hence  the  wisdom  of  Merodach-Baladan  in  sending 
an  embassy  to  Hezekiah ;  hence,  also,  the  need  of  Divine  teaching  to 
foretell  the  future  power  of  Babylon,  and  the  subjugation  by  it  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah. 

The  two  most  remarkable  events  of  this  period  are,  the  invasion  of 
Judah  by  the  combined  forces  of  Syria  and  Israel,  followed  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes;  and  the  Assj'rian  invasion 
of  Judah  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah,  ending  in  the  defeat  of 
Sennacherib.  Within  the  same  period,  and  twenty  or  thirty  years 
earlier  than  the  last-mentioned  facts,  fall  the  two  most  i-emarkable  epochs 
of  chronology;  A.  U.  C,  753  B.  C,  and  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  747 
B.  C.  Just  before  the  days  of  Isaiah  is  the  date  of  the  first  Olym,, 
776  B.  C. 

46* 


546  ISAIAH — CONTENTS. 

84.  The  genuineness  of  Isaiah  has  been  much  discussed  in 
modern  times,  and  especially  the  latter  portion  of  his  pro- 
phecies, chaps,  xl.-lxvi. 

The  objections  to  the  genuineness  of  this  portion  of  his  book  are 
founded  chiefly  on  alleged  peculiarities  of  style,  such  as  Chaldaisms, 
and  differences  in  expression  between  the  earlier  and  later  divisions  of 
his  writings.  All  these  objections,  however,  have  been  met  by  facts, 
taken  from  the  book  itself,^  and  the  genuineness  of  tlie  whole  is  attested 
by  universal  antiquity,  and  by  the  New  Testament.  Of  the  sixty-six 
chapters,  forty-seven  are  directly  or  indirectly  quoted  by  our  Lord  or 
his  apostles ;  and  out  of  the  twenty-one  cases  in  which  Isaiah  is  ex- 
pressly named,  we  find  quotations  from  chaps,  i.,  vi.,  ix.,  x.,  xi.,  xxix., 
xl.,  xlii.,  liii.,  Ixi.,  Ixv.  The  view,  therefore,  that  the  whole  of  Isaiah 
(the  later  and  earlier  portions)  had  one  author  is  sanctioned  by  in- 
spired teachers. 

85.  This  book  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts. 

(i.)  The  first  part,  i.-xxxix.,  contains  prophetic  addresses  and  wri- 
tings of  different  dates,  most  of  them  bearing  immediately  on  the 
morals,  piety,  and  welfare  of  the  nation.  Of  these  there  are  four  sec- 
tions : — 

1.  Reproofs,  warnings,  and  promises  addressed  to  Judah  and  Israel, 
chiefly  during  the  early  part  of  the  prophet's  ministry,  with 
prophecies  of  the  success  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  to  judgment,  i.-xii. 

2.  Predictions  respecting  neighboring  hostile  nations,  in  which  are 
described  the  sins  and  destruction  of  Assyria,  Babylon,  Moab. 
Egypt,  Philistia,  Syria,  Edom,  and  Tyre,  xiii.-xxiii. 

3.  Writings  probably  of  the  time  of  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah,  describ- 
ing the  sins  and  misery  of  the  people ;  picturing  the  Assyrian 
invasion;  the  destruction  of  Samaria;  the  alarm,  distress,  and 
final  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  with  many  references,  also,  to 

»  There  are,  for  example,  Chaldaisms  in  Isaiah,  and  this  fact  was 
made  one  reason  for  ascribing  the  book  to  difi'erent  authors.  Hirzel, 
however  (De  Chal.  Bib.  Origine,  1830),  has  shown  that,  in  all  the  po- 
etical parts  of  Scripture  especially,  there  are  Chaldaisms,  that  in  Isaiah 
there  are  but  four  true  Chaldaisms,  and  that  these  are  all  found  in  the 
part  which  is  admitted  to  be  genuine,  via.  14(?);  xxix.  1;  xviii.  7; 
xxi.  12. 


ISAIAH — CONTENTS.  647 

the  conversion  of  the  Jews  under  the  Gospel,  and  the  destruction 
of  all  the  enemies  of  the  church,  xxiv.-xxxv. 
4.  History  of  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  of  the  destruction  of 
his  armj',  in  answer  to  Hezekiah's  prayer.      Hezekiah's  sick- 
ness, his  miraculous  recovery,  and  the  prolongation  of  his  life 
for  fifteen  years,  xxxvi.-xxxix. 
(ii.)  The  predictions  which  form  the  second  part  of  the  book  (xl.-lxvi.), 
relate  chiefly  to  more  distant  events,  and  embrace  the  whole  period, 
from  the  captivity  to  the  end  of  the  Christian  dispensation.     The  de- 
livery from  Babylon  is  employed  as  an  image  of  an  infinitely  greater 
redemption ;  the  prophet  so  connecting  these  two  events,  as  seldom  to 
treat  of  the  first  without  pointing  to  the  second.     The  design  of  the 
whole  of  this  portion  of  the  book  is  expressed  in  chap.  xl.  1,  2. 

The  suljjects  particularly  foretold  are,  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  by 
Cyrus  (above  200  years  before  his  birth),  and  the  overthrow  of  their 
oppressors  ;^  the  return  to  Judtea,  and  the  establishment  of  their  an- 
cient polity  ;■>  the  coming,  character,  appointment,  sufferings,  death  and 
glory  of  the  Messiah  ;<=  the  downfall  of  idolatry ;  the  call  of  the  Gen- 
tile world;''  the  wickedness  of  the  Jews  consummated  in  their  rejection 
of  the  Messiah,  and  the  consequent  rejection  of  them  by  God;  their 
future  conviction  and  recovery, <=  and  the  final  triumphant  perfection  of 
the  church. f  These  subjects  are  often  blended  together,  and  sometimes 
there  is  a  rapid  transition  from  one  to  another. 

The  office  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  also  distinctly  noticed,  though  it  is 
implied  that  the  full  manifestation  of  his  influence  is  reserved  for  the 
times  of  the  Gospel,  Ixiii.  10-14;  xliv.  3. 

The  numbers  and  distinctness  of  predictions  that  refer  to  the  Gospel 
are  indeed  so  striking,  that  Isaiali  has  acquired  the  title  of  "the  Evan- 
gelical Prophet,"  and  his  writings  may  be  almost  classed  among  the 
historical  books  of  the  inspired  volume. 

In  the  writings  of  Isaiah  we  find  several  prophecies  whicli  had  an 
early  or  immediate  fulfilment,  and  these,  as  they  were  fulfilled,  con- 
firmed the  faith  of  the  people  in  the  more  remote.  Syria  and  Israel, 
for  example,  were  to  be  conquered  by  Assyria  before  the  infant  son  of 
the  prophet  could  say  "my  father. "s  The  glory  of  Kedar  was  to  fail 
in  one  year,^  that  of  Moab  in  three  years,'  that  of  Ephraim  in  65  years.J 

»  xliv.  28;  xlv.  1-5;  xlvii.  ''  xliv.  2S. 

<=  xl.  3,  4  ;  xlii.  1,  6,  7 ;  xlix.  1 ;  Iv.  4,  5 ;  Uii.  12 ;  1X1.  1,2;  1.6;  liii. 
4-12.  "J  xlix.  5-12;  Ixv.  1. 

«lii.  3;  Ixv.;  Ixii.  'lix.  19;  Ixv.,  etc. 

e  Isa.  viii.  4.  ''  xxi.  16.  '  xvi.  14.  J  vii.  8. 


548  MICAH. 

that  of  Tyre  m  70  years;*  while  the  predicted  prolongation  of  Heze- 
kiah'p  life''  must  have  established  the  authority  ef  the  prophet,  and 
illustrated  the  providence  of  God. 

Projihecies  which  were  thus  instructive  as  evidence,  were  no  less  so 
as  moral  lessons.  The  Jews  were  proud  of  Egypt,  "their  glory,"  and 
trusted  in  Ethiopia,  "their  expectation."  God  denounced  both,  and 
thus  taught  the  folly  of  fleeing  to  them  for  protection  or  help.  The 
jiredictions  against  Edom  and  Babj'lon  were  also  rich  in  instruction. 
Tiiey  comforted  pious  Jews  in  the  prospect  of  the  calamities  their 
nation  was  about  to  suffer,  and  thej''  teach  what  the  sins  are  which 
have  brought  down  God's  indignation  in  every  age.  The  cruelties  and 
oppression  of  the  heathen  are  suiSciently  notorious,  and  these  are 
everywhere  condemned.  We  notice,  also,  the  condemnation  of  pride 
in  Babylon  and  Moab,  in  Tyre  and  Ephraim  ;<^  of  covetousness,  and  the 
confounding  of  moral  distinctions  in  Judah ;''  of  a  heart  set  on  worldly 
pleasure,  in  Jerusalem  and  Babylon;'^  of  self-conceit  and  unbelief  every 
where.  Predictions  apart,  therefore,  these  prophetic  writings  are  among 
the  most  instructive  of  the  revelations  with  which  God  has  favored  our 
race. 

THE    BOOK    OF    MICAH,  B.  C.  758-699. 

8(3.  Micah  calls  himself  a  Morastliite,  and  was  a  native  of 
Morasthi,  near  Gatli,  or  (if  the  two  j^laces  be  the  same)  Mare- 
shah,  a  place  of  some  importance  in  the  south  of  Judah  (i.  1, 
15).  He  seems  to  have  been  commissioned  not  long  after 
Hosea,  Amos  and  Isaiah  had  begun  their  ministry,  and  reit- 
erates the  reproofs  and  warnings  which  they  had  addressed 
to  both  Israel  and  Judah.  Greek  writers  (Epiphaiiius  and 
others)  say  he  was  slain  by  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab;  but  they 
confound  him  with  Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  1  Kings  xxii. 
8-28 ;  Micah,  moreover,  does  not  appear  to  have  sufi'ered 
martyrdom,  but  died  in  peace  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah,  Jer. 
xxvi.  18,  19.  One  of  his  predictions  saved  the  life  of  Jere- 
miah, who  would  have  been  put  to  death  for  foretelling  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  had  it  not  appeared  that  Micah  had 
foretold  the  same  thing  above  a  hundred  years  before.     He, 

'  xxiii.  15.       ''  xxxviii.  5-9.       <=  xiv.  13;  xvi.  6;  xxiii.  9;  xxviii.  3. 
-i  V.  8,  20.  •  xxii.  13  ;  xlvii.  8. 


MICAH — CONTENTS.  549 

himself,  wrote  his  predictions  (iii.  1,  8),  and  is  referred  to  as  a 
prophet  by  Jeremiah,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  Matt.  ii.  5 : 
John  vii.  42.  His  language  seems  also  quoted  by  Zephaniah 
(iii.  19;  Ezekiel  xxii.  27);  perhcqjs  by  Isaiah  (ii.  2-4;  xli.  15), 
and  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  x.  35,  36. 

His  predictions  may  be  divided  into  three  sections. 

He  first  describes  the  approaching  ruin  of  both  kingdoms  ;  particu- 
larizing several  of  the  towns  and  villages  of  Judah  in  his  own  neigh- 
borhood, chap  i.  He  then  rebukes  and  threatens  the  princes,  prophets 
and  people,  for  their  prevailing  sins,  introducing,  however,  an  intima- 
tion of  mercy  (ii.,  iii.)  In  the  second  section  he  proceeds  to  unfold  the 
future  and  better  destinies  of  the  people ;  dwelling  at  length  upon  the 
happiness  and  glory  of  the  church  under  the  reign  of  Christ,  in  a  pro- 
phecy which  presents  a  beautiful  epitome  of  the  latter  parts  of  Isaiah; 
and  then  reverting  to  the  nearer  deliverance  of  the  Jews,  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  Assyrian  power  (iv.,  v  )  The  third  division  exhibits 
the  reasonableness,  purity  and  justice  of  the  Divine  requirements,  in 
contrast  with  the  ingratitude,  injustice  and  superstition  of  the  people, 
which  caused  their  ruin.  From  the  contemplation  of  this  catastrophe, 
the  prophet  turns  for  encouragement  to  the  unchanging  truth  and  mercy 
of  Jehovah,  which  he  sets  before  the  people  as  the  most  powerful  in- 
ducement to  hearty  repentance  (vi.,  vii.) 

Micah  has  much  of  the  poetic  beauty  of  Isaiah,  and  of  the  vigor  of 
Hosea.  His  style  is,  however,  occasionally  obscure,  through  concise- 
ness and  sudden  transitions  from  one  subject  to  another. 

He  foretells  in  clear  terms  the  invasions  of  Shalmaneser*  and  Sen- 
nacherib;'' the  dispersion  of  Israel;'  the  cessation  of  prophecy;''  the 
utter  destruction  of  Jerusalem;"  nor  less  clearlj^  the  deliverance  of 
Israel;''  the  destruction  of  Assyria,  and  of  the  enemies  Assyria  repre- 
sents;? the  birth-place  of  Christ,  and  his  Divine  nature,  for  his  goings 
forth  are  "from  everlasting ;"'»  the  promulgation  of  his  Gospel  from 
Mount  Zion,  and  its  results,'  and  the  exaltation  of  his  kingdom  over 
all  nations.! 

»  i.  6-8  (2  Kings  xvii.  4,  6).  •>  i.  9-16  (2  Kings  xviii.  13). 

ey.  7,  8.  diii.  6,  7.  <=  iii.  12.  f  ii.  12;  iv.  10;  v.  8. 

8  v.  5,  6;  vii.  8,  10.        t  v.  2  (Matt.  ii.  6).        '  iv.  1-8  (Isa.  ii.  2-4). 
J  iv.  1-7,  compare  Luke  i.  33;  v.  5,  compare  Eph.  ii.  14;  vii.  17,  18, 
compare  Luke  i.  72,  73. 


550  NAHUM. 

THE  BOOK  OF  NAHUM,  B.  C.  720-698. 

87.  The  Book  of  Nahum  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
moral  use  of  prophecy,  of  its  fitness  to  console  (so  the  name 
of  the  prophet  imj^lies)  the  believer,  and  strengthen  him  for 
present  duties. 

Of  Nahum  himself,  nothing  is  known,  except  that  he  be- 
longed to  Elkosh,  a  place  now  unrecognized,  but  which  Jerome 
(who  lived  a  thousand  years  afterwards)  asserts  to  have 
belonged  to  Galilee  (Pref.  to  Com.) 

He  probably  prophesied  in  Judah,  after  the  ten  tribes  had 
been  carried  cajDtive,  and  between  the  two  invasions  of  Sen- 
nacherib. At  this  period  of  perplexity,  when  the  overthrow 
of  Samaria  must  have  suggested  to  Judah  many  fears  for  her 
own  safety,  when  Jerusalem  had.  been  drained  of  its  treasure 
by  Hezekiah,  in  the  vain  hope  of  turning  away  the  fury  of 
Sennacherib,  and  when  distant  rumors  of  the  conquest  of 
part  of  Egypt,  added  still  more  to  the  general  dismay,  the 
prophet  is  raised  up  to  reveal  the  power  and  tenderness  of 
Jehovah  (i.  1-8),  to  foretell  the  subversion  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  (i.  9-12),  the  death  of  Sennacherib,  and  the  deliver- 
ance of  Hezekiah  (i.  13-15).  The  destruction  of  Nineveh  is 
then  predicted  in  the  most  glowing  colors,  and  with  singular 
minuteness;  and  profane  history  tells  us,  that  these  predic- 
tions have  been  literally  fulfilled  (see  §  190). 

Rightly  to  understand  Nahum,  compare  it  with  Jona-h,  of  which  it 
is  a  continuation  and  supplement.  The  two  prophecies  form  connected 
parts  of  the  same  moral  liistory ;  the  remission  of  God's  judgments 
being  illustrated  in  Jonah,  and  the  execution  of  them  in  Nahum.  The 
devoted  city  had  one  denunciation  more  given  a  few  years  later,  by 
Zephaniah  (ii.  13),  and  shortly  afterwards  (606  B.  C),  the  whole  were 
fulfilled. 

Nineveh,  the  destruction  of  which  is  foretold  by  the  prophet,  was 
at  that  time  the  capital  of  a  great  and  flourishing  empire.  It  was  a 
city  of  vast  extent  and  population ;  and  was  the  centre  of  the  princi- 
pal commerce  of  the  world.  Its  wealth,  however,  was  not  altogether 
derived  from  trade.     It  was  a  "  bloody  city,"  "  full  of  lies  and  robbery," 


NAHUM — ZRrnANlAH.  651 

(iii.  1).  It  plundcrerl  the  neighboring  nations;  and  is  compared  by 
the  prophet  to  a  family  of  lions,  which  "  fill  their  holes  with  prey  and 
their  dens  with  ravin"  (ii.  11,  12).  At  the  same  time  it  was  strongly 
fortified;  its  colossal  walls,  a  hundred  feet  high,  with  their  fifteen 
hundred  towers,  bidding  defiance  to  all  enemies.  Yet,  so  totally  was 
,it  destroyed,  that,  in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  not  a  vestige 
remained  of  it;  and  its  very  site  was  long  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

This  book  is  surpassed  by  none  in  sublimity  of  description.  It 
consists  of  a  single  poem  which  opens  with  a  solemn  description  of  the 
attributes  and  operations  of  Jehovah  (i.  2-8).  Then  follows  {i.  9-14), 
an  address  to  the  Assyrians,  describing  their  perplexity  and  overthrow ; 
verses  12  and  13  being  thrown  in  parenthetically,  to  console  the 
Israelites  with  promises  of  future  rest  and  relief  from  oppression. 
Chapter  ii.  depicts  the  siege  and  capture  of  Nineveh,  and  the  conster- 
nation of  the  inhabitants.  Chapter  iii.  describes  the  utter  ruin  of  the 
city,  and  the  various  causes  contributing  to  it.  The  example  of  No- 
Ammon  (or  Thebes),  a  great  and  strong  city  of  Egypt,  which  fell  under 
the  judgments  of  God,  is  introduced  (iii.  8-10),  to  illustrate  the  similar 
punishment  coming  on  the  Assyrians. 

Sec.  4. — The  Books  of   Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,   Habak- 
KUK,  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  and  Obadiah. 

THE   BOOK    OF   ZEPHANIAH,    B.    C.    640-609. 

88.  Between  the  cessation  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Nahum,  and  the  days  of  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah, 
and  the  other  later  prophets,  an  interval  of  fifty  years  elapses, 
during  which  there  was  no  prophet  whose  writings  have 
reached  us,  unless  Joel  belonged  to  this  period.  The  lessons 
taught  by  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  and  by  earlier  prophets, 
especially  Isaiah,  seem  to  have  been  left  to  produce  their 
proper  eifects  on  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  wicked  reign 
of  Manasseh,  moreover,  occupied  nearly  all  this  interval,  and 
seemed  to  render  reformation  by  prophetic  teaching  hopeless. 
With  Josiah,  however,  the  prophetic  spirit  revived,  and 
Zephaniah  ("  Jehovah  hath  guarded")  is  the  earliest  of  the 
prophets  of  his  age.  He  seems  to  have  prophesied  near  tk^ 
commencement  of  Josiah's  reign,  and  at  all  events  before  the 


552  ZEPHANIAH. 

eighteenth,  year,  when  the  altars  of  Baal  were  destroyed. 
He  probably  assisted  Josiah  in  his  efforts  to  restore  the  worship 
of  the  true  God.  Of  the  prophet  personally  nothing  is 
known,  but  from  the  title  of  this  book.  As  he  traces  back 
his  pedigree  for  four  generations,  he  was  probably  of  noble 
birth.  Some  of  the  Jews,  and  Eichhorn,  suppose  him  to  have* 
been  a  descendant  of  king  Hezekiah ;  but  this  conclusion  is 
hardly  justified  by  the  text,  and  a  hundred  years  (the  time 
between  Hezekiah  and  the  prophet)  is  scarcely  sufficient  to 
admit  three  intermediate  ancestors. 

The  first  chapter  contains  a  general  denunciation  of  vengeance  against 
Judah  and  those  who  practised  idolatrous  rites ;  Baal,  his  black-robed 
priests  (Chemarin),  and  Malcham  (Moloch),  being  all  condemned ;  and 
declares  "  the  great  day  of  trouble  and  distress"  to  be  at  hand,  (i.-ii.  3). 
The  second  chapter  predicts  the  judgments  about  to  fall  on  the  Philis- 
tines, those  especially  of  the  sea-coasts  (Cherethites),  the  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Ethiopians ;  and  describes  in  terms  wonderfully 
accurate  the  desolation  of  Nineveh :  prophecies  which  began  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  conquests  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

In  the  third  chapter,  the  prophet  arraigns  Jerusalem,  rebukes  her 
Bins,  and  concludes  with  the  most  animating  promises  of  her  future 
restoration,  and  of  the  happy  state  of  the  people  of  God  in  the  latter 
days(iii.  1-7;  iii.  8-20). 

Toincidences  of  expression  between  Isaiah  and  Zephaniah  are  frequent, 
and  still  more  between  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah.  It  maybe  added 
that  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  complete  the  view  here  given  of  the 
devastation  to  be  effected  by  Chaldsea  in  Philistia  and  Judah. 

89.  Dr.  Keith  has  noticed  the  minute  discrimination  with 
which  Zephaniah,  Amos,  and  Zechariah,  foretell  the  destinies 
of  the  four  chief  cities  of  Philistia — Gaza,  Ashkelon,  Ashdod, 
and  Ekron. 

Comparing  Amos  i.  6,  7,  8;  Zech.  ix.  5,  and  Zeph.  ii.  4-6,  it  will  be 
seen,  that  of  Oaza  it  is  declared  that  baldness  shall  come  upon  it,  and 
that  it  should  be  bereaved  of  its  king.  At  present,  amid  ruins  of 
white  marble  indicating  its  former  magnificence,  a  few  villages  of  dry 
mud  are  the  only  abode  of  its  inhabitants.  Of  Ashkelon  and  Ashdod 
it  is  said  that  both  shall  be  "without  inhabitants;"  and  so  they  are. 


JEREMIAH.  '.joS 

Gaza  is  inhabited ;  Ashkelon  and  Aslidod  are  not,  though  their  rnins 
remain.  DifTerent  from  the  destiny  of  each  was  to  be  the  end  of 
Ekron  :  "  it  shall  be  rooted  up."  Now  its  very  name  is  lost,  nor  is  the 
spot  known  on  which  it  stood.  .  .  .  Clearly,  prophecy  and  provi- 
dence— predictions  and  the  events  that  fulfill  them— are  guided  bj'  the 
Bame  hand. 

THE   BOOK    OF   JEREMIAH,    B.    C.    628-585. 

90.  Jeremiah  was  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  a  priest  of  Anathoth, 
in  Benjamin.  He  was  called  to  the  prophetic  office  about 
seventy  years  after  the  death  of  Isaiah,  in  the  thirteenth  year 
of  king  Josiah,  whilst  he  was  very  young  (i.  6)  and  still  living 
at  Anathoth.  It  would  seem  that  he  remained  in  his  native 
place  for  several  years ;  but  at  length,  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  the  persecution  of  his  fellow-townsmen,  and  even 
of  his  own  family  (xi.  21 ;  xii.  6),  as  well  as  under  the  Divine 
direction,  to  have  a  wider  field  for  his  labors,  he  left 
Anathoth,  and  came  to  Jerusalem.  He  also  visited  the 
cities  of  Judah,  and  prophesied  altogether  upwards  of  forty 
years  (xi.  6) . 

During  the  reign  of  Josiah,  he  was,  doubtless,  a  valuable 
coadjutor  to  that  pious  monarch  in  the  reformation  of  religion. 
From  his  notice  of  Jehoahaz  (xxii.  10-12),  he  probably  pro- 
phesied without  hinderance  during  his  reign.  But  when 
Jehoiakim  came  to  the  throne  he  was  interrupted  in  his 
ministry;  "the  priests  and  prophet"  becoming  his  accusers, 
and  demanding,  in  conjunction  with  the  populace,  that  he 
should  be  put  to  death  (xxvi.)  The  princes  did  not  dare  to 
defy  God  thus  openly  ;  but  Jeremiah  was  either  placed  under 
restraint,  or  deterred  by  his  adversaries  from  appearing  in 
public.  Under  these  circumstances,  he  received  a  command 
from  God  to  commit  his  predictions  to  writing ;  and  having 
done  so,  sent  Baruch  to  read  them  in  the  temple  on  a  fast 
day.  The  princes  were  alarmed,  and  endeavored  to  rouse 
the  king  by  reading  out  to  him  the  prophetic  roll.  But  it 
was  in  vaiu  :  the  reckless  monarch,  after  hearing  three  or  four 
17 


554  JEREMIAH. 

pages,  cut  the  roll  in  pieces,  and  cast  it  into  the  fire,  giving  im- 
mediate orders  for  the  apprehension  of  Jeremiah  and  Baruch. 
God,  however,  preserved  them ;  and  Jeremiah  soon  after- 
wards, by  Divine  direction,  wrote  the  same  messages  again, 
with  some  additions  (xxxvi.) 

In  the  short  reign  of  the  next  king,  Jehoiachin,  we  find 
him  still  uttering  the  voice  of  warning  (see  xiii.  18 ;  compare 
2  Kings  xxiv.  12  and  chap.  xxii.  24-30),  though  without 
efiFect. 

In  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  when  Nebuchadnezzar's  army 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  and  then  withdrew  upon  the  report 
of  help  coming  from  Egypt,  Jeremiah  was  commissioned  by 
God  to  declare  that  the  Chaldseans  should  come  again,  and 
take  the  city,  and  burn  it  with  fire.  Departing  from  Jeru- 
salem, he  was  accused  of  deserting  to  the  Chaldseans,  and  was 
cast  into  prison,  where  he  remained  until  the  city  was  taken. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  formed  a  more  just  estimate'of  his 
character,  gave  a  special  charge  to  his  captain  Nebuzar-adan, 
not  only  to  provide  for  him,  but  to  follow  his  advice.  The 
choice  being  given  to  the  prophet,  either  to  go  to  Babylon, 
where  doubtless  he  would  have  been  held  in  honor  at  the 
royal  court,  or  to  remain  with  his  own  people,  he  preferred 
the  latter.  He  subsequently  endeavored  to  persuade  the 
leaders  of  the  people  not  to  go  to  Egypt,  but  to  remain  in  the 
land  ;  assuring  them,  by  a  Divine  message,  that  if  they  did  so 
God  would  build  them  up.  The  people  refused  to  obey,  and 
went  to  Egypt,  taking  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  with  them 
(xliii.  6).  In  Egypt  he  still  sought  to  turn  the  people  to  the 
Lord  (xliv.) ;  but  his  writings  give  no  information  respecting 
his  subsequent  history  Ancient  historians,  however,  assert 
that  the  Jews,  ofifended  by  his  faithful  remonstrances,  put  him 
to  death  in  Egypt :  Jerome  says  at  Tahpanhes. 

Jeremiah  was  contemporary  with  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk, 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  Between  his  writings  and  those  of  Eze- 
kiel  there  are  many  interesting  points  both  of  resemblance  and 
pf  contrast.     Both  prophets  were  laboring  for  the  same  object 


\ 

JEREMIAH — CONTENTS.  555 

at  nearly  the  same  time.  One  prophesied  in  Palestine,  the 
other  in  Chaldaea;  yet  the  substance  of  both  messages  is 
the  same.  In  the  modes  of  expression  adopted  by  the  pro- 
phets, however,  and  in  their  personal  character,  they  widely 
differed.  The  history  of  Jeremiah  brings  before  us  a  rnan 
forced,  as  it  were,  in  spite  of  himself,  from  obscurity  and  re- 
tirement into  the  publicity  and  peril  which  attended  the  pro- 
phetical office.  Naturally  mild,  susceptible,  and  inclined 
rather  to  mourn  in  secret  for  the  iniquity  which  surrounded 
him,  than  to  brave  and  denounce  the  wrong-doers,  he  stood 
forth  at  the  call  of  God,  and  proved  himself  a  faithful,  fearless 
champion  of  the  truth,  amidst  reproaches,  insults  and  threats. 
This  combination  of  qualities  is  so  marked  that  Havernick 
regards  it  as  a  proof  of  the  Divine  origin  of  his  mission.  In 
Ezekiel,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  the  power  of  Divine  inspi- 
ration acting  on  a  mind  naturally  of  the  firmest  texture,  and 
absorbing  all  the  powers  of  the  soul. 

The  style  of  Jeremiah  corresponds  with  this  view  of  the 
character  of  his  mind.  It  is  peculiarly  marked  by  pathos. 
He  delights  in  expressions  of  tenderness,  and  gives  touching 
descriptions  of  the  miseries  of  his  people. 

The  prophecies  of  this  book  do  not  appear  to  stand  in  respect  to  time 
as  they  were  delivered.  Why  they  are  not  so  arranged,  and  how  they 
are  to  be  reduced  to  chronological  order,  it  is  not  easy  to  say.  Blay- 
ney  proposes  the  following  arrangement :  the  prophecies  delivered  (1), 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  comprising  i.-xii. ;  (2),  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim, 
xiii.-xx. ;  xxii. ;  xxiii. ;  xxv.;  xxvi.;  xxxv.;  xxxvi. ;  xlv.-xlviii.;  xlix. 
1-33;  (3),  in  the  time  of  Zedekiah,  xxi. ;  xxiv.;  xxvii.-xxxiv.;  xxxvii.- 
xxxix. ;  xlix.  34-39;  l.-lii.;  (4),  during  the  administration  of  Gedaliah, 
and  in  Egypt,  xl.-xliv.  Chap.  lii.  seems  made  up  from  the  later  chap- 
ters of  Kings  (see  xxiv.  18-xxv.  25),  and  repeats  parts  of  chaps,  xxxix. 
and  xL  From  chap.  li.  34,  and  the  later  date  of  some  of  the  facts,  the 
whole  chapter  may  be  regarded  as  the  work  of  a  later  writer,  and 
probably  of  Ezra. 

Ewald  proposes  divisions  founded  upon  the  present  order  of  the  chap- 
ters, and  endeavors  to  discover  the  plan  upon  which  they  have  been 
arranged.     He  remarks   that  various   portions   are   prefaced   by  the 


656  JEREMIAH— CONTENTS. 

expression,  "The  word  which  came  to  Jeremiah  from  the  Lord,"  vii.  1; 
xi.  1;  xviii.  1;  xxi.  1;  XXV.  1;  xxx.  1 ;  xxxii.  1 ;  xxxiv.  1,  8  ;  xxxv.  1 ; 
xl.  1;  xliv.  1:  or,  "The  word  of  the  Lord  which  came  to  Jeremiah," 
xiv.  1;  xlvi.  1;  xlvii.  1;  xlix.  34;  that  some  other  divisions,  chiefly 
historical,  are  plainly  marked  by  notices  of  time  prefixed,  xxvi.  1  ; 
xxvii.  1 ;  xxxvi.  1 ;  xxxvii.  1 ;  and  that  two  other  portions  are  in 
themselves  sufficiently  distinct,  xxix.  1 ;  xlv.  1 ;  thus  forming  five 
books,  namely: — ■ 

i.  The  introduction,  i.  ii.  Reproofs  of  the  sins  of  the  Jews,  ii.-^xxiv., 
consisting  of  seven  sections,  namely,  ii. ;  iii.-vi. ;  vii.-x. ;  xi.-xiii. ;  xiv.- 
xvii.  I'S:  xvii.  19-xx.;  and  xxi.-xxiv.  lii.  A  general  view  of  all  na- 
tions, the  heathen  as  well  as  the  people  of  Israel,  consisting  of  two 
sections,  xxv.  and  xxvi. -xlix.,  with  a  historical  appendix  of  three  sec- 
tions, xxvi.,  xxvii.,  and  xxviii.,  xxix.  iv.  Two  sections  picturing  the 
hopes  oi  brighter  times,  xxx.,  xxxi.,  and  xxxii.,  xxxiii.;  to  which,  as  in 
the  last  book,  is  added  a  historical  appendix  in  three  sections,  xxxiv. 
1-7 ;  xxxiv.  8-22 ;  and  xxxv.  v.  The  conclusion,  in  two  sections, 
xxxvi.  and  xlv.  All  this  Ewald  supposes  to  have  been  arranged 
in  Palestine  during  the  short  interval  of  rest  between  the  taking  of 
the  city  and  the  departure  of  Jeremiah  into  Egypt ;  in  which  country, 
after  some  interval,  he  considers  the  prophet  to  have  written  three 
sections,  namely,  xxxvii.-xxxix. ;  xl.-xliii.;  and  xliv.,  together  with 
xlvi.  13-26,  completing  his  earlier  prophecy  respecting  Egypt;  and 
to  have  made,  perhaps,  some  additions  to  other  parts  previously 
written. 

Jeremiah  professes  to  be  the  author  of  all  these  predictions,  but  some 
of  them  were  written  by  his  disciple,  i.  1,  4,  6,  9 ;  xxv.  13;  xxix.  1; 
xxx.  2;  Ii.  60;  xlv.  L 

He  has  sometimes  been  regarded  as  a  prophet  to  the  Gentiles  (i.5-10). 
He  certainly  delivered  many  predictions  that  refer  to  foreign  nations, 
and  his  predictions  were  published  to  those  nations  themselves  (xxvii. 
3) ;  but  it  is  to  Jerusalem  chiefly  he  was  sent. 

He  foretold  the  fate  of  Zedekiah,*  the  precise  time  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity,''  and  the  return  of  the  Jews.<=  The  downfall  of  Babylon'' 
and  of  many  nations^  is  also  foretold  in  jiredictions,  the  successive 
completion  of  which  kept  up  the  faith  of  the  Jews  in  those  that 
refer  to  the  Messiah. f    He  foretells  very  clearly  the  abrogation  of  the 

>  xxxiv.  2,  3:  compare  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  19:  2  Kings  xxv.  5:  Jer. 
lii.  11.  b  xxv.  11,  12  (see  Dan.  ix.  2.) 

<=  xxix.  10-14  (Ez.  i.  1).  ^  Jer.  xxv.  12.  «  See  (Ft.  li.  I  77). 

f  xxiii.  3-8;  xxx.  9;  xxxi.  15;  xxxii.  36;  xxxiii.  26. 


JEREMIAH — HABAKKUK.  657 

Mosaic  law ;  speaks  of  the  ark  as  no  more  remembered ;  foretells  the 
propagation  of  a  more  spiritual  religion  than  the  old ;  the  mediatorial 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  whom  he  calls  "Jehovah  our  righteousness;" 
describes  the  efficacy  of  his  atonement;  the  excellence  of  the  Gospel  in 
giving  holiness  as  well  as  pardon ;  the  call  of  the  Gentiles ;  and  the 
final  salvation  of  Israel.* 

THE    LAMENTATIONS    OF   JEREMIAH. 

This  book  is  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  of 
which,  in  the  original  Scriptures,  it  formed  part.  It  expresses  with 
pathetic  tenderness  the  prophet's  grief  for  the  desolation  of  the  city 
and  temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  captivity  of  the  people,  the  miseries  of 
famine,  the  cessation  of  public  worship,  and  the  other  calamities  with 
■which  his  countrymen  had  been  visited  for  their  sins.  The  leading 
object  was  to  teach  the  suffering  Jews  neither  to  despise  "the  chasten- 
ing of  the  Lord,"  nor  to  "faint"  when  "rebuked  of  him,"  but  to  turn 
to  God  with  deep  repentance,  to  confess  their  sins,  and  humbly  look  to 
him  alone  for  pardon  and  deliverance. 

No  book  of  Scripture  is  more  rich  in  expressions  of  patriotic  feeling, 
or  of  the  penitence  and  trust  which  become  an  afflicted  Christian. 

The  form  of  these  poems  is  strictly  regular.  With  the  exception  of 
the  last  (chap,  v.),  they  are  in  the  original  Hebrew  alphabetical  acros- 
tics, in  which  every  stanza  begins  with  a  new  letter.  The  third  has  this 
further  peculiarity,  that  all  the  three  lines  in  each  stanza  have  the 
same  letter  at  the  commencement. 

As  a  composition,  this  book  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of 
pathetic  images  it  contains,  expressive  of  the  deepest  sorrow,  and  worthy 
of  the  subject  which  they  are  designed  to  illustrate. 

THE   BOOK    OF    HABAKKUK,  B.  C.  612-598. 

91.  Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  the  parentage  and 
life  of  Habakkuk  ;  but  from  the  fact  that  he  makes  no  mention 
of  Assyria,  and  speaks  of  the  Chaldsean  invasion  as  just  at 
band,  it  is  concluded  that  he  prophesied  in  Judah  during  the 
reign  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiakim,  shortly  before  the  invasion 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  (i.  5  ;  ii.  3  ;  iii.  2, 16-19).     He  was  there- 

»  iii.  15-18;  xxxi.  31-34  (see  Heb.  x.  15);  xxiii.  5,  6;  xxxi.  31-34; 
xxxiii.  8  (Heb.  viii.  8-13);  1.  4,  5;  xix.  20. 

47* 


558  HABAKKUK. 

fore  contemporary  with  Jeremiah,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
remained  amidst  the  desolation  of  his  country  rather  than 
follow  his  brethren  into  captivity.  In  the  days  of  Eusebius 
his  tomb  was  shown  at  Bela,  in  Judah. 

This  book  was  evidently  composed  by  him  (i.  1 ;  ii.  1,  2),  and  is  quoted 
as  the  work  of  an  inspired  prophet  by  the  evangelical  writers,  Ileb.  x. 
37,  38:  Rom.  i.  17:  Gal.  lii.  11 :  Acts  xiii.  41 

Of  all  the  nations  who  afflicted  the  Jews,  and  in  them  the  church 
of  God,  the  chief  were  the  Assyrians,  the  Chaldeans  and  the  Edomites; 
and  three  of  the  prophets  were  commissioned  specially  to  pronounce 
their  destruction.  Nahum  foretells  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrians; 
Habakkuk,  that  of  the  Chaldaeans;  and  presently  we  shall  find  Oba- 
diah  foretelling  the  destruction  of  Edom. 

The  prophet  begins  by  lamenting  the  iniquities  and  lawless  violence 
that  prevailed  among  the  Jews.  God  then  declares  that  he  will  work  a 
strange  work  in  their  days,  and  raise  up  the  Chaldseans,  then  probably 
a  friendly  nation,  who  should  march  through  the  breadth  of  their  land 
and  take  possession  of  its  dwellings.  In  this  description  the  prophet 
gives  the  history  of  the  three  invasions  (in  the  reigns  of  Jehoiakim,  Jeco- 
niah  and  Zedekiah) ;  foretells  the  fierceness  of  their  attack  and  the 
rapidity  of  their  victories  ;  he  then  briefly  contrasts  the  scene  ;  points 
to  the  pride  and  false  confidence  of  the  victors,  and  indicates  clearly 
"the  change"  and  insanity  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  the  prophet  humbly 
expostulating  with  God  for  inflicting  such  judgments  upon  his  people 
by  a  nation  more  wicked  than  themselves. 

He  then  receives  and  communicates  God's  answer  to  his  expostula- 
tion, to  the  effect  that  the  vision,  though  it  tarry,  shall  surely  come; 
ithat  the  just  shall  live  by  their  faith,  and  are  to  wait  for  it.  He  then 
predicts  the  judgments  that  are  to  befall  the  Chaldteans  for  their 
crueltv  and  idolatry;  thoir  graven  images  cannot  profit;  but  the  Lord 
only  "in  his  holy  temple"  (2). 

The  prophet,  hearing  these  promises  and  threatenings,  concludes  his 
book  with  a  sublime  song,  both  of  praise  and  of  prayer.  He  celebrates 
past  displays  of  the  power  and  grace  of  Jehovah,*  supplicates  God  for 
the  speedy  deliverance  of  his  people,  and  closes  by  expressing  a  con- 
fidence in  God  which  no  change  can  destroy.     This  psalm,  which  was 

»  Teman  is  Edom ;  Cushan,  part  of  Arabia  (Chusistan) ;  see  also 
Numb.  xiii.  15:  Exod.  xv.  15 :  Numb.  xxxi.  2-11 :  Judg.  iii.  10;  vii.  1. 


HABAKKUK — DANIEL.  659 

evidently  intended  for  use  in  public  worship,  was  designed  to  afford 
.consolation  to  the  pious  Jews  under  their  approaching  calamities. 

Ancient  Jewish  writers  apply  ii.  3  to  the  times  of  the  Messiah,  and 
the  apostle  regards  it  as  having  a  still  future  fulfilment,  Heb.  x.  37,  38. 
In  fact,  as  faith — patient  waiting  for  God,  and  trust  in  him — is  the 
principle  of  the  divine  life,  so,  in  every  age,  complete  salvation  has 
been  a  matter  of  faith  rather  than  of  sight.  The  Christian  character 
is,  that  "he  lives  by  faith;"  and  in  relation  to  the  promised  deliver- 
ance from  sin  and  all  its  fruits  his  attitude  is,  "  that  he  waits  for  it." 

See  Kom.  i.  17:  Gal.  iii.  2:  Eom.  v.  1-3:  1  Cor.  i.  7. 

THE   BOOK    OF    DANIEL    B.    C.    G06-534. 

92.  Of  Daniel,  little  is  known  beyond  what  may  be  gathered 
from  his  own  writings.  He  was  not  a  priest,  like  ^^  ^.  ,, 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel ;  but,  like  Isaiah,  of  the  history. 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  probably  of  the  royal  house,  Dan.  i.  6,  3. 
He  was  carried  to  Babylon  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 
(i.  e.,  B.  C.  606),  eight  years  before  Ezekiel,  and  probably 
between  the  twelfth  (Ignatius)  or  the  eighteenth  year  (Chry- 
sostom)  of  his  age,  i.  4.  There  he  was  placed  in  the  court 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  science 
of  the  Chaldees,  compared  with  whom,  however,  God  gave 
him,  as  he  records,  superior  wisdom.  By  Nebuchadnezzar  he 
was  raised  to  high  rank  and  great  power ;  a  position  he  re- 
tained, though  not  uninterruptedly,  under  both  the  Baby- 
lonish and  Persian  dynasties.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
having  prophesied  during  the  whole  of  the  captivity  (i.  21) ; 
and  his  last  prophecy  being  delivered  two  years  later,  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus. 

The  first  event  which  gained  Daniel  influence  in  the  court  of  Baby- 
lon was  the  disclosure  and  explanation  of  the  dream  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  This  occurred  in  the  second  year  of  the  of  hrs^b'^'lf 
sole  reign  of  that  monarch,  i.  e.,  in  603.  Three  and  twenty 
years  later,  as  Usher  thinks  (B.  C.  580),  his  companions  were  delivered 
from  the  burning  furnace  (iii.) ;  Daniel  himself  being  probably  engaged 
elsewhere  at  the  time  in  the  affairs  of  the  empire.  Ten  years  later 
occurred  the  second  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (i v.);  and  during  the  seven 
years  of  his  madness,  Daniel,  it  is  thought,  acted  as  viceroy.     The  date 


560  DANIEL. 

of  the  events  recorded  in  cliap.  v.  is  B.  C.  538,  towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Belshazzar,  wlien  it  appears  Daniel  was  in  private  life,  vers. 
12,  13.  That  night  the  king  was  slain  and  the  dynasty  changed.  The 
dignity  which  Belshazzar  conferred  on  Daniel  in  the  last  hours  of  his 
monarchy  was  confirmed  by  Darius  and  Cyrus. 

The  book,  it  will  be  seen,  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  historical, 
i.-vi.,  and  the  prophetic,  vii.-xii.  Chaps,  ii.  4-vii.,  are 
written  in  Chaldee ;  the  rest  in  Hebrew.  The  latter  half 
of  the  book  is  avowedly  written  by  Daniel.  In  the  former  part  he  is 
spoken  of  in  the  third  person  ;  but  he  is  generally  admitted  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  whole.  Ezekiel  speaks  of  him  (B.  C.  584)  as  a 
shining  example  of  uprightness  and  wisdom,  ranking  him  with  Noah 
and  Job,  xiv.  14,  18,  20;  xxviii.  23.  Our  Lord  quotes  him  as  a  pro- 
phet. Matt.  xxiv.  15.  Paul  alludes  to  him  in  Heb.  xi.  33,  34 ;  and 
ill  the  Apocalypse,  John  takes  his  language  as  the  model  of  his  own. 
The  fullest  discussion  of  the  genuineness  of  thi?  book  may  be  seen  in 
the  Treatise  of  Hengstenberg  on  Daniel,  and  in  the  general  Introduc- 
tion of  Havernick  ;  the  former  of  which  has  been  published  in  English, 
and  is  epitomized  in  Home  (Introd.) 

The  later  portion  of  the  book  is  divisible,  like  the  earlier,  into 
periods.  The  first  prophetic  vision  occurred  in  the  first  year  of  Bel- 
shazzar (555  B.  C),  vii. ;  the  second,  two  years  later  (553),  viii. ;  the 
third,  in  the  first  year  of  Darius  the  Mede  (538),  ix. ;  and  the  last, 
in  the  third  year  of  Cyrus  (534),  x.-xii.  The  dream  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (ii.)  is  also  prophetic. 

The  predictions  of  this  book  have  much  of  the  distinctness  of  his- 

„  torv,  and  have  long  formed  an  imijortant  part  of  the  evidence 

Predictions.  ,  . 

of  Scripture.     From  Porphyry  downwards,  indeed,  the  only 

resource  of  infidelity  has  been  to  maintain  that  they  were  written 

after  the   events  they  describe;  a  subterfuge,  entirely  unfounded  in 

fact. 

Chap.  ii.  contains  a  brief  history  of  the  kingdoms  which  form  the 
chief  subject  of  the  book.  The  image  represents  the  Babylonian 
monarchy  under  the  dynasty  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  Medo- Persian 
empire,  the  Grecian,  and  the  Roman.  The  last  is  seen  divided  into  ten 
kingdoms,  and  gives  way  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  represented 
by  a  stone  cut  out  without  hands — of  mean,  yet  miraculous,  origin ; 
miglity  as  a  mountain,  and,  finally,  superior  to  the  finest  metals,  the 
most  splendid  earthly  thrones.  In  later  chapters,  one  or  other  of 
these  kingdpms  again  and  again  appears 

In  chap,  vii.,  the  first  four  of  these  kingdoms  are  represented  by 
beasts,  all  highly   significant.     Of  the   ten  kingdoms  into  which  the 


DANIEL — PBEDICTIONS.  561 

fourth  is  divided,  three  are  subdued  by  a  little  horn,  or  the  papal 
power,  ver.  8.  That  power  (of  which  we  read  again  subsequently) 
exercises  its  tyranny  for  1260  years,  and  then  comes  the  triumph  of 
the  saints.  This  view  of  the  four  empires  has  special  reference  to  their 
religious  connexions,  as  the  former  view  had  to  their  political. 

In  chap,  viii.,  we  have  the  history  of  the  Medo-Persiau  and  Grecian 
empires,  beginning  with  Cyrus  and  xilexander :  the  ram  with  two  horns, 
the  one  greater  than  the  other,  representing  the  Persian  and  Median 
dynasty,  with  its  conquests,  ver.  4,  and  overthrow  by  Alexander,  the 
notable  horn :  his  conquests,  and  the  division  of  his  kingdom  into  four 
parts,  out  of  which  comes  a  little  horn,  probably  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
a  false,  crafty  tyrant.  This  view  of  the  "little  horn,"  of  chap,  viii.,  is 
sustained  by  nearly  all  antiquity ;  but  there  are  also  reasons  for  con- 
cluding that  this  application  of  it  was  precursive  and  partial,  the  com- 
plete fulfilment  of  the  prediction  taking  place  under  the  Koman  power. 

Chap.  ix.  foretells  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  In  seven  weeks,  i,  e. 
forty-nine  years,  reckoning  from  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  Ezr.  vii. 
8-11,  B.  C.  457;  the  walls  and  the  city  were  to  be  rebuilt,  though  in  trou- 
blous times.  In  sixty- two  weeks  (434  years),  Christ  was  to  appear,  in 
his  ministry,  and  in  the  midst  of  one  week,  i.  e.,  in  about  three  and 
a  half  years,  he  was  to  be  cut  off. 

Chap.  X.  represents  the  opposition  of  the  prince  of  Persia  to  the 
decree  of  Cyrus,  in  favor  of  the  Jews,  and  the  successful  struggle 
against  him  of  Michael,  the  prince,  see  Rev.  xii.  7. 

In  chap,  xi.,  the  history  of  Persia  and  Greece  is  resumed — with  im- 
portant additions.  Four  kings  of  Persia  (Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus, 
Smerdis,  Darius,  and  Xerxes),  are  foretold,  and  tlie  rise  of  Alexander. 
Then  follows  the  history  of  his  kingdom,  and  of  his  successors  in  Egypt 
(the  south),  and  Syria  (the  north),  till  the  times  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes, and  Ptolemy  Philoraeter,  ver.  25.  Their  character  and  des- 
tinies are  clearly  defined.  In  ver.  30,  the  conquest  of  Syria  by  the 
■Romans  is  foretold;  and  thence  to  the  end  of  the  book  we  have  a 
series  of  predictions,  of  which  the  fulfilment  is  found  by  some  few  in 
the  history  of  Antiochus,  but  by  most  in  the  liistory  of  the  church  of 
Christ,  and  of  the  papacy  till  the  end  of  time.  The  later  verses  of 
chap,  xi.,  are  certainly  applied  in  2  Thess.  ii.,  to  Antichrist,  and  the 
1260  years  of  chap,  xii.,  are  referred  to  in  the  Apocalypse,  as  the  time 
after  which  a  great  deliverance  is  to  be  effected  for  the  church. 

For  the  fullest  literal  and  restricted  exposition  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  see  Moses  Stuart's  Commentary,  and  Dr.  Lee's  "Events  and 
Times  of  the  Visions  of  Daniel."  For  an  extended  discussioli  of  its 
application  to  the  events  of  the  Gos})ol  economy,  with  a  full  examina- 


562  DANIEL — EZEKIEL. 

tion  of  its  refireuces  to  early  profane  hi:-tory,  see  Birks  on  the  "first 
two,"  and  on  the  "two  later"  visions  of  Daniel.  For  a  popular  and 
striking  exhibition  of  the  visions  and  their  fulfilment,  see  Bp.  New- 
ton, Diss.  13-17,  and  Dr.  Keith's  Evidence  of  Prophecy.  To  under- 
stand much  of  the  phraseology  of  the  book,  and,  as  most  hold,  of  its 
facts,  compare  Kev.  chaps,  xi.-xx. 

Quite  apart  from  the  significancy  of  these  predictions,  are  many  of 
the  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  of  this  portion  of  inspired 
ies'sons!^  truth.  It  was  written  in  the  darkness  of  the  most  terrible 
captivit}'  of  which  the  people  of  God  had  ever  known,  and 
yet  it  contains  some  of  the  grandest  revelations  of  the  future  glories 
of  the  church.  .  .  .  Everywhere,  moreover,  the  providence  of  God  is 
seen,  working  or  overruling  all  for  her  good.  .  .  .  The  predictions  of 
the  book  extend  from  the  establishment  of  the  Medo-Persian  monarchy 
to  the  general  resurrection,  the  faith  of  the  believers  being  confirmed 
by  the  fulfilment  of  intermediate  predictions,  foretelling  the  speedy 
punishment  of  two  proud  and  impious  kings,  and  the  rebuilding  of 

Jerusalem The  history  of  the  temptations  of  Daniel  and  his 

companions,  their  constancy  and  deliverance,  is  highly  instructive,  illus- 
trating at  once  the  mystery  of  the  Divine  dispensations,  and  the  spirit 

of  fidelity  and  patience  with  which  good  men  submit  to  them 

The  promise  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  was  given  to  a  penitent 
and  prayerful  prophet,  the  promise  more  comprehensive  than  the  prayer 
he  presented.  He  asked  concerning  Jerusalem :  the  answer  told  also 
of  Messiah  the  Prince.  The  clear  announcement  of  Christ's  atone- 
ment, and  of  the  time  when  he  was  to  appear  (ix.  24-26) ;  his  future 
dignity,  and  his  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  (see  Acts  i.  11),  make 
this  portion  of  the  book  of  the  deepest  interest  to  the  church. 

THE    BOOK    OF    THE    PROPHET   EZEKIEL,    B.    C.    595-574. 

93.  Ezekiel  (^God  will  strengthen,  oo' prevail)  was,  like  Jere- 
miah, a  priest  as  well  as  a  prophet.  He  was  carried  captive 
with  Jehoiakim  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  C.  599,  eleven  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  All  his  prophecies  were 
delivered  in  Chaldeea,  on  the  river  Chebar  (Khabur)  which 
falls  into  the  E.uphrates  at  Carchemish,  about  200  miles  north 
of  Babylon.  Here  he  resided  (i.  1;  viii.  1),  and  here  his  wife 
died  (xxiv.  18).  Tradition  says  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
one  of  his  fellow-exiles,  a  leader  among  them,  whose  idolatries 


EZEKIEL.  563 

he  had  rebuked ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  what  was  called  hia 
tomb  was  shown,  not  far  from  Bagdad. 

Ezekiel  commenced  prophesying  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  captivity 
of  Jehoiakim  (i  2),  that  is,  in  Zedekiah's  reign,  and  continued  till  at 
least  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  his  own  captivity  (xxix.  17).  The 
year  of  his  first  prophesying  was  also  the  thirtieth  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reign  of  Nabopolassar,  and  from  the  era  of  Josiah's  reform. 
To  one  of  these  facts,  or  perhaps  to  bis  own  age  (see  Numb.  iv.  3),  he 
refers  in  chap.  i.  His  influence  with  the  people  is  obvious,  from  the 
numerous  visits  paid  to  him  by  the  elders,  who  came  to  inquire  what 
message  God  had  sent  through  him  (viii.  1 ;  xiv.  1 ;  xx.  1,  etc.) 

His  writings  show  remarkable  vigor,  and  he  was  evidently  well  fitted 
to  oppose  "the  people  of  stubborn  front  and  hard  heart,"  to  whom  he 
was  sent.  His  characteristic,  however,  was  the  subordination  of  his 
whole  life  to  his  work.  He  ever  thinks  and  feels  as  the  prophet.  lu 
this  respect  his  writings  contrast  remarkably  with  those  of  his  contem- 
porary, Jeremiah,  whose  personal  history  and  feelings  are  frequently 
recorded.  That  he  was,  nevertheless,  a  man  of  strong  feeling,  is  clear 
from  the  brief  record  he  has  given  of  his  wife's  death  (xxiv.  15-18). 

The  central  point  of  his  predictions  is  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Ezekiel's  predictions  were  delivered  partly  before  and  partly  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Before  this  event  his  chief  object  was 
to  call  to  repentance  those  living  in  careless  security ;  to  warn  them 
against  indulging  the  hope  that,  by  the  help  of  the  Egyptians,  the 
Babylonian  yoke  would  be  shaken  off  (xvii.  15-17 ;  compare  Jer. 
xxxvii.  7);  and  to  assure  them  that  the  destruction  of  their  city  and 
temple  was  inevitable  and  fast  approaching.  After  this  event  his  prin- 
cipal care  was  to  console  the  exiled  Jews  by  promises  of  future  deliv- 
erance and  restoration  to  their  own  land,  and  to  encourage  them  by 
assurances  of  future  blessings.  His  predictions  against  foreign  nations 
come  between  these  two  great  divisions,  having  been  for  the  most  part 
uttered  during  the  interval  between  the  Divine  intimation  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar was  besieging  Jerusalem  (xxiv.  2),  and  the  arrival  of  the 
news  that  he  had  taken  it  (xxxiii.  21).  The  periods  at  which  the 
predictions  on  these  different  subjects  were  delivered  are  frequently 
noted. 

The  book  is  divided  by  Havernick  into  nine  sections,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  the  arrangement  was  made  by  Ezekiel  himself 

1.  Ezekiel's  call  to  the  prophetic  office,  i.-iii.  21.  Here  God  appears 
ia  a  cloud,  and  from  between  the  cherubim  gives  the  prophet  a  com- 


564  EZEKIEL — DIVISIONS. 

mission,  shows  liim  a  roll  inscribed  with  prophetical  characters,  and 
bids  him  eat  it,  that  is,  digest  its  contents. 

2.  Predictions  and  symbolical  representations,  foretelling  the  ap- 
proaching destruction  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  iii.  22--vii.  The  390 
years  of  IsraeFs  defection,  and  the  forty  years  during  which  Judah  had 
been  specially  rebellious,  are  set  forth  in  the  typical  siege  of  chap.  iv. 
The  threefold  judgments  of  pestilence,  sword,  and  dispersion,  are  set 
forth  by  the  symbolical  representations  of  chap.  v. 

3.  Visions  presented  to  the  prophet  a  year  and  two  months  later  than 
the  former,  in  which  he  is  shown  the  temjile  polluted  by  the  worship 
of  Thammuz  (afterwards  Adonis) ;  the  worshippers  turning,  like  Per- 
sian idolaters,  to  the  East;  the  consequent  judgment  on  Jerusalem  and 
the  priests,  a  few  faithful  being  marked  for  exemption  (ix.);  and  closing 
with  promises  of  happier  times  and  a  purer  worship,  viii.-xi.  Mark 
how  the  symbol  of  the  Divine  presence  is  gradually  withdrawn  ;  it 
moves  from  the  temple  first,  and  then  from  the  city. 

4.  Specific  reproofs  and  warnings,  xii.-xix.  Here  he  shows  the  cap- 
tives by  two  signs  (xii.)  what  was  about  to  be  the  fate  of  the  people ; 
exposes  the  false  prophets,  who  at  Jerusalem  and  at  Babylon  (Jer.  xxiii. 
16;  xxix.  8)  spoke  of  peace  and  rest,  Ezek.  xiii.  18;  repeats  his  threat- 
enings  to  some  elders  who  visited  him  in  the  hope  of  getting  something 
from  him  that  might  contradict  Jeremiah,  xiv.;  sets  forth  Israel  as  a 
fruitless  vine  (xv.),  and  as  a  base  adulteress  (xvi.)  "  He  shows  by  one 
eas;le  (Nebuchadnezzar),  who  had  taken  away  the  top  of  the  cedar 
(Jehoiakira),  and  by  another  eagle  (Pharaoh),  to  whom  the  vine  that 
was  left  (Zedekiah)  was  turning,  the  uprooting  of  the  whole  ;  and,  di- 
gressing to  upbraid  Zedekiah  for  the  oath  which  he  was  now  breaking 
(compare  ver.  15  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  13),  he  predicts  the  replanting 
and  flourishing  of  the  whole  under  Messiah  the  Branch"^  (xvii.)  He 
shows  that  this  suffering  is  the  consequence  of  their  oiun  acts  (xviii.), 
and  not  only  the  acts  of  their  fathers. 

5.  Another  series  of  warnings,  given  about  a  year  later,  when  Zede- 
kiah had  revolted  to  Egypt:  Zedekiah  to  be  overthrown,  Jehoiakim  to 
be  raised  (xxi.  26;  see  xvii.  15),  and  all  future  changes  preparing  for 
Clu-ist  (xxi.  27);  xx.-xxiii. 

6.  Predictions  uttered  two  years  and  five  months  later,  on  the  very 
day  when  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  commenced  (xxiv.  1 ;  compare  2 
Kings  XXV.  1),  announcing  its  complete  overthrow  (xxiv.)  His  own 
wife  removed  on  that  day  ;  he  weeps  not,  as  a  sign  to  them  that  the  fall 

.    »  Leifchild. 


EZEKIEL— OBADIAH.  ,  565 

of  Jerusalem  would  be  to  them  a  hardening  calamity,  leaving  no  time 
or  opportunity  for  mourning. 

7.  Predictions  against  foreign  nations  (xxv.-xxxii.),  extending  over 
a  period  of  three  years,  during  whicli  time  Jerusalem  was  besieged,  and 
no  prophecy  was  delivered  against  Israel ;  see  xxiv.  27.  The  speedy 
accomplishment  of  many  of  these  predictions,  besides  giving  evidence 
to  all  ages  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  assured  the  Israelites  of  the  cer- 
tain accomplishment  of  the  rest. 

8.  His  predictions  concerning  Israel  renewed ;  the  promised  sign  (a 
refugee  from  Jerusalem)  having  come  (compare  xxiv.  26  and  xxxiii.  21). 
Exhortations  to  repentance;  a  prophecy  against  Edom  ;  the  triumph 
of  Israel  and  the  progress  of  tlio  kingdom  of  God  on  earth  foretold 
(xxxiii.-xxxix.) 

9.  Symbolic  representations  of  the  Messianic  times ;  the  grandeur 
and  beauty  of  the  new  city  and  temple  (xl.-xlviii.) 

These  closing  chapters  are  confessedly  obscure.  Some  regard  them 
as  descriptive  of  what  Solomon's  temple  was ;  others  of  what  the  second 
temple  should  be;  and  others,  still,  of  a  glorious  building  hereafter  to 
be  reared.  From  the  description  itself,  from  the  analogous  language  of 
the  last  chapters  of  Revelation,  and  from  the  general  tenor  of  prophetic 
language,  the  whole  is  deemed  by  most  authorities  (Havernick,  Fair- 
barn,  and  others)  to  be  descriptive  of  the  vastness,  glory,  and  certain 
prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

THE    BOOK    OF    OBADIAH,  B.   C.  588-583, 

94.  The  time  when  Obadiah  delivered  his  prophecy  is  some- 
what uncertain,  but  it  was  probably  between  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chalda?ans  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (588 
B.  C),  and  the  conquest  of  Edom,  which  took  place  five  years 
afterwards.  Others  give  an  earlier  date  to  this  book  (time 
of  Hezekiah),  though  with  less  reason.  The  personal  history  of 
the  prophet  is  not  known,  but  several  eminent  persons  of  his 
name  are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  A  contemporary  of  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel,  he  treats  of  the  same  subjects.  Between 
the  writings  of  the  three  there  is  an  occasional  resemblance.". 

Israel  had  no  greater  enemy  than  the  Edomites.     They  were  proud 

»  Obad.  i.-iv. :  Jer.  xlix.  14-16:  Obad.  vi.  8  :  Jer.  xlix.  9,  10:  Obad. 
ix. :  Ezek.  xxv.  13,  ver.  12,  and  Ezek.  xxxv.  15. 

4H 


566  OBADIAH — THE   CAPTIVITY. 

of  their  wisdom,  ver.  8,  and  of  their  rocky  and  impregnable  position, 
ver.  3.  But  the  prophet  foretells  the  uncovering  of  their  treasures, 
and  rebukes  their  unkind  treatment  of  the  Jews,  their  kinsmen,  in 
rejoicing  over  their  calamities,  and  encouraging  Nebuchadnezzar  utterly 
to  exterminate  them  (Psa.  cxxxvii.  7);  for  all  which  an  early  day  of 
retribution  was  to  come:  "As  thou  hast  done  it  shall  be  done  unto 
thee,"  ver  15. 

But  the  chosen  race  themselves  had  just  been  carried  into  captivity; 
the  holy  land  was  deserted ;  and  the  chastisement  denounced  against 
the  Edomites  might  therefore  appear  not  to  differ  from  that  which  had 
already  been  inflicted  upon  the  seed  of  Jacob.  The  prophet  therefore 
goes  on  to  declare  that  Edom  should  be  as  though  it  had  never  been, 
and  should  be  swallowed  up  forever  (a  prophecy  which  has  been  re- 
markably fulfilled);  while  Israel  should  rise  again  from  her  present 
fall;  should  repossess  not  only  her  own  land,  but  also  Philistia  and 
Edom;  and  finally  rejoice  in  the  holy  reign  of  the  promised  Messiah. 
See  Ft.  i.  §  188. 

Compare  Amos  i.  11,  12;  ix.  11-15:  Joel  iii.  19,  20:  Ezek.  xxxv. 

THE    CAPTIVITY. 

The  Babylonish  captivity  was  a  remarkable,  and  at  the  time 
it  occurred  an  unexampled,  dispensation  of  Providence.  The 
people  of  Israel,  in  the  time  of  the  judges,  had  often  been 
brought  under  their  enemies ;  and  the  ark,  the  symbol  of 
God's  presence,  had  once  forsaken  the  tabernacle  of  Shiloh, 
and  had  been  carried  away  into  the  land  of  the  Philistines; 
but  the  captivity  was  attended  with  much  heavier  calamities. 

The  whole  land  was  now  desolated,  the  ark  destroyed,  the  temple 
burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  laid  waste ;  while  the 
body  of  the  people  were  delivered  into  the  h-ands  of  barbarous  ene- 
mies, and  taken  out  of  their  own  into  a  distant  country.  It  is  not 
easy  to  describe  the  feelings  of  distress  and  amazement  of  the  faithful 
servants  of  God  whose  lot  was  cast  in  these  dark  and  calamitous  times. 
But  in  the  short  book  of  the  "  Lamentations"  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
who  lived  in  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  there  is  a  heart-touching  memo- 
rial of  them,  which  gives  a  faithful  delineation  of  this  visitation  and 
of  its  results. 

Yet,  painful  as  these  events  were,  they  were  remarkably  overruled 
for  the  further  development  of  the  purposes  of  God  and  the  advance- 


THE   CAPTIVITY.  567 

ment  of  true  religion.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon  tended 
greatly  to  cure  tliem  of  the  sin  of  idolatry,  to  which  they  had  been 
addicted  for  so  many  ages  ;  a  result  which  all  their  previous  warnings, 
corrections,  and  judgments  had  failed  to  produce.  It  diffused  the  fear 
of  Jehovah  among  the  heathen,  and  elicited  from  Cyrus,  from  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, from  Darius,  acknowledgments  of  his  perfections  and 
claims.  It  also  prepared  the  way  for  the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  dis- 
pensation of  the  Gospel,  by  taking  away  many  of  those  things  wherein 
consisted  the  glory  of  the  Jewish  dispensation,  an. I  by  causing  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews  throughout  a  great  part  of  the  known  world.  Those 
dispersed  Jews,  carrying  with  them  the  holy  Scriptures,  containing  the 
prophecies  of  the  Messiah,  became  the  means  of  diffusing  some  know- 
ledge of  the  true  religion,  and  of  raising,  to  some  extent,  a  general  ex- 
pectation of  the  coming  of  the  Saviour. 

These  events  were  also  of  great  importance,  as  presenting  a  striking 
fulfilment  of  prophecy.  Long  before  the  desolation  and  captivity  of 
the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  their  relative  destinies  had  been 
foretold.  When  these  two  kingdoms  stood  up  together  at  the  time  of 
their  separation,  no  human  calculation  could  have  determined  which 
would  be  the  more  stable  or  prosperous  of  the  two.  That  of  Samaria 
seemed  rather  to  have  the  advantage,  considering  her  greater  territory 
and  numbers.  But  the  voice  of  prophecy  decided  the  question.  The 
earliest  three  prophets  who  refer  to  this  subject,  Hosea,  Amos  and 
Isaiah,  all  announce  the  earlier  downfall  and  the  utter  desolation  of 
Israel.  Israel  was  to  be  "  broken  within  threescore  and  five  years," 
and  to  "  cease  from  being  a  people,"  Isa.  vii.  6-8 ;  and  the  Assyrian 
power  was  foreshown,  by  Hosea's  prediction,  to  be  the  instrument  of 
the  Divine  judgment,  Hos.xi.  5,  etc. 

The  captivity  of  Judah  was  first  expressly  foretold  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  upon  the  occasion  of  his  displaying  to  the  ambassadors 
from  Babylon  his  treasures  and  the  wealtli  and  splendor  of  his  king- 
dom, Isa.  xxxix.  2:  2  Chron.  xxxii.  27.  And' the  fullnes:::  of  the  pre- 
dictions on  the  subject  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  is  very  remarkable. 
They  not  only  describe  the  calamity  which  was  about  to  overwhelm 
the  Jewish  people,  but  they  disclose  the  reasons  and  purposes  of  God'a 
providence  in  bringing  it  to  pa.ss.  They  represent  it  as  a  judicial  visi- 
tation for  an  extent  of  sin  and  corruption  not  otherwise  to  be  purged 
away ;  and  as  designed,  not  for  punishment  to  their  destruction,  but 
for  discipline  to  repentance  and  humiliation.  They  foretell,  also,  the 
time  of  its  continuance,  which  the}'' limit  to  seventy  years,  and  its  i'sswe, 
together  with  the  penitent  state  of  heart  and  the  course  of  events  on 
■which  that  issue  was  to  depend.     The  restoration  of  Judah,  an  event 


56S  THE    RESTORATION — EZRA. 

BO  little  to  be  expected  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  was  foretold 
as  plainly  as  the  captivity.  See  Isa.  xiv.  3;  xliv.  26-28;  xlv.  1-4,  13. 
Jer.  XXV.  9-13;  xxix.  10-14,  1.  4,  5;  li.:  Ezek.  xi.  16,  17;  xii.  15;  xx. 
34,  and  other  passage.^. 

The  characteristic  peculiarities  of  prophecy  during  this 
period  have  been  already  noticed  (Part  ii.)  Its  extended 
range  and  explicit  denunciations  against  the  heathen,  its 
evangelical  disclosures  of  a  coming  kingdom,  the  growing 
spirituality  of  its  precepts,  are  all  deeply  instructive,  and  are 
rendered  appropriate,  if  not  necessary,  by  the  depressed  con- 
dition of  the  Jewish  church. 

THE    RESTORATION. 

Babylon  had  now  fallen,  as  had  been  foretold,  and  Daniel, 
there  is  reason  to  believe,  stood  high  in  the  esteem  of  the 
conqueror  Cyrus.  To  that  monarch  he  probably  showed  the 
predictions  of  Isaiah,  and  now  that  at  the  end  of  seventy 
years  of  captivity  Cyrus  found  the  sovereign  power  in  his' 
hands,  he  issued  a  decree,  in  which,  after  acknowledging  the 
supremacy  of  Jehovah,  he  gave  permission  to  the  Jews  in  any 
part  of  his  dominions  to  return  to  their  own  land,  and  to  rebuild 
the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  results  of  this  decree, 
and  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Jews  till  the  close  of  the 
Old  Testament  canon,  are  found  in  the  remaining  books  of 
the  Bible,  xittention  to  the  chronological  order  of  the  books 
is  important.     The  arrangement  will  be  found  in  Ft.  ii.  §  6. 

Sec.  5. — The  Books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Esther, 
Nehemiah,  Malachi. 

the  book  of  ezra,  b.  c.  536-457. 

95.  Ezra  Avas  one  of  the  captives  at  Babylon,  where  he  was 
probably  born.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Seraiah,  the  chief 
priest,  who  was  slain  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xxv. 
18-21),  and  therefore  a  descendant  of  Aaron.      He  was  a 


EZRA.  569 

"ready  scribe,"  or  rather  instructor,  in  the  law  of  God.  He 
was  a  man  of  deep  humility  (ix.  10-15),  of  fervent  zeal  for 
God's  honor  (vii.  10 ;  viii.  21-23),  deeply  grieving  over  the 
sins  of  the  people,  and  sparing  no  pains  to  bring  them  to  re- 
pentance (ix.  3  ;  X.  6,  10).  He  joined  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem 
m.any  years  after  their  return,  going  up  thither  with  the  second 
large  company. 

I'ni't  of  the  book  (iv.  8-vi.  19;  vii.  1-27),  is  written  in  Chaldee,  and 
consists  chiefly  of  conversations  or  decrees  in  that  tongue.  Ezra  speaks 
n!'  himself  as  the  author  in  vii.  27,  28;  viii.  1,  25-29;  ix.  5.  The 
whole  period  comprehended  in  this  book  extends  from  536  to  457  B.  C, 
or  about  seventy-nine  years. 

The  history  in  this  book  consists  of  two  portions,  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  considerable  interval  of  time.  The  first  contains  the 
history  of  the  returning  exiles,  and  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple, 
which  had  been  decreed  by  C3'rus,  in  the  year  536  B.  C,  and  completed 
in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  in  the  year  515  B.  C.  The  second 
portion  contains  the  personal  history  of  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem, 
with  commission  from  Artaxerxes,  in  the  year  457  B.  C. ;  and  his  exer- 
tions for  the  reformation  of  the  people. 

The  contents  of  this  book  mav  be  divided  as  follows : 

(i.)  The  return  of  the  Jews  from  their  cajjtivity  in  Babylon,  and  the 
rebuilding  of  the  temple. 

The  proclamation  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple,  chap.  i.  The  people  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  the  grand- 
son of  king  Jehoiachin,  and  Joshua,  the  grandson  of  Josedek,  with 
their  offerings  for  the  temple,  ii.  Erection  of  the  altar  of  burnt-offer- 
ing, and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  iii.  Opposition  of  the 
Samaritans,  and  suspension  of  the  building,  iv.  Prophecies  of  Haggai 
and  Zechariah  ;  recommencement  of  the  building;  letter  of  the  Sa- 
maritans lo  Darius,  v.  Decree  of  Darius;  completion  and  dedication 
of  the  temple,  vi. 

(ii.)  Ezras  journey  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  reformations  which  he 
effected. 

Ezra's  commission  from  Artaxerxes,  and  his  journey  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem,  with  his  companions,  vii.,  viii.  Ezra's  mourning  for  the 
sins  of  the  people,  and  confession  and  prayer,  ix.  Repentance  and 
reformation  of  the  people,  x. 

The  book  of  Ezra  should  be  read  in  connection  with  the  prophecies 
of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
48* 


570  EZRA. 

In  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  we  see  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah  (xliv.  28),  and  Jeremiah  (xxv.  12;  xxix.  10);  the 
former  had  predicted  the  name  of  their  deliverer,  and  the  latter  the 
exact  time  of  their  deliverance,  as  well  as  the  state  of  heart  with  which 
it  should  be  accompanied.  This  restoration  of  the  Jewish  church,  tem- 
ple, and  worship,  was  an  event  of  the  highest  consequence,  as  tending 
to  preserve  true  religion  in  the  world,  and  preparing  the  way  for  the 
appearance  of  the  Great  Deliverer,  an  ancestor  of  whom,  Zerubbabel, 
or  Sheshbazzar,  was  appointed  in  the  providence  of  God  to  lead  his  peo- 
ple from  Babylon. 

This  deliverance  of  the  Jewish  people  is  much  spoken  of  by  the 
prophets  as  a  most  glorious  display  of  the  providence  of  God  ;  and  like 
the  redemption  of  their  forefathers  out  of  Egypt,  it  may  be  viewed  as 
a  type  of  the  great  salvation  of  Christ,  and  of  the  journey  of  his  re- 
deemed people  to  the  heavenly  Canaan,  under  the  care  and  guidance 
of  God  their  Saviour,  Isa.  xxxii.  2;  xlii.  16;  li.  11. 

Among  the  remarkable  dispensations  of  Providence  recorded  in  this 
history,  we  may  notice  especially  how  wonderfully  God  inclined  the 
hearts  of  several  heathen  princes,  Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Artaxerxes,  to 
favor  and  protect  his  people,  and  to  aid  them  in  the  work  of  rebuilding 
their  city  and  temple,  i.,  iv.,  vi.,  vii.  Mark,  too,  how  God  overruled 
the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  the  decree  of  Darius  being  much  more 
favorable  than  that  of  Cyrus  (Ezr.  i.  and  v. ;  vi.)  There  is  also  another 
dis])lay  of  God's  special  and  discriminating  providence  in  the  fulfilment 
of  his  promises  to  his  people.  Whilst  in  the  land  of  Samaria,  colonies 
of  strangers  had  been  planted,  which  filled  the  territory  of  Israel  with 
a  heathen  race,  so  as  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  ancient  inhabitants; 
it  appears  that  in  the  land  of  Judah  full  room  was  left  for  the  return 
and  restoration  of  the  Jews. 

Unlike  Nehemiah,  Ezra  seems  to  haVe  remained  at  Jeru- 
salem. He  is  said  to  have  lived  to  tlie  same  age  as  Moses, 
120  years,  and  is  esteemed  by  the  Jews  as  next  to  him  for 
the  services  he  rendered  to  their  religion.  He  appears  to 
have  exercised  civil  authority  for  nearly  twelve  years.  We 
read  of  him  in  the  next  book  as  employed  in  his  sacred  duties, 
and  zealously  co-operating  with  Nehemiah,  who  succeeded 
him  in  the  government,  in  promoting  the  reformation  of  the 
people. 


HAGGAI.  571 

THE   BOOK    OF    HAGGAI,  B.  C.   520-518. 

96.  Haggai  is  generally  thought  to  have  been  born  in  the 
captivity,  and  to  have  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezr.  ii.  2).  He  is  the  first  of  the  three  prophets  who 
flourished  among  the  Jews  after  their  return  to  Juda3a,  and 
was  raised  up  by  God  to  encourage  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua 
the  high-priest  to  resume  the  building  of  the  temple,  which 
had  been  interrupted  for  nearly  fourteen  years  by  the  Samari- 
tans and  others  artfully  attempting  to  defeat  the  edict  of 
Cyrus  (Ezr.  iv.  24).  Though  this  interruption  was  now  re- 
moved, the  Jews  showed  no  desire  to  recommence  the  work. 
The  time  they  said  was  not  come  to  build  the  house  of  the 
Lord.  They  were  more  anxious  to  build  and  adorn  their  own 
houses,  to  cultivate  their  fields,  and  multiply  their  flocks. 
This  woiddliness,  however,  brought  its  own  punishment.  They 
"looked  for  much,"  and  "it  came'  to  little."  Drought  and 
mildew  were  sent  to  rebuke  their  neglect  of  what  ought  to 
have  been  their  first  work,  and  Haggai  and  Zechariah  were 
raised  up  to  reform  and  encourage  them,  i.  4-11 ;  ii.  15-19 : 
Zech.  viii.  9-12. 

This  book  contains  four  prophetic  messages  (i.  1;  ii.  1,  10,  20),  all 
delivered  in  about  four  months.  They  are  so  brief,  that  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  only  a  summary  of  the  original  prophecies. 

In  the  first,  Haggai  reproves  the  Jews  for  neglecting  the  temple,  and 
promises  that  the  Divine  favor  shall  attend  its  erection.  Twenty-four 
days  after  this  prophecy,  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  and  all  the  people, 
resumed  their  work,  and  were  encouraged  by  a  gracious  message  from 
God,  chap.  i. 

About  four  weeks  afterwards,  the  zeal  of  the  people  appears  to  have 
cooled  ;  and  many  doubts  arose  in  their  minds.  To  remove  these, 
Haggai  declares  that  the  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  them ;  and  that  the 
glory  of  the  new  temple  shall  be  greater  than  that  of  the  former,  ii.  1-9. 

Two  months  afterwards,  Haggai  addresses  them  a  third  time,  rebuk- 
ing their  listlessness,  and  promising  them  the  Divine  blessing  from  the 
time  of  the  foundation  of  the  Lord's  house  was  laid,  ii.  10-19.^  And 
on  the  same  day  another  prophecy  was  delivered,  addressed  to  Zerub- 
babel, the  head  and  representative  of  the  family  of  David,  and  the 


572  ZECHABIAH. 

individual  witli  whom  the  genealogy  of  the  Mesfiah  (through  both 
Joseph  and  Mary:  see  Matt.  i.  12:  Luke  iii.  27)be^an  after  the  cap- 
tivity, promising  the  preservation  of  the  people  of  God,  amidst  the  fall 
and  ruin  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  world,  ii.  20-23. 

These  signal  predictions,  which  gained  for  Haggai  the  character  of  a 
prophet  (Ez.  v.  1 ;  vi.  14),  were  both  referred  by  the  Jews  to  the  time 
of  the  Messiah,  Eph.  ii.  14:  Heb.  xii.  26,  27  (Grotius).  The  second 
temple  was  to  witness  the  presence  of  the  Great  Teacher  himself;  and 
though  that  temple  was  nearly  wholly  rebuilt  by  Herod,  this  was 
a  very  gradual  work,  occupying  more  than  forty-six  years ;  nor  did 
Jewish  writers  ever  speak  of  Herod's  temple  in  other  terms  than  as 
the  second.  In  the  closing  prediction,  Christ  himself  is  spoken  of  under 
the  type  of  Zerubbabel ;  and  the  temporal  commotions  which  preceded 
his  first  coming,  and  are  to  precede  his  second,  are  represented  by  the 
shaking  and  overthrow  of  earthly  kingdoms. 

THE    BOOK    OF   ZECHARIAH,    B.    C.    520-510. 

97.  Zechariali,  tlie  son  of  Baracliiali  and  grandson  of  Iddo, 
was  probably  of  tbe  priestly  tribe  (see  Neh.  xii.  4),  and  re- 
turned from  Babylon,  when  quite  a  youtli,  with  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua.  Whether  Iddo  was  himself  a  prophet  is  not 
clear  (compare  Hebrew  and  LXX).  His  grandson,  Zechariah, 
began  to  prophesy  about  two  months  after  Haggai  (i.  1 : 
Ezr.  V.  1 ;  vi.  14 :  Hag.  i.  1),  in  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspes,  and  continued  to  j^rophesy  for  two  years,  vii.  1. 
He  had  the  same  general  object  as  Haggai,  to  encourage  and 
urge  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  temple.  The  Jews,  Ave  are  told, 
"prospered  through  the  prophesying"  (Ez.  vi.  14j,  and  in 
about  six  years  the  temple  was  finished. 

Zechiiriah  collected  his  own  prophecies  (i.  9;  ii.  2),  and  is  very  fre- 
quently quoted  in  the  New  Testament.  Indeed,  next  to  Isaiah, 
Zechariah  has  the  most  frequent  allusions  to  the  character  and  coming 
of  our  Lord. 

The  genuineness  of  the  closing  chaps,  ix.-xiv.,  has  been  doubted. 
Mede  and  others  refer  them  to  Jeremiah,  deeming  the  reading  in  Matt, 
xxvii.  9,  10,  and  internal  evidence,  in  favor  of  this  view.     Jahn,  Blay- 


ZECHARIAH — EXPOSITION.  573 

ne)',  Hengstenberg,  and  others,  refer  the  whole  to  Zechariah.  and  sup- 
posed the  reading  to  he,  as  it  easily  might  be,  an  error  of  copyists.^ 

While  the  immediate  object  of  Zechariah  was  to  encourage  the  Jews 
in  the  restoration  of  public  worship,  he  has  other  objects  more  remote 
and  important.  His  prophecies,  like  those  of  Daniel,  extend  to  the 
"  times  of  the  Gentiles ;"  but  in  Zechariah,  the  history  of  the  chosen 
people  occupies  the  centre  of  his  predictions ;  and  that  history  is  set 
forth  both  in  direct  prophecy  and  in  symbolical  acts  or  visions. 

As  Zechariah  abounds  in  symbolical  imagery,  we  shall  give,  instead 
of  a  brief  summary,  an  outline  of  his  different  visions,  with  such  inter- 
pretations as  are  approved  by  eminent  commentators. 

98.  The  book  of  Zechariah  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : — 
1.  Chaps,  i.-vi.,  containing  nine  visions,  in  addition  to  the  warnings 
given  in  i.  1-6.  The  first  showing  that,  though  seventy  years  had 
elapsed  since  the  ninth  of  Zedekiah,  shortly  after  which  time  the  temple 
was  burned,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  earth  had  rest,  the  Jews  were  still 
molested ;  the  angel  of  God  {i.  e.,  either  Messiah  or  the  church)  asks 
how  long;  and  good  and  comfortable  words  are  spoken  in  reply  in  the 
hearing  of  the  prophet,  i.  7-17.  The  prophet  then  sees  the  horns,  or 
four  kingdoms,  by  whom  the  Jews  had  been,  or  were  yet  to  be  scat- 
tered ;  and  also  four  carpenters,  or  helpers,  by  whose  aid  the  horns  are 
to  be  cast  out,  i.  18-21.  The  prophet  has  now  a  third  vision,  of  a 
man  with  a  measuring  line,  to  imply  the  rebuilding  and  enlargement 
of  Jerusalem:  she  shall  overflow,  or  break  down  her  walls,  and 
Jehovah  will  be  at  once  a  wall  of  fire  round  about  her  and  the  glory 
in  the  midst.  He  exhorts  the  Jews  still  in  Babylon  to  return,  and 
foretells  yet  larger  accessions,  ii.  1-13.  He  then  predicts  the  increased 
purity  of  the  priesthood  in  the  person  of  Joshua,  thence  he  passes  to 
the  office  of  Christ,  as  a  Branch  out  of  David's  root  (Isa.  iv.  2  :  Jer. 
xxiii.  5;  xxxiii.  15);  a  Stone  for  a  foundation,  having  seven  eyes,  to 
indicate  his  perfect  intelligence,  and  Divinely  engraven  or  adorned. 
In  his  day  all  shall  dwell  safely  and  in  peace,  iii.  1-10.  In  the  fifth 
vision,  the  prophet  sees  a  golden  candlestick,  supplied  by  two  olive- 
trees  dropping  their  oil  into  it ;  asd  these  show  how,  by  the  Spirit  of  the 
Lord  in  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  the  temple  and  the  church  should  be 
completed,  without  external  help  (ver.  6),  and  against  all  opposition 
(ver.  7),  iv.  l-l-l :  compare  ver.  12  and  Eev.  xi.  4.  He  is  then  taught, 
by  the  vision  of  a  fl5'ing  roll,  the  swift  judgments  that  are  to  fall  upon 

»  The  name  is  wanting  in  some  MSS.  and  in  the  Syriac;  z«;t=(^/iu  ia 
found  in  others :  and  to  confound  Z/)/a-  with  ifiou  is  easy  enough. 


574  ZECHAEIAH — EXPOSITION. 

thieves  and  false-swearers :  by  another,  of  an  ephah,  or  measure,  and 
a  woman  sitting  upon  it  with  a  talent  of  lead  upon  her,  and  two  winged 
women  carrying  the  whole  to  Shinaar,  he  is  taught  the  heavy  judgment 
of  some  nation  that  has  filled  up  the  measure  of  her  iniquity  and  is  to 
be  established  and  settled  in  the  Uast,  v.  1-4,  5-11.  In  the  eighth 
vision,  mountains — fixed  Divine  purposes — are  seen  to  send  out  chariots 
and  horses,  instrupients  of  Divine  providence.  They  quiet  the  spirit 
of  the  prophet  (ver.  8 :  compare  Judg.  viii.  3),  by  inflicting  punish- 
ment upon  Babylon  (ver.  8  :  compare  Jer.  i.  14).»  In  the  closing 
vision,''  Joshua  is  seen  crowned  with  two  crowns  of  silver  and  gold, 
and  becomes  in  that  condition  a  type  of  Christ,  the  Branch,  who, 
uniting  in  himself  the  priestly  and  kingly  offices,  is  to  build  the  temple 
and  bear  the  glory,  vi.  1-15. 

2.  Chaps,  vii.,  viii.  In  the  second  part,  messengers  from  Babylon 
come  to  learn  from  the  prophet  whether  God  had  sanctioned  the  new 
fasts  instituted  at  the  commencement  of  the  captivity  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  and  temple.  The  prophet  replies  that  God  had  not 
sanctioned  them,  and  that  what  he  requires  is  a  return  to  obedience, 
which  the  messengers,  or  people,  refuse,  vii.  1-14.  Prophecies,  inter- 
mixed with  warnings,  follow :  fasting  seasons  are  to  become  cheer- 
ful feasts,  and  the  Jews  are  to  be  a  universal  blessing,  viii.  1-23  : 
ver.  13,  23. 

3.  Chaps,  ix.-xiv.  The  third  part  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews, 
and  of  the  church,  to  the  end  of  time.  Syria,  Tyre,  and  Sidon,  are  to 
be  conquered,  though  the  house  of  the  Lord  will  be  preserved,  even 
while  heathen  armies,  and  Alexander  (ix.  6),  pass  through  the  land: 
and  at  length  Messiah  is  to  come  and  establish  a  peaceful  kingdom, 
which  shall  finally  extend  over  the  earth  (ver.  9 :  Matt.  xxi.  4,  5) : 
ix.  1-17.  Idols  are  to  be  everywhere  abandoned,  Judah,  and  even 
Ephraim  restored,  (ver.  7);  x.  1-12.  A  sad  scene,  however,  is  to  in- 
tervene. The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is  again  foretold,  in  terms 
taken  probabl}'-  from  the  history  of  her  first  overthrow,  the  prophetic 
office  is  to  be  in  the  lowest  repute  (ver.  12),  the  wands  or  crooks,  sym- 
bolical of  the  shepherd's  office,  are  broken,  and  false  hireling  shepherds 
are  honored  :  all  which  has  its  fulfilment  in  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 

»  Probably  the  four  chariots  denote  the  four  empires  of  Daniel's 
vision ;  the  red  horses,  the  Babylonians ;  the  black,  the  Persians,  who 
overthrew  Babylon ;  the  white,  the  ?iIacedonians,  who  were  peaceful 
to  the  Jews  ;  and  the  spotted  bay,  the  Komans.  The  general  import  is 
at  least  clear. 

i"  Or  symbolical  action. 


ESTHER.  0  /  O 

salem  by  the  Romans,  in  the  impious  rejection  of  Christ  by  the  Jews, 
the  mean  undervaluation  of  him  by  Judas,  and  the  powerlessness  and 
ignorance  of  the  Jewish  rulers  ;  "  the  arm  dried  up,  and  the  right  eye 
darkened,"  (ver.  17):  xi.  1-17.  Nevertheless,  Jerusalem  shall  be  a 
burdensome  stone  to  all  nations.  The  Jews  shall  mourn  over  their 
sins,  and  especially  over  the  sin  that  destroyed  them,  the  crucifixion 
of  our  Lord  (John  xix.  37),  and  all  shall  be  forgiven,  xii.  1-xiii.  1. 
The  idols  shall  be  cut  off;  false  prophets  shall  cease ;  the  prophetic 
office  itself  shall  bring  persecution;  the  shepherd  being  smitten,  the 
sheep  shall  be  scattered,  though  a  remnant  of  them  shall  survive  the 
overthrow  of  the  Jewish  state,  xiii.  2-9.  Jerusalem,  however,  will  be 
destroyed,  and  the  people  scattered.  Christ  shall  ascend  from  Olivet, 
and  thence  shall  Jewish  Christians  be  forced  out  by  persecution,  and 
extend  the  church  on  all  sides,  the  barriers  which  surrounded  the  Jewish 
people  and  state  being  removed.^  Then,  and  for  long  after,  the  church 
is  to  remain  in  a  state  of  mingled  prosperity  and  suffering,  and  at  the 
close,  not  night,  but  day  more  glorious  than  ever,  shall  shine  over  all 
the  earth,  and  the  world  shall  become  "  Holiness  unto  the  Lord,"  xiv. 

It  may  be  added  that  in  the  version  of  the  LXX  several 
psalms  are  ascribed  to  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (cxxxviii.,  cxlvi.- 
cxlviii.) ;  and  though  nothing  can  be  decided  with  certainty 
as  to  these  particular  psalms,  it  is  highly  probable  that  both 
prophets  were  concerned  in  the  composition  of  some  of  those 
which  were  produced  after  the  return  from  captivity. 

THE   BOOK    OF   ESTHER,  B.  C.  462-452. 

99.  But  few  comparatively  of  the  Jews  availed  themselves 
of  the  privilege  to  return  to  the  land  of  their  fathers.  Most 
of  the  existing  race  had  been  born  in  Babylonia ;  they  had 
made  that  country  their  home,  and  had  gathered  around  them 
comforts  which  were  not  easily  abandoned.  Not  more  than 
50,000  persons  had  gone  up  under  Zerubbabel ;  and  the  sec- 
ond band,  under  Ezra,  more  than  seventy  years  later,  num- 

*  Some,  however,  regard  this  prediction  on  the  clearing  of  Mount 
Olivet,  as  referring  to  the  coming  of  our  Lord,  in  his  premillenial 
glory  (see  Part  i.  §  447).  The  view  given  above,  is  taken  chiefly  aom 
Leifchild's  Help. 


676  ESTHER. 

bered  in  all  aboiit  6,000  persons.  Yet  later,  otlier  bands 
probably  sought  the  city  and  temple  of  God,  but  even  still 
the  great  bulk  of  the  people  remained  in  the  land  of  their 
exile. 

Some  suppose  that  this  book  was  written  by  Mordecai ;  but  the  more 
probable  opinion  (and  one  which  may  account  for  the  omission  of  the 
name  of  God)  is  that  it  is  an  extract  from  the  records  of  Persia.  The 
Asiatic  sovereigns,  it  is  well  known,  caused  annals  of  their  reigns  to  be 
kept.  Numerous  passages  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  prove 
that  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  had  such  annals.  And  this  book 
itself  attests  that  Ahasuerus  had  similar  historical  records,  ii.  23;  vi.  1; 
from  which  it  appears  probable  that  this  history  of  the  Jews,  under 
Queen  Esther,  might  be  derived,  see  chap.  x.  2.  This  supposition  ac- 
counts for  the  retaining  of  the  Persian  word  Furim,  ix.  24-32 :  for  the 
details  given  concerning  the  empire  of  Ahasuerus,  and  for  the  exactness 
with  which  the  names  of  his  ministers,  and  of  Haman's  sons,  are  recorded ; 
also  for  the  Jews  being  mentioned  only  in  the  third  person,  and  Esther 
being  frequently  designated  by  the  title  of  "the  queen,"  and  Mordecai 
by  the  epithet  of  "the  Jew."  It  would  also  accouut  for  those  paren- 
theses which  occur  in  the  course  of  the  narrative,  the  object  of  which 
appears  to  have  been  to  give  illustrations  necessary  for  a  Jewish  reader ; 
and  for  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  narrative,  by  one  sentence  rela- 
tive to  the  power  of  Ahasuerus,  and  another  concerning  Mordecai's 
greatness. 

The  facts  here  related  come  in  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  chap- 
ters of  Ezra.  The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim,  and  its  contin- 
ued observance  to  the  present  time,  is  an  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this 
book.  It  has  always  been  received  as  canonical  by  the  Jews,  who  hold 
it  in  the  highest  veneration. 

The  contents  of  this  book  may  be  thus  stated : — 

It  relates  the  royal  feast  of  Ahasuerus,  and  the  divorce  of  Vashti, 
chap.  i.  The  elevation  of  Esther  to  the  Persian  throne,  and  the  service 
rendered  to  the  king  by  Mordecai,  in  detecting  a  plot  against  his  life,  ii. 
The  promotion  of  Haman,  and  his  purposed  destruction  of  the  Jews,  iii 
The  consequent  affliction  of  the  Jews,  and  the  measures  taken  by 
them,  iv.  The  defeat  of  Haman's  plot  against  Mordecai,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Esther ;  the  honor  done  to  Mordecai,  and  the  exe- 
cution of  HamarU,  v.,  vi.,  vii.  The  defeat  of  Haman's  general  plot 
against  the  Jews ;  the  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim,  in  commemo- 
ration of  this  deliverance,  and  Mordecai's  advancement,  viii.,  ix.,  x. 


ESTHER — JEREMIAH.  577 

The  book  of  Esther  shows  how  these  Jews,  though  scattered  among 
the  heathen,  were  preserved,  even  when  doomed  by  others  to  destruc- 
tion. Though  the  name  of  God  is  not  found  in  the  book,  his  hand  is 
plainly  seen,  antiripatinfj  threatened  evil,  defeating  and  overruling  it 
to  the  greater  good  of  the  Jews,  and  even  of  the  heathen,  i.,  ii.,  iv.-x. 
Nor  was  it  the  safety  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon  only  that  was  in  peril ; 
if  Haman  had  succeeded,  as  tlie  power  of  Persia  was  then  supreme  at 
Jerusalem  and  throughout  Asia,  the  Jews  throughout  the  world  must 
have  perished,  and  with  them  the  whole  of  the  visible  church  of  God. 

Mark  and  admire  the  providence  of  God,  using  what  seems  the  most 
trifling  circumstance  to  accomplish  his  will  (vi.)  Mark,  also,  the  faith 
of  Mordecai,  whose  fear  of  the  unalterable  Persian  decree  was  less  than 
his  trust  in  the  faithfulness  of  God  (iv.  14).  Though  he  knew  not 
how,  he  foresaw  indemnity  to  Israel;  and  he  asks  the  aid  of  Esther, 
rather  for  her  honor  than  for  their  deliverance. 

THE    BOOK   OF   NEHEMIAH,  B.  C.  445-428. 

100.  This  book  was  anciently  united  witli  Ezra,  though 
written  or  compiled  by  Nehemiah.  Chap.  vii.  6-73  was  pro- 
bably compiled,  ver.  5 ;  as  was  xii.  1-26  (ver.  23).  In  the 
rest  there  are  clear  proofs  of  Nehemiah's  authorship  (see 
i.-vii.  and  xii.  27-43:   xiii.  6-31.) 

The  book  of  Nehemiah  takes  up  the  history  of  the  Jews  about  twelve 
years  after  the  close  of  the  book  of  Ezra ;  and  it  gives  an  account  of 
the  improvements  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  the  reformations 
among  the  people  which  were  carried  on  by  Nehemiah. 

Though  the  temple  had  been  rebuilt  under  the  administration  of 
Ezra,  the  walls  and  gates  of  the  city  were  yet  in  the  state  of  ruin  in 
which  the  Chaldasans  had  left  them;  and  consequently  the  inhabitants 
were  exposed  to  the  assault  of  every  enemy.  Nehemiah  was  the  instru- 
ment raised  up  for  their  protection.  Though  a  Jew  and  a  captive,  he 
had  been,  through  the  overruling  providence  of  God,  appointed  cup- 
bearSr  to  the  king  of  Persia;  an  ofhce  which  was  one  of  the  most 
honorable  and  confidential  at  the  court.  Though  thus  in  the  midst  of 
ease  and  wealth,  yet  when  he  heard  of  the  mournful  condition  of  his 
countrymen,  he  was  deeply  afflicted  by  it.  He  made  it  the  subject  of 
earnest  prayer ;  and  after  four  months,  the  sadness  of  his  countenance 
having  revealed  to  the  king  his  sorrow  of  heart,  an  opportunity 
was  given  him  of  petitioning  for  leave  to  go  to  Jerusalem.  The  king 
49 


578  NEHEMIAH, 

(probably  influenced  by  Esther,  his  queen)  appointed  Nehemiah  gov- 
ernor of  Jerusalem,  with  a  commission  to  rebuild  the  walls  and  pro- 
tect the  people,  i. ;  ii.  1-8. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  city  wall  was  accomplished  in  fifty- two  days, 
notwithstanding  the  difficulties  created  by  Sanbaliat  and  Tobiah,  who 
were  leading  men  in  the  rival  colony  of  Samaria ;  they  first  scoffed  at 
the  attempt,  then  threatened  to  attack  the  workmen,  and  finally  used 
various  stratagems  to  weaken  Nehemiah's  authority,  and  even  to  take 
his  life.  In  addition  to  these  dangers  from  without,  Nehemiah  encoun- 
tered hindrances  from  his  own  people,  arising  out  of  the  general  dis- 
tress, which  was  aggravated  by  the  cruel  exactions  of  the  nobles  and 
rulers.  These  grievances  were  redressed  on  the  earnest  remonstrance 
of  Nehemiah,  who  had  himself  set  a  striking  example  of  economy  in 
his  office.  It  appears,  also,  that  some  of  the  chief  men  in  Jerusalem 
were  at  that  time  m  conspiracy  with  Tobiah  against  Nehemiah,  ii.  9-20 ; 
iii.-vi.  Thus  the  wall  was  built  in  "  troublous  times,"  Dan.  ix.  2-3  ;  and 
its  completion  was  joyously  celebrated  by  a  solemn  dedication  under 
Nehemiah's  direction,  xii.  27—13. 

Nehemiah  next  turned  his  attention  to  other  measures  for  the  public 
good.  He  appointed  various  officers,  vii.  1-3;  xii.  44-47;  and  excited 
among  the  people  more  interest  in  religion,  by  the  public  exposition 
of  the  law;  by  an  unexampled  celebration  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
and  the  observance  of  a  national  fast;  and  by  inducing  the  people  to 
enter  into  a  solemn  covenant  "to  walk  in  God's  law,"  viii.-x. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  city  being  as  yet  too  few  to  insure  its  pros- 
perity, Nehemiah  brought  one  out  of  every  ten  in  the  country  to  take 
'  up  his  abode  in  the  ancient  capital,  which  then  presented  so  few  induce- 
ments to  the  settler  that  "the  people  blessed  all  the  men  that  willingly 
offered  themselves  to  dwell  at  Jerusalem,"  vii.  4;  xi.  1-19.  In  all  these 
important  public  proceedings  Nehemiah  appears  to  have  enjoyed  the 
assistance  of  Ezra. 

After  about  twelve  years  (v.  14),  Nehemiah  returned  to  Babylonia; 
he  subsequently  went  back  to  Jerusalem,  and  exerted  himself  to  pro- 
mote the  further  reformation  of  his  countrymen,  particularly  in  the 
correction  of  those  abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  absence,  xiii. 
The  whole  administration  of  Nehemiah  is  supposed  to  have  lasted 
about  thirty -six  years,  and  with  this  book  closes  the  History  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

Nehemiah  presents  a  noble  example  of  true  patriotism  founded  on 

the  fear  of  God  (v.  15),  and  seeking  tlie  religious  welfare  of 

the  state.     His  respect  for  the  Divine  law,  his  reverence  for 

the  Sabbath  (xiii.  18),  his  devout  acknowledgment  of  God  in  all  things 


MALACHI.  579 

(i.  11 ;  ii.  18),  his  practical  perception  of  God's  character  (iv.  14 ;  ix. 
6-33),  his  union  of  watchfulness  and  prayer  (iv.  9,  20),  his  humility  in 
ascribing  all  good  in  himself  to  the  grace  of  God  (ii.  12;  vii.  5),  are  all 
highly  commendable.  In  the  ninth  chapter  we  have  an  instructive 
summary  of  the  history  of  the  Jews,  in  its  most  important  light,  show- 
ing at  once  what  God  is  and  what  men  are.  Few  hooks,  indeed,  of  the 
Bible,  contain  a  richer  illustration  of  Divine  philosophy — that  is,  of 
true  religion  taught  by  example. 

THE   BOOK   OF   MALACHI,  B.  C.  420-397. 

101.  Malachi  ("my  messenger")  is  the  last  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament prophets,  as  Nehemiah  is  the  last  of  the  historians ; 
and  the  time  of  his  ministry  nearly  coincides  with  Nehemiah's 
administration.  The  second  temple  was  now  built,  and  the 
service  of  the  altar,  with  its  offerings  and  sacrifices,  was 
established ;  for  it  is  a  profane  and  insincere  spirit  in  that 
service,  especially  among  the  priests,  which  he  labors  to  cor- 
rect. He  complains,  also,  that  divorces  and  intermarriages 
with  idolaters  have  greatly  multiplied — the  very  evils  which 
Nehemia'h  so  earnestly  condemns.*  He  lived  between  the 
years  436  and  397  B.  C. 

Malachi  begins  his  message  by  reminding  the  Jews  how  God  had 
preferred  them  to  Edom,  and  upbraids  them  with  their  ungrateful 
returns;  he  reproves  the  priests  (i.  6;  ii.  1),  and  the  people  (ii.  11); 
alludes  to  the  Divine  institution  that  made  two  one  flesh,  ver.  15,  that 
the  seed  might  be  holy  ;  threatens  all  with  punishment  and  rejection, 
declaring  that  God  will  "make  his  name  great  among  the  Gentiles," 
for  that  he  was  wearied  with  the  impiety  of  Isreal,  i. ;  ii. 

He  then  proclaims  the  approach  of  Christ  to  that  temple,  and  his 
purification  by  doctrine,  judgment,  and  mercy,  of  both  service  and 
worshippers,  marking  the  happiness  of  the  select  few,  who  in  corrupt 
times  take  counsel  together  for  religious  ends,  whom  God  will  preserve, 
manifesting  at  last  to  all  men,  that  they  are  his  own,  iii.-iv.  1. 

He  closes  the  book,  with  an  assurance  of  approaching  salvation, 
predicts  the  coming  of  the  harbinger  of  the  Sun  of  righteousness,  and 
enjoins,  till  that  day,  the  observance  of  the  law,  Luke  i.  17. 

'  Mai.  ii.  11,  compare  Neh.  xiii.  23-27:  Mai.  ii.  8;  iii.  8,  10:  Neh. 
xiii.  10,  11,  29. 


580 


REIGNS    OF   REIIOBOAM    AND   JEEOBOAM. 


102.  The  last  predictions  of  Scripture,  therefore,  are  like 
the  earliest.  They  rebuke  corruption  and  promise  deliver- 
ance. They  uphold  the  authority  of  the  first  dispensation 
and  reveal  the  second.  The  prophet  is  still  the  teacher  ;  and 
his  last  words  are  of  the  law  and  spiritual  obedience,  and 
again  of  the  Gospel  and  its  healing  glory,  iv.  2. 

Sec.  6. — The  whole  Arranged  and  Epitomized. 

From  the  Death  of  Sohmoii  till  the  close  of  the  Canon. 

103.  (1.)  history  of  the  two  kingdoms. 


JUDAH. 


B.  C. 


Rehoboam,    king    (17    years),      976 

1  Kings  xiv.  21, /.p.  {Juiah):    [975, 

2  Chron.     xii.     13,     /.    p.  Usher] 
{rcsifjned). 

Reliohoam,  preparing  to  at- 
tack the  ten  tribes,  is  for- 
bidden by  Shemaiah, 

1  Kings  xii.  21-24: 

2  Ch'ron.  xii.  1-4. 

Behoboam's   fortifies  his  king-     974 

dom ;    the   priests    and    Le- 

vites  of  Israel  resort  to  him 

Eehoboam's  family, 

[2  Chron.  xi.  5-23] 


Israel. 

■Jeroboam-  king  (22   years); 
he     establishes     himself    at 


Eehoboam's        and       Judah's     973 

idolatry,  1  Kings  xiv.  22-24; 

2  Chron.  xii.  1. 
Shishak     plunders    Jernsleam, 

1  Kings  xiv.  25-28:  2  Chron. 

xii.  2-12. 
Character  and  death  of  Reho- 

boam,  1  Kings  xiv.  21,  I.  p. 

29-31  :  2  Chron.  xii.  13,  Z.p.jUsher] 

14-16. 

Note. — The  names  of  prophets  are  h 
kings  in  Roman  capitals,  and  of  the 
Italic  capitals. 


972 

[970, 

Usher] 

959 
[958, 


Shechem, 


1  Kings  xii.  25. 


Jeroboam,  having  set  up 
golden  calves  at  Dan  and 
Bethel,  is  reproved  by  a 
Man  of  God,  1  Kings  xii. 
26-33:  xiii.  1-10. 
Seduced  bv  an  old  prophet  of 
Bethel,  the  Man  of  God  dis- 
obeys the  word  of  the  Lord, 
and  is  slain  by  a  lion, 

1  Kings  xiii.  11-32. 
These    calves    borrowed    from 
Egypt,  where  Jeroboam  had 
resided. 
Twice  warned,  by  the  Man  of 
God  and  by  Anijah,  yet  per- 
sisting in  his  idolatry. 
The  step  spemed  politic.     It  seemed 
a  fovni  of  \v.-)rsl;ip  soiiK'tliinG;  like 
that  estabhshed  at  Joni.salem.  and 
attracted  the  tribes,  but  in  the  end 
it  proved  the  ruin  of  the  tcingdom. 

ere  printed  in  bold  type,  of  new 
first  kings  of  new  dynasties  in 


ABIJAH — ASA — NADAB- — BAASHA. 


581 


JUDAH. 

Abijah,   or    Abijam,   king  (3 

years),  1  Kings  xv.  1,  2,  6: 

2  Chrou.  xiii.  1,  2. 

Abijah    defeats     Jeroboam    in 

battle,       2  Chron.  xiii.  3-21. 

His  heart  not  perfect. 

Character  and  death  of  Abijah. 
Asa,  king  (41  years), 
1  Kings  XV.  3-10:  2  Chron. 
xiii.  22;  xiv.  1. 


Asa   puts   away   idolatry   and 
strengthens  his  kingdom, 
1  Kings  XV.  11-15;   'J,  Chron. 
xiv.  2-8:  XV.  16-18. 

Asa's   victory    over   the    Ethi- 
opians,     2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15. 

Moved  by  Azariah,  Asa  makes 

a  solemn  covenant  with  God, 

2  Chron.  xv.  1-15,  19. 

Asa  bribes  Ben-hadad,  King  of 
Syria,  to  attack  Baasha, 

1  Kings  XV.  16-22. 
Asa,  reproved  by  Hanani  for 

applying  to  Ben-hadad,  puts 
him  in  prison, 

2  Chron.  xvi.  7-10. 
His  idolatrous  alliance  witJi   Syria. 

and  liis  imprisonment  of  the  pro- 
phet, after  all  his  reformations, 
prove  his  ruin.  In  his  sickness 
he  trusts  not  in  God,  but  in  his 
•pliysicians. 


B.  C. 
959 

[958, 
Usher 
958  ' 

957 
956 


955 


953 


951 


944 


Israel. 


48« 


94i 


941 


931 


930 


926 


Ahijah   denounces  Jeroboam, 
1  Kings  xiii.  33, 34 :  xiv.  1-18. 
Very  toucliing  is  the  narrative  of  the 
vi.sit  of  the  wife  of  the  king  of 
Israel  to  Ahijiih,  to  learn  the  fate 
of  her  sick,  but  pious  son.  xiv. 
Jeroboam's      death.       Nadab, 
king  (2  years),    1  Kings  xiv. 
19,  20;  XV.  25,  26. 
Nadab  slain  at  Gibbethon. 
BaasRA,  king  (24  years), 

1  Kings  XV.  27-34. 


Baasha,    attempting    to   build 

Ramah    is    attacked   by    the 

king  of  Syria, 
2  Chron.  xvi.  1-6. 
Ver.  1.  i.  e.,  the  36th  year  of  Asa's 

kingdom     (Lft.),     or     read     21th 

(Hales). 


Baasha  denounced  by  Jehu; 
his  death.  Elah,  king  (2 
years),  ]  Kings  xvi.  1-8. 

Elah  slain.  ZiMRI,  king  (7 
days) ;  destroys  Baasha's 
house.  Omri  elected  king. 
Zimri  destroys  himself, 

1  Kings  xvi.  9-20. 

Omri,  king  (12  years,  includ- 
ing 6  years'  civil  war  with 
Tibni).     Samaria  built, 

1  Kings  xvi.  21-26. 


582 


ASA — JEHOSHAPHAT — ZIMRI — AHAZIAH. 


JuDAH. 

Asa's  death.  Jehoshaphat, 
king  (25  years);  his  piety 
and  prosperity, 
1  Kin^s  XV.  23,  24  ;  xxii.  41- 
47:  2Chron.xvi.  11-14;  xvii. 
1;  XX.  31-33;  xvii.  2-19; 
compare  ver.  6  and  xx.  33. 
Hif=  great  error  is  hii=:  alliance  with 
Ahab,  whose  daughter,  Athaliah, 
his  son  Jehoram  marries.  Hence 
his  expedition  to  Ramoth,  which 
nearly  cost  him  his  life. 


Jehoshaphat  visits  Ahab,  and 
joins  with  him  in  battle 
against  the  Syrians, 

2  Chron.  xviii. 

Jehoshaphat  reproved  by  Jehu 
for  joining  with  Ahab.  He  vi- 
sits the  kingdom,  and  exhorts 
the  judges,  etc.,  to  be  faith- 
ful, 2  Chron.  xix :  Psa.  Ixxxii. 

Overthrow  of  Moab,  etc.     Je- 
horam regent,  2  Chron.  xx. 
1-30 :  Psa.  cxv. ;  xlvi. 

Jehoshaphat  joins  Ahaziah. 
Being  reproved,  and  his 
ships  wrecked,  he  refuses  to 
join  in  a  subsequent  expedi- 
tion, 1  Kings  xxii.  48.  49  : 
2  Chron.  xx.  35,  37. 

Afterwards  joins  Joram  against 
Moab,  and  is  saved  only  by 
a  miracle,  2  Kings  in. 

Oe  the  trade  between  Judali  and 
India,  see  Prid.  Con.  i.  p.  7. 

'On  2  Chron.  xx.  13:  see  Joel  ii.  16.] 


B.  C. 

917 

915 

[914 

to 

912, 
Usher] 
910 
to 
906 


902 
and 
901 
900 


898 


897 


894 


Israel. 
Omri  dies.  Ahab,  king  (22 
years).  Jericho  rebuilt  by 
Iliel,  who  reaps  Joshua's 
curse,  1  Kings  xvi.  27-34. 
1  Kings  xvi.  25,  comp.  Mic.  vi.  20: 
1  Kings  xvi.  SJt:  Josh.  vi.  2t>. 

Elijah  prophesies  a  famine; 
raises  the  widow's  son ;  hia 
trial  with  the  prophets  of 
Baal.     Elisha  a  prophet, 

1  Kings  xvii.-xix. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria. 
The  Syrians  twice  defeated. 
Ahab  clenounced,  1  Kings  xx. 

Ahab    seizes     Naboth's     vine- 
yard. Elijah  denounces  him, 
1  Kings  xxi. 

Ahab  makes  war  on  >Syna,  and 
is  slain,  as  Micaiah  pre- 
dicted.    Ahaziah,  king, 

1  Kings  xxii.  1-35, 36-40, 6 1-53. 
[Ver.  39:  see  Amos  iii.  15.] 


Psa.  Ixxxii.  placed  here  from  inter- 
nal evidence,  (Towns.) 


Psa.  exv.  and  xlTi.(Wells,  Rosenmnl.) 
The  schools  of  the  prophets  (Naioth), 
1  Sam.  X.  10;  xix.  20 ;  2  Kings  ii.  2, 
seem  to  have  trained  at  this  time 
a  large  number  of  religious 
teachers. 


Ahaziah  falling  sick  and  send- 
ing to  inquire  of  Baalzebub, 
is  denounced  by  ElijaB. 
Jehokam  or  JoEAM,  his 
Brother,  king  (12  years), 

2  Kings  i.;  iii.  1-3. 

Elijah  translated.  Elisha  ac- 
knowledged as  his  successor; 
his  miracles,  2  Kings  ii. 

Joram,  joined  by  Jehoshaphat 
and  the  king  of  Edom,  de- 
feats Moab,  2  Kings  iii.  4-27. 

Elisha  multiplies  the  widow's 
oil ;  promises  a  son  to  the 
Shumant%  2  Kings  iv.  1-17. 


JEHORAM — AHAZIAH — JORAM, 


6S8 


JUDAH. 
2  Kings  ix. 2, 1:3.  Read,  therefore,  in 
1  Kinus  xix.  16,  arandson;  and  hy 
Elijah  anointing  Jehu,  understand, 
orderin,!^  Eli::iha  to  do  it.  Jehu 
wa.«  anointed  to  exteriniuate  the 
house  of  Ahab. 

Jehoram  begins  to  reign  in 
consort  with  Jehoshaphat, 

2  Kings  viii.  ]6. 
2  Chron.xxi.5.  Three  date.s  are  given 
for  the  Ijeginning  of  Jehorain".o 
rei.ijn  :  B.  C.  S!)7,  wlien  he  wa.s  re- 
gent during  his  talher's  absence 
(2  Kings  i.  17;  iii.  1);  S9l,  (2  Kings 
viii.  Ifij;  and  8Rn.  ( Lft.) 

Death  of  Jehoshaphat.  Jeho- 
ram, or  JoRAM,  king  (8 
years);  his  wicked  and  trou- 
bled reign.  Elijah's  letter, 
written  before  his  transla- 
tion brought  to  him, 
1  Kings  xxii.  45,  50:  2  Kings 
vii.  17-22:  2  Chron.  xx.  34; 
xxi.  1-18. 

Ahaziah  beo;ins  to  reign  as 
viceroy  to  riis  father, 

2  Kings  ix.  29. 

Death     of     Jehoram.       Aha- 

ziAH,     king    (1    year);    his 

evil  reisn,     2  Kings  viii.  23, 

24,  25-27  :   2  Chron.  xxi.  19, 

20;  xxii.  1-4. 

Ahaziah  joins  Joram  against 
H;i7,ael,  and  afterwards  visits 
bini  at  Jezreel, 

2  Kings  viii.  28,  29. 


Ahaziah  slain  by  Jehu, 

2  Chron.  xxii.  7- 


9. 


[AtRALIAH  usurps  the  throne, 
(6  years).  Joash,  the  son  of 
Ahaziah  rescued],  2  Kings  xi. 
1-3:  2  Chron.  xxii.  10-12. 

Jehoash,  or   JoASH,  king   (40 

years).       Athaliah    slain,    2 

Kings  xi.  4-xii.  2:  2  Chron. 

xxiii.-xxiv.  3. 


B.  C. 

893 
892 


891 


890 

889 

to 

887 


886 
885 

884 


883 


877 


860 


ISEAEL. 

Naaman  healed,         2  Kings  v. 

Elisha    causes   iron  to  swim ; 

discloses   the    Syrian    king's 

purpose,  and  smites  his  army 

with  blindness, 

2  Kings  vi.  1-23. 
Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria; 
Severe  famine  ensues;  plenty 
restored  by  the  sudden  flight 
of  the  Syrians, 

2  Kings  vi.  24-33 ;  vii. 
Elisha  raises  to    life   the  wi- 
dow's son :  other  miracles, 
2  Kings  iv.  18-44;   viii.  1,  2. 
2  Kings  IV.  44   This  is  Elijah's  ft«e//</» 
miracle,    Elijah    having    wrought 
6'ix.    Tovvnsend  places  iv.  18  alter 
iv.  17;  but  there  i.s  clearly  an  in- 
terval of  two  years  or  so  between 
them. 
2  Cliron.xxi.  12.     Elijah's  letter,  Lft. 
thiidcs  was   sent    to    Jehoram    in 
897.     Hales    read.s    Eiisha.      Wall 
supposes  another  Elijah.     Patrick 
and  others  take  the  view  given  in 
the  opposite  column. 


Return  of  the  Shunammite. 
Hazael  kills  Ben-hadad  and 
becomes,  as  Elisha  pre- 
dicted, king  of  Syria, 

2  Kings  viii.  3-16. 

Joram  being  wounded  in  bat- 
tle by  the  Syrians,  retires  to 
Jezreel, 

2  Chron.  xxii.  5,  6. 

Jehu  anointed,  2  Kings  ix.  1-13. 

Joram  slain  by  Jehu, 

2  Kings  ix.  14-28. 

Jehu,  king  (28  years);  slays 
Jezebel,  Ahab's  sons,  Ahazi- 
ah's  brethren,  and  Baal's 
worshippers,  2  Kings  ix.  30- 
37 ;  X.  1-31. 


Hazael  oppresses  Israel, 

2  Kings  X.  32,  33. 


584 


JOASH— AMAZIAH — JEHU — JOASH. 


JuDAH. 
Joafch  repairs  the  temple, 

2  Kings  xii.  4-16 :  2  Ohroii. 
xxiv.  4-14. 
Death  of  Jehoiada, 

2  Chrou.  xxiv.  15,  16. 


Joash  and  the  people  fall  into 
idolatry ;     Zechariah,      -e- 

proving  them,  is  slain  in  the 
temple-court  {cf.  Matt,  xxiii. 
35).  The  Syrians  invade  Jo- 
ash,  2  Chron.  xxiv.  17-22,  23, 
24:  2  Kings  xii.  17,  18. 
Joash  .slain  by  his  servants. 
Amaziah,  king  (29  -ears), 
2  Kings  xii.  19-21 ;  xiv.  1-6 : 
2  Chron.  xxiv.  25-27;  xxv. 
1-4. 


B.  C. 
855 


850 

849 

842 
841 

840 


Amaziah  hires  an  army  of  Isra- 
elites to  assist  him  against 
Edom,  but  at  a  prophet's  com- 
mand he  sends  them  back, 

2  Chron.  xxv.  5-10. 

Amaziah  smites  the  Edomites, 
and  worships  their  gods,  2 
Chron.  xxv.  11 :  2  Kings  xiv. 
7:  2  Chron.  xxv.  12,  14-16. 

Amaziah  provokes  the  king  of 
Israel  to  battle,  and  is  taken 
prisoner  by  him, 

2  Kings  xiv.  8-14. 


838 


836 


827 


Israel. 
Death  of  Jehu.  Jehoahaz,  king 
(17  years),  2  Kings  x.  34-36; 
xiii.  1,  2. 
History  c^f  Jonah, 

Jon.  i.-iv.?     [See  808]. 
Israel   given   over    hy  God   to 
lazael  and  Ben-hadad,  and 
delivered,  2  Kings  xiii.  1-7. 
Jehoash  begins  to  reign  in  con- 
sort with  Jehoahaz, 

2  Kings  xiii.  10. 


826 


823 


822 


Death  of  Jehoahaz.  Jehoash, 
or  Joash,  king  (16  years). 
He  visits  Elisha,  who  promi- 
ses three  victories.  Hazael 
dies,  2  Kings  xiii.  8,  9,  11, 
14-19,  22-24. 

Elisha  dies.  A  corpse  thrown 
into  Elisha's  sepulchre  re- 
vives, 2  Kings  xiii.  20,  21. 

Jehoash  thrice  beats  the  Syrians, 
2  Kings  xiii.  25. 


The  Israelites,  who  had  been 
dismissed  by  Amaziah,  plun- 
der the  cities  of  Judah  as  they 
return, 

2  Chron.  xxv.  13. 

Jehoash  defeats  the  king  of 
Judah  and  plunders  the  tem- 
ple, 

2  Chron.  xxv.  17-24. 

Death  of  Jehoash.  Jeroboam 
II.,  king  (41  years) ;  he  reigns 
wickedly,  2  Kings  xiii.  12, 
13;  xiv.  15,  16,  23,  24. 

Jeroboam  restores  the  coast  of 
Israel  according  to  the  word 
of  Jonah, 

2  Kings  xiv.  25-27. 


UZZIAH — JEROBOAM    II. — PEKAH. 


585 


JUDAH. 

Amaziah  slain.  Uzziah,  or 
AzARiAH,  king  (52  years). 
During  the  days  of  Zechariaii 
he  reigns  well,  2  Kings  xiv. 
17-22;  XV.  i-4:  2  Chron. 
XXV.  25 ;  xxvi.  15. 


Amos  vii.  10-19.  Lightfoot  and  others 
place  after  2  Kings  xiv.  28. 


On  the  increase  of  Uzziah's  ar- 
ray,  Joel  foretells  the  over- 
throw of  Judah,  Joel  i.-iii. 


Hos.  i..  ii..  iii.  So  Lightfoot,  Gray  and 
others:  see  i.  1.  Thp  three  cliil- 
dren  have  names  given  to  them, 
indicating  tlie  place  of  the  wicked- 
ness of  the  house  of  Aliab  i  ver.  4 : 
seel  Kings  xxi.  1);  their  punish- 
ment, nof^/jndinf/merc.i/  in  calamity, 
and  their  rejection,  no  longtr  the 

fieople  of  God.  Tliey  are.  hiiwever, 
o  be  gathered  agahi  under  Mes- 
siah, their  one  Head,  ver.  II;  ver. 
7,  see  2  Kings  xix.  35. 

Uzziah  struck  with  leprosy  for 
iuvailing  the  priest's  office. 
Jotham,  regent,  2  Kings  xv. 
5:  2  Chron.  xxvi.  lt)-2b,  21. 

2  Kings  XV.  5,  several,  i.  e.  lone  or 
separate,  see  120. 


Isaiah  designated  in  a  vision 
to  the  projihetic  office.      He 
prophesies  oi   Christ's   king 
dom,  and  of  judgment  on  the 
people  for  their  sins, 

Isa.  i.  1 ;  vi.;  li.;  iii.;  iv.;  v 

Death    of    Uzziah,       Jotham 
king  (16  years);  his  prosper- 


B.  C. 

808 

to 

800 


801 


V87 


783 


771 
770 

769 

765 
761 

759 
757 


Israel. 
[Jonah  i.-iv.  ?]     See  B.  C.  850. 


756 


Hosea  makes  his  first  appeal 
to  the  ten  tribes,  [Hos.  i.-iii.] 

Amos  denounces  judgment 
against  the  surrounding  na- 
tions, and  against  Israel  and 
Judah,  [Amos  i.-ix.] 

i.  3.  see  2  Kings  xvi.  9;  ver.  6,  see  2 
Kings  xviii.  8;  i.  8,  see  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  6;  ver.  11,  see  Numb.  xx.  14; 
V.  27,  see  2  Kings  x.  32;  xvii.  6. 

Death  of  Jeroboam, 

2  Kings  xiv.  28,  29. 

An  interregnum  for  eleven  years. 

State  of  Israel  during  the  in- 
terregnum. Hosea  denoun- 
ces jadgment,  [Hos.  iv.] 

Zechariah,  fourth  from  Jehu, 
king  (6  months).  Shallum 
Slavs  him,  2  Kings  xv.  8-12. 

SHALLUM.  king  (1  month). 
Menahem  slays  him, 

2  Kings  XV.  13-15 

Menahem,  king  (10  vears), 

2  Kings  XV.  16-18. 

Pul,  of  Assyria,  coming  against 
Israel,  is  bribed  to  return, 

2  Kings  XV.  19,  20. 


Death  of  Menahem.  Pekahi- 
AH,  king  (2  years), 

2  Kings  XV.  21-24, 
Pekahiah  slain  by  Pekah. 
PEKAH,  king  (20  years), 

2  Kings  XV.  25-28. 

[Isa.  i.  1.  On  this  order  see  Town- 
send,  ii.  2;0 

Isa.  vii.-x.  4.  On  the  order,  compare 
vii.  1  will"!  2  Kings  xvi.  5. 

Isa,  i.  2-.'31.  On  order  see  ver.  7,  8, 
comp.  with  2  Chron.  xxviii.  6-9. 

Isa.  vi.  1,  see  John  xii.  41. 

Isa.  vi.  13.  .see  2  Kings  xxv.  12. 

Isa.  ii.  19.  see  Rcv.'vl.  !.'>. 

2  Chron.  xxvii.  2,  see  chap.  xxvi.  19. 


586 


JOTHAM — UEZEKIAH— HOSHEA. 


JUDAH. 

ity.  2  Kings  xv  6,  7,  32-35: 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  22,  23;  xxvii. 
1-6. 

Micah  reproves  the  wicked- 
ness of  Judah,  Mic.  i.,  ii. 

Judah  begins  to  be  afflicted  by- 
Syria  and  Israel.  Death  of 
Jotham,  2  Kings  xv.  36-38: 
2  Chron.  xxvii.  7-9. 

Ahaz,  King  (16  years),  2  Kings 
xvi.  1,2-4:  2Ghron.xxviii.l-4. 

Invasion  of  Pekah  and  Rezin. 
Isaiah  prophesies  on  the  oc- 
casion, denouncing  Ahaz's  in- 
tended alliance  with  Assyria, 
2  Kings  xvi.  5;  Isa.  vii.-ix. ; 
X.  1-4. 

Isaiah  prophesies  the  ruin  of 
Damascus,  and  of  the  ten 
tribes,  Isa.  xvii. 

Judah  devastated  by  Syria  and 
Israel ;  the  latter  restore 
their  captives,  by  advice  of 
Obed,  2  Chron.  xxviii.  5-15. 

Ahaz,  being  assailed  by  ene- 
mies, hires  Tiglath-pileser, 
the  king  of  Assyria,  against 
them,  bbadiah  and  Isaiah 
2  Kings  xvi.  6-8,  9:  2  Chron 
xxviii.  16,  21,  17-19,  20: 
Obad. :  Isa.  i.  2-31;  xxviii. 

Sacrilege  and  idolatry  of  Ahaz 
2Chi-on.  xxviii.  22,  23-25:  2 
Kings  xvi.  10-18 :  IIos.  v.,  vi. 

Obad.  On  order  see  2  Chron.  xx vii  i .  17. 


Death  of  Ahaz,       2  Kings  xvi. 
19,  20:  2  Chron.  xxviii.  26, 
27:  Isa.  xiv.  28-32. 
Hezeeiah,  king  (29  years), 
2  Kings  xviii.  1,  2:  2  Chron. 
xxix.  1. 
Reformation  by  Hezekiah, 
2  Kings  xviii.  3,  4-6  :  2  Chron. 
xxix.  2,  3-36;  XXX.,  xxxi. 
Moab  denounced,  Isa.  xv.,  xvi. 
Micah  supports  Hezekiah's  re- 
formation, Mic.  iii.-vii. 


B.  C. 

753 
742 


740 


740 


738 


730 
726 


ISEAEL. 
Isa.  vii.  8,  see  2  Kings  xvii. 24. 

Reign  of  Ahaz 1,5 

Hezekiah 29 

"       2d  Manas 21 

6.5  years. 
Isa,.  vii.  IB,  see  2  King.s  xv.  29. 
Isa.  viii.  1,  a  mwi's  pen.  t.  e.  oommon 
writing;  .see  Rev.  xiii.  18;  xxi.  17. 

Mio.  i.  5.  see  1  Kings  xvi.  32. 
Mic.  i.  13,  see  Jer.  xxxiv.  7. 


Isa.  xvii.,  see  2  Kings  xvi.  9;  xviii.  IL 


Tiglath-pileser  ravages  Gilead, 
Galilee,  and  Naphtali,  and 
carries  captive  their  inhabi- 
tants to  Assyria, 

2  Kings  XV.  29. 

Isa.  V.  21,  see  2  Sam.  v.  20. 
Pekah  slain  by  Hoshea, 

2  Kings  XV.  30,  31. 
[On  date,  see  358  c]. 

Anarchy  for  nine  yearti. 
Hoshea,  king  (9  years).    Shal- 
maneser,  king  of  Assyria,  in- 
vades his  territory  and  makes 
him  a  tributary, 

2  Kings  xvii.  1-3. 
Isa.  xiv.  28-32,  against  Philistia,  see  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  6.  Ahab,  who  .sub- 
dued them,  was  dead ;  but  a  cock- 
atrice out  of  that  nest.  Hezelciah, 
was  still  to  bite  them,  2  Kings  xvhi.8. 


Isa.  XV.  The  destruction  of  Mnab  by 
Slialmane.-^er  foretold-  Tliey  are 
e.xliorted  to  renew  their  tribute. 
xvi.  1 ;  see  2  Kings  iii  4. 


CAPTIVITY   OF    ISRAEL. 


587 


JUDAH. 

B.  C. 

Israel. 

See  Jer.  xsvi.  18:  Mio. 

723 

Hoshea   attacked    and    impris- 
oned by  Shalmaneser  for  not 
giving  the  tribute.      Hosea 
predicts  the  captivity  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  exhorts  to  re- 

pentance. 

2Kingsxvii.4;  Hos.  vii.-xiv. 

Hezekiah's  prosperity, 

2  kings  xviii.  7,  8. 

Comp.  on  order  Hos  xii.. 

723 

Shalmaneser  besieges  Samaria, 
2  Kings  xvii.  5;  xviii.  9. 

721 

The  ten  tribes  carried  into  cap- 
tivity unto  Assyria,  2  Kinga 
xvii.  6-23  ;  xviii.  10-12. 

Prophecy  of  the  restoration  of 

the  ten  tribes,  of  the  punish- 

ment of  Egypt,  and  conver 

sion  of  Egypt  and  Assyria, 

Isa.  xviii.,  xix. 

History  of  Judah,  from  the  overthrow  of  Israel  to  the  end  of 
the  Captivity,  B.  C.  720  to  B.  Q.  536;  184  ijears. 

104.  (2.)  HISTORY    OF   JUDAH    TO    THE  CAPTIVITY,  114  YEARS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 
715. 

714. 

713, 
Judffia. 


Jerusalem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Tyre  denounced,  Isa.  xxiii.  Prophecy  concerning  the 
invasion  by  Assyria,  Isa.  x.  5  ;-xiv.  27. 

The  desolation  and  recovery  of  Judasa  predicted,  etc. 
Isa.  xxiv.  [xxvi.  17, 18];-xxvii. 
Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  by  Assyria  and  the  de- 
struction of  Ba-bylon.  Sennacherib  comes  up  against 
Judah,    but   being   pacified   by  a  tribute,  retires. 
Isaiah  denounces  Eg5'pt  and  warns  .Jerusalem, 
Isa.  xxii.  1-14 ;  xxi.:^  2  Kings  xviii.  13-16:  2Chron. 
xxxii.  1-8:   Isa.  xxxvi.  1;  xx. ;  xxix.  ;-xxxi. 
Sickness   of    Hezekiah;    his   song   of    thanksgiving. 
Isaiah  predicts  the  blessings  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
and  judgments  of  the  enemies  of  Zion, 
2  Kings  XX.  1-6,  8,  9-11,  7:  Isa.  xxxviii.  1-6,  22, 
7, 8, 21, 9-20:  2 Chron.  xxxii.  24 :  Isa.  xxxii. -xxxv." 


^  For  date,  see  ver.  16. 


''  On  order,  see  Towns,  ii.  347. 


588 


JUDAH,  B.  c.  713-612. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.'C. 
713, 

712, 
Jerusalem. 


711, 
Judsea. 


710-699. 

697, 

Jerusalem. 


»  Towns,  ii.  427 

678, 
Samaria, 


677, 
Babylon. 

642, 

Jerusalem, 

640. 


628. 

628. 

623, 
Jerusalem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Nineveh  denounced  by  Nahum,  Nah.  i.-iii. 

Hezekiab  showing  in  pride  to  the  Ambassadors  from 
Babylon  his  treasures,  Isaiah  predicts  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  2  Kings  xx.  12-19: 
Isa.  xxxix. :  2  Chron.  xxxii.  25,  26. 
Second  invasion  of  Sennacherib  ;  destruction  of  his 
army, 

2  Kings  xviii.  17-37  [26-28]:  xix.  1-37:  Psa. 
xliv.,  Ixxiii.,  Ixxv.,  Ixxxvi :  Isa.  xxxvi.2  [11, 
12J-22 ;  xxxvii.  1-38 :  2  Chron.  xxxii.  9-21, 
22,  23. 
Various  prophecies   of  Isaiah, 

Isaiah  xl.-lxvi.  [Ivii.  3-9]. 
Hezekiah's  wealth  ;  his  death.     Masasseh,  king  (55 
years);   his  awful  impiety;  judgment  denounced 
by  God's  prophets, 

2  Kings  XX.  20,  21 ;  xxi.  1-16  :  2  Chron.  xxxii. 
27-31,  32,  33  ;  xxxiii.  1-10. 
Isaiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  Shebna, 

Isa.  xxii.  15-25.» 
The  heathen  nations,  who  had  been  transplanted  to 
Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites,  being  plagued  by 
lions,  make  a  mixture  of  religions, 

2  Kings  xvii.  24-41, 

Manasseh  taken  captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria;  his 

conversion  and  restoration;  he  puts  down  idolatry, 

2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11-17.* 
Death  of  Manasseh.     Amon,  king  (2  years);  his  im- 
piety, 2  Kings  xxi.  17-22:  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  18-23. 
Amon  slain  by  his  servants.     Josiah,  king  (31  years), 
2  Kings  xxi.  2.3-26  ;  xxii.  1,2:2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
24,  25  ;  xxxiv.  1,  2. 
Josiah  vigorously  puts  down  idolatry, 

2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3-7. 
Jeremiah  called;  he  expostulates  with  the  Jews,  on 
account  of  their  sins,  Jer.  i.  2  [iii.  1-5]. 

Josiah  provides  for  the  repair  of  the  temple.  The 
Book  of  the  Law  having  been  found,  Josiah  con- 
sults Huldah  ;  he  causes  it  to  be  read  publicly,  and 
renews  the  Covenant, 

2  Kings  xxii.  3-20 ;  xxiii.  1-3,  4-20 :  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  8,  28,  29-32,t  33. 


*  In  Kings,  no  account  is  given  of  Manasseh's  repentance, 
t  With  qualification,  see  2  Kings  xxiii.  26,  and  Jer.  iii.  10,  etc. ; 
change  was  chiefly  external. 


the 


JUDAH.  B.  c.  623-606. 


589 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

623. 

622, 

Jerusalem. 

612. 
a  For  order,  see 


ver.  6. 


612. 
611. 

610. 


609, 

Megiddo  and 

Jerusalem. 


Riblah, 


hJer,  i.-xii.,   in 
Josiah's  days : 
Towns,  ii.  iii-0. 
608. 

606. 

For  order,  see 
■ver.    2.      Comp. 
Ez.  xxix.  17. 


Jerusalem. 
606. 


Zephaniah  exhorts  to  repentance,       [Zeph.  i.  2,  3]. 

A  most  solemn  celebration  of  the  Passover  by  Josiah, 
2  Kings  xxiii.  21-23,  24-27 :  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1-19. 

Jeremiah  reproves  the  backsliding  of  the  people, 
and  bewails  the  coming  captivity, 

Jer.  iii.»  [6-11],  12-25;   iv.-vi. 

Habakkuk  predicts  judgment,  [Hab.  i.-iii.]. 

Jeremiah  exhorts  the  people  to  repentance,  and  la- 
ments their  ajiroaching  calamities,  Jer.  vii.-x. 

Jeremiah  reminds  the  people  of  the  Covenant  of 
Josiah,  Jer.  xi. :  [15],  12. 

Josiah  slain  in  battle  with  the  king  of  Egypt. 
Jeremiah  and  the  people  lament  him.  Jehoahaz 
king  (3  months), 

2  Kings  xxiii.  29,  30, 28,  30  I.  p.,  31,  32 :  2  Chron. 
xxxv.  20-27,  xxxvi.  1,  2. 

Jehoahaz  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Pharaoh-Necho 
and  subsequently  taken  to  Egypt.  Jehoiakim, 
king  (11  years), 

2  Kings  xxii.  33,  34,  35,  36,  37 :  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  3,  4,  5. 

Jeremiah  delivers  various  predictions,  and  appeals 
to  the  Jews  respecting  the  captivity  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  xii:-xix.'' 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  fate  of  Pashur,  Jer.  xx. :  of 
Shallum,  i.  e.,  Jehoahaz,  and  Jehoiakim,  xxii.  1-23. 

Apprehension  and  arraignment  of  Jeremiah, 

Jer.  xxvi. 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  overthrow  of  the  army  of 
Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, Jer.  xlvi.<^  1-12. 

The  obedience  of  the  Rechabites  to  their  father  con- 
trasted with  the  disobedience  of  the  Jews,  Jer.  xxxv. 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  for 
seventy  years,  and  the  subsequent  judgment  on 
Babylon,  ■  Jer.  xxv. 

Jeremiah  desires  Baruch  to  write  his  prophecies  on 
a  roll,  and  then  to  read  it  publicly  in  the  temple, 

Jer.  xxxvi.  1-S  :  xlv. 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes  Jerusalem,  and  puts  Jehoiakim 
in  fetters,  intending  to  take  him  to  Babj^lon,  but 
afterwards  releasing  him,  makes  him  a  tributary, 
and  spoils  the  temple, 

2  Kings  xxiv.  1:  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6,  7: 

Dan.i.  1,2. 


50 


o90  PERIOD    OF    THE    CxVPTlVITY.    B.    C.    605-595, 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

605. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Nebuchadnezzar  orders  the  master  of  his  eunuchs  to 
select  and  send  to  Babylon  some  of  the  royal  family 
and  nobility,  to  stand  in  the  king's  palace.  Daniel, 
Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah  (otherwise 
called  Beltshazzar,  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and 
Abednego),  are  taken  there,  Dan.  i.  3,  4,  6,  7. 


105.  (3.)  FROM  THE  FIRST  CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM,  B.  C. 
606,  TO  THE  DECREE  OF  CYRUS,  FOR  THE  RESTORATION 
OF    THE    JEWS,    B.    C.    536,    70    YEARS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

Babylon. 

605. 

603. 
Babylon. 

599. 


597. 
595. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


EvenU  at  Jerusalem,  with  contemporaneous  events 
at  Babylon. 
Daniel  meets  with  kindly  treatment, 

Dan.  i.  5,  8-17. 
Baruch  again   reads  the  Prophetic  Koll :  Jehoiakim 
burns  it,  Jer.  xxxvi.  9-32. 

Jehoiakim  rebels  against  Nebuchadnezzar, 

2  Kings  xxiv.  1  I.  p.,  24. 
Daniel  before  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  i.  18-21. 

Interprets    Nebuchadnezzar's   dream,    Dan   ii. ;    des- 
cribing  the    Babylonian   32;    Medo- Persian,  32-39; 
Macedo- Grecian,  32-39;  and    Roman   Empires,   33, 
40-43 ;  with  Messiah's  Kingdom,  34,  35,  44,  45. 
Death  of  Jehoiakim.     Jehoiachin  or  Jeconiah,  king 
(3  months),        2  Kings  xxiv.  5-9  :  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
8,  9  :  Jer.  xxii  24-30 ;  xxiii. 
Second   capture    of    Jerusalem   by    Nebuchadnezzar. 
Jehoiachin  is  carried  to  Babylon,  with  many  of  his 
subjects.      Zedekiah    or    Mattaniah,   king  (11 
years),  2  Kings  xxiv.  10-19  ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 

10-12:  Jer.  lii.  1,  2;  xxiv. 
Predictions  of  the  duration  of  the  captivitv, 

Jer.  xxix.  1-14,  16-20,15,  21-32. 
Of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  Jer.  xxx.,  xxxi. 

Predictions  against  the  surrounding  nations.     Hana- 
niah the  false  prophet  denounced, 

Jer.  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xlviii.,  xlix. 


PERIOD   OF    THE   CAPTIVITY,    B.    C.    595-587. 


591 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

Babylon. 
»  On  order,  see 
Towns,  voi.  ii. 

594. 

Babylon. 


593. 

Jerusalem. 


590. 


Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 
b  See  Towns,  ii. 
659 

589. 
Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 

c  For  order,  see 
xxxii.  2. 

d  On  order,  com- 
pare xxix.  1,  and 
xxvi.  1;  vcr.  17-21 
written,  sixteen 
years  iater. 

587. 


e  On  order, 

comp.  XXX.  20,  and 
xxix.  1. 


Events  or  Narrative. 


Prophecies  against  Babylon,  Jer.  1. ;  Ii. 

Ezekiel's  vision  in  Babylon  ;  his  commission,*  Ezek. 
i.,  ii.,  iii.,  1-21.  He  prophesies  of  the  miseries  of 
Jerusalem,  Ezek.  iii.  22-27  [4-7]. 

Visions  of  the  idolatries  which  occasioned  the  cap- 
tivity, Ezek.  viii.  10  [11]. 
Various  predictions  against  the  false  prophets,  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Jewish  nation, 

Ezek.  xii.-xix.  [16,  xviii.  5-18]. 
Prophecies  addressed  to  the  Elders  of  the  Jews, 

Ezek.  XX.,  [xxi.-xxiii]. 
Zedekiah's  rebellion  and  wickedness, 

Jer.  xxxvii.  1,  2:  2  Kings  xxiv.  20:   2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  13  :  Jer.  Iii.  3. 
The  wickedness  of  priests  and  people  (the  cause  of 
the  captivity,  v.  15,   IH),  with  a  summary  account 
of  the  judgments  that  followed, 

2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14-21. 
Nebuchadnezzar  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  for  the  third 
time, 
2  Kings  XXV.  1:  Jer.  xxxix.l;  Iii.  4;  xxxvii.  3,  4. 
Ezekiel  foretells  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 

Ezek.  xxiv. 
Capture  of  the  city  foretold.     The  people,  at  Jere- 
miah's word,  release  their  Hebrew  bond-servants, 

Jer.  xxxiv.  1-10. •> 
Jeremiah  shut  up  in  prison ;  his  predictions  there, 

Jer.  xxxii.;  xxxiii.« 
Ezekiel  in  Babylon,  prophesies  against  Egypt,  Ezek. 
xxix.  1-16 ;''  and  against  Tyre,  Ezek.  xxvi. :  see 
Isa.  xxiii. 
The  Chaldreans  raise  the  siege  to  march  against  the 
approaching  Egj'ptian  army.  Jeremiah  predicts 
the  destruction  of  the  Philistines, 

Jer.  xxxvii. ;  xlvii. 
On  the  departure  of  the  Chaldsean  army,  the  people 
recall  their  bond-servants,  for  which  Jeremiah 
denounces  them,  and  predicts  the  speedy  return  of 
the  Chaldjeans,  Jer.  xxxiv.  11-22;  xxxvii.  6-10. 
Jeremiah  again  imprisoned,  Jer.  xxxvii.  11-21; 
continues  to  denounce  Zedekiah,  xxi. :  he  is  put 
into  the  dungeon  of  Malchiah,  xxxviii;  xxxix. 
15-18. 
Ezekiel  in  Babylon,  again  prophesies  against  Egypt  , 


and  Nineveh, 


Ezek.  XXX.  20-26  ;  xxxi.» 


592 


PERIOD    OF    THE    CAPTIVITY,    B.    C.    587-556. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 


a  Compare  ver. 
5,  7;  Towns,  ii. 
679. 


Babylon. 
587. 


573. 

572. 

570. 
569. 

568—563. 

561. 

558. 

556. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Jerusalem  finally  taken.     Zedekiah  carried  to  Baby- 
lon.    Jeremiah  delivered,        2  Kings  xxv.  2,  4-7: 
Jer.  lii.  5-7;  xxxix.  2-7,  11-14. 
Nebuzaradan  burns  the  temple,  and  carries  away  the 
people,  leaving  a  few  poor  persons  to  till  the  land, 
2  Kings  xxv.  8-21:  Jer.  lii.  12-30;  xxxix.  8-10: 
Psa.  Ixxiv.  ;*  Ixxix  ;  xciv. 
Jeremiah  bewails  the  desolation  of  his  country. 

Lamentations  i.-v. 
Gedaliah  appointed  governor.     Jeremiah  and  many 
others  attach  themselves  to  him, 

2  Kmgs  xxv.  22-24:  Jer.  xl.  1-16. 

Ishmael  slays  Gedaliah,  and  attemps  to  carry  away 

the  people  to  the  Ammonites ;  Johanan  intercepts 

him ;  the-  people,  fearing  the  Chaldeans,   flee  into 

Egpyt,  contrary  to  the  command  of  God, 

2  Kings  xxv.  25,  26:   Jer.  xli. ;  xlii. ;  xliii.  1-7. 
Jeremiah  prophesies  against  Egypt  and  the  idola- 
trous Jews,  Jer.  xliii.  8-13  ;  Ixvi.  13-28  ;  xliv. 

Remainder  of  the  History  of  the  Jews  in   Captivity — 
Babylon. 
Ezekiel  predicts  the  utter  desolation  of  Judaea, 

Ezek.  xxxiii.  21-33. 
Predictions  against  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Philislia, 
Tyre,  and  Egypt,  Ezek.  xxv. ;  xxvii  ;  xxviii. ;  xxxii. 
Ezekiel  appeals  to  the  captives, 

Ezek.  xxxiii   1-20. 
Evil  rulers  denounced  ;  restoration  of  the  Jews  pro- 
mised ;  predictions  of  Messiah's  kingdom, 

Exek.  xxxiv. ;  xxxvii.  [17,  last  clause]. 
Prophecies  of  the  church  and  its  enemies,  and  of  the 
conversion  of  the  Jews,        Ezek.  xxxviii. ;  xxxix. 
Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  future  temple, 

Ezek.  xl.-xlviii. 
Last  prediction  against  Egypt, 

Ezek.  xxix.  17-21 ;  xxx.  1-19. 
Nebuchadnezzar  sets  up  an  image,  Dan.  iii. 

Daniel  interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  second  dream, 

Dan.  iv.  1-27. 

The  fulfilment  of  Nebuchadnezzar's   dream,  in   his 

madness,  and  subsequent  recovery,  Dan.  iv.  28-37. 

Evii-Merodach,  king  of  Babylon,  releases  Jehoiachin, 

2  Kings  xxv.  27-30:  Jer.  lii.  31-34. 

Daniel's  first  vision  of  the  Living  Creatures, 

Dan.  vii. 
Belshazzar's  Feast.     Babylon  taken,  Dan.  v. 


THE   RESTORATION,    B.    C.    538-519. 


593 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

538. 

537. 
536. 


Jerusalem   and 
Babylon. 


Event  or  Narrative 


Daniel's  vision  of  the  Ram  and  He-goat,  Dan.  viii. 
Daniel's  prayer  for  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem. 
Prophecy  of  the  Seventy  Weeks,  Dan.  ix. :   Psa.  cii. 
Daniel  cast  into  the  den  of  lions,  Dan.  vi. 

Decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  and 
restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country, 

2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  23 :  Ezra  i.  1-4 : 

Psa.  cxxvi. ;   Ixxxv. 

Psalms  written  during  the  distresses   and   afflictions 

of  the  church,  chietiy  in  the  Babylonish  captivity, 

Psa.  X.,  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xxv.,  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xxxvi., 

xxxvii.,  xlix.,  1.  liii.,  Ixvii.,   Ixxvii.,  Ixxx  , 

Ixxxix.,  xcii.,  xciii.,  cxxiii.,  cxxx.,  cxxxvii. 


106  (4.)  FROM  THE  DECREE  OF  CYRUS,  B.  C.  536,  TO  THE 
FINAL  PROPHECY  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  B.  C.  420-397; 
ABOUT    139    YEARS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 


536, 
Jerusalem. 


535, 

Jerusalem. 

534. 

Babylon. 

520, 
Jerusalem. 


519. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


1.  From  the  return  of  the  Jeivs,  to  the  Dedication  of 

the  Second  Temple. 
Return  of  the  Jews.     Cyrus  restores   the  vessels  of 
the  temple.     An  altar  set  up. 

Ezra.  i.  5-11  :  [ii. :],  iii.  1-7  :   Psa.  Ixxxvii.,  cvii., 
cxi.,  cxii.,   cxiii.,   cxiv.,   cxvi.,  cxvii.,  cxxv., 
cxxvii.,  cxxviii..  cxxxiv. 
Foundation  of  the  second  temple,  under  the  direction 
of  Zerubbabel,     Ezra  iii.  8-13:   Psa.  Ixxxiv.,  Ixvi. 
The  building  of  the  temple  intei-rupted  by  the  Sama- 
ritans, Ezra  iv.  1-5,  24 :   Psa.  cxxix. 
The  last  vision  of  Daniel,  Dan.  x.-xii. 
Building    of    the     temple     resumed.      Haggai    and 
Zechariah    incite  the   people  to  the  work,  and 
exhort  tliera  to  repentance, 

Ezra  iv    24;  v.   1:   Hag.   i.   1-11  ;   Ezra  v.  2: 

Hag.  i.  12-15;  ii.  1-9:  Zech.  i.  1-6;  Hag.  ii. 

10-23:   Zech.  i.  7-21;   2:-6  [ii.  5]. 

The  building  of  the  temple  again  interrupted,  and 

resumed,     Ezra  v.  3-17;  vi.  1-13  :  Psa.  cxxxviii. : 

Zech.  vii.  8. 


694 


THE    RESTORATION,    B.    C.    516-397. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 
516. 


486. 
464. 

462, 
Susa. 
458. 
457. 
Jerusalem. 


Susa. 
453,  452. 


445, 

Susa. 
Jerusalem. 


Susa. 

444, 

Jerusalem. 

433. 


428. 
397. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Dedication  of  the  second  temple, 

Ezra  vi.  14-22;  Psa.  xlviii.,  Ixxxi.,  cxlvi., 
cxlvii.,  cxlviii.,  cxlix.,  el. 

2.  From  the  opposition  to  the  Jeivs  in  the  reign  of 

Xerxes,  to  the  Death  of  Haman. 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  Ezra  iv.  6. 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 

Ezra  iv.  7-23. 
Artaxerxes  (or  Ahasuerus)  divorces  Vashti,  his  queen, 

Esth.  i. 
Ezra  commissioned  to  visit  Jerusalem,  Ezra  vii.  [2-14.] 
Artaxerxes  hiakes  Esther  queen,  Esth.  ii.  1-20. 

Ezra  comes  to  Jerusalem ;  causes  the  people  to  put 
away  their  heathen  wives,      Ezra  viii.-x.  [18-44]. 
Concluding  prophecies  of  Zechariah,  Zech.  ix.-xiv. 
Mordecai  discovers  the  conspiracy  against  Ahasuerus, 

Esth.  ii.  21-23. 

Plot  of  Haman  to  destroy  the  Jews,  and  its  defeat. 

The  feast  of  Purim,  Esth.  ii.-x. 

3.  From  the  first  commission  of  Nehemiah,  to  the 

closing  of  the  Canon. 

Nehemiah  receives  a  commission  from  Artaxerxes  to 
visit  it,  and  rebuild  the  wall.  Neh.  i. ;  ii.  1-8. 

Nehemiah  arrives  at  Jerusalem.     Sanballat  strives  to 
hinder  the  work ;  the  builders  work  under  arms, 

Neh.  ii.  9-20:   [3:],  iv, 
Nehemiah  relieves  the  Jews  oppressed  by  usury ;  his 
own  genorosity,  Neh.  v. 

The  wall  completed  by  the  Jews  and  dedicated, 

Neh.  vi. :   [xii.  27-43]. 
Nehemiah  returns  to  Persia,  Neh.  vii.  1-4. 

Second  commission  of  Nehemiah,  and  reformation, 
Neh.  vii.  [6-73];  viii.;  ix. ;   [x.]  ;  xi. ;  [xii.  1-9, 
44-47]  ;  xiii.  1-3:  Psa.  i.  cxix. 
Malachi  prophesies  against  the  corruptions  intro- 
duced during  the  second  absence  of  Nehemiah, 

Mai.  i. ;  ii.  ;  iii.  1-15. 
Further  reformation  by  Nehemiah,  Neh.  xui.  4-31. 
Final  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament, 

Mai.  iii.  16-18 ;  iv. 
Detached  Genealogies,  etc.,  inserted  probably  at  the 
completion  of  the  Canon, 

1  Chron.  i.-ix. :  Neh.  xii.  10-26. 


EARLY    PROFANE    HISTOY,    EGYPT,    ETC. 


595 


Sec.  7.   Chronology  of  Scripture,  and  Early  Profane 

History. 

107.  The  chronology  of  the  early  history  of  Assyria  and  Egypt, — 
the  most  ancient  of  the  nations  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
noloa\-^-^(S-  involves  difficulties,  which,  in  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ficulties.  ledge  are  inextricable.  Ctesias  and  Herodotus  (the  two 
profane  historians  on  whom  we  rely  for  information  on 
Assyria),  differ  in  chronology  by  800  years,  and  proportionably  in 
their  dynasties ;  Herodotus  fixing  the  duration  of  the  Assyrian  domi- 
nion in  Upper  Asia  at  520  years ;  and  Ctesias  (whose  historical  autho- 
rity is  very  low),  at  1305  (Diod.  Sic.  ii.  21).  Semiramis  is  supposed,  in 
one  account,  to  have  lived  B.  C.  2017,  and  in  another  (Dr.  Hales),  B.  C. 
747.  The  mode  of  solving  these,  and  some  other  difficulties,  is  to 
assume  the  existence  of  two  Assyrian  empires ;  an  assumption  sup- 
ported by  some  passages  in  Herodotus  (i.  c.  95,  102,  106,  185).  The 
difficulties  in  the  case  of  Egyptian  History,  arise  from  the  fact,  that 
many  contemporaneous  dynasties  are  given  by  ancient  authorities,  and 
the  same  king  has  often  several  names. 

In  the  Tables  of  Egyptian  History,  we  adopt  the  chronology  of  the 
.  .  English  Bible.  For  the  facts,  we  use  the  Tables  of  Mr. 
fo'llowed!^^  Cory,  published  by  Pickering;  for  Assyrian  History,  the 
Tables  of  Dr.  Kussell. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  from  the  date  of  Solomon's  temple  (B.  C. 
1012),  downwards,  there  are  no  serious  discrepancies  between  com- 
petent authorities,  except  in  relation  to  Assyria  (1012  to  771).  lor 
the  whole  of  this  later  period,  we  adopt  the  date  of  "  Clinton's  Fasti," 
which  seldom  ditier  more  than  a  year  from  those  of  the  authorized 
version. 

Tabular  History  of  Egypt,  etc.,  from  the  Deluge  to  the 
days  of  Solomon. — From    Usher. 


B.C. 
2348 
2192 

2192 

2130 

2071 


Egypt. 


The  Deluge. 

Foundation  of  kincdom  of  Egypt* 
16th.  or  Ist  earthly  dynasty, 

1.  Menai.  Mgnes  (il.)  Misor  (S.),  Mizraim 
(S.  S  ) 

2.  Tlwth  I.  Athothes  (E),  Tosorthus 
(M  W.),  inventor  of  letters  and  medi- 
cine, ^Esculap. 

3.  Thoth  II.  Athothes  (E.),  Kenkeres 
(M.T.) 


B  0. 
2234 


2147 
2124 


Palestine,  etc. 


Nimrod  establishes 
regal  government 
(Hales  2r).54").      . 

Babylon  founded. 

Asshur  (or  Nimrod? 
or  Ninus?)  founds 
Nineveh. 

Death  of  Nimrod. 
Ninus?  or  Belus? 


*  In  this  Table  the  followins;  abbreviations  are  used: — (D.)Diodoru9  Siculus. 
(E.)  Eratosthenes  (H.)  Herodotus.  (M.)  Man(>tho.  (M.  J.)  Manetho  according 
toJosephus.  (M.  M.  and  M.  T)  Memphite  and  Thinite  lij-t  of  Manetho.  (S.)  San- 
ohoniatho.  (S.  S  )  Bible.  Champollion,  Wilkinson,  Syncellus,  and  ancient  classic 
authors  are  also  quoted. 


596  EARLY    PROFANE   HISTORY — EGYPT,    ETC. 

Tabular  History  of  Egypt,  etc. — Co7itinued. 


Eqtpt. 


B.C. 

2U21 
2002 


2002 
19X3 
1939 
19:3() 
1920 


1903 
1897 

1877 
1861 
1845 
1842 
1829 
1813 

1792 
1772 

1768 
1755 

1748 
1748 

1730 
1715 


1710 

1706 
1CS8 
1676 
1649 

1635 

1610 
1579 

1543 

1543 

1530 
1504 

1504 
1492 


4.  Diahies  (E.).  Messochris  (M.  M.) 

5.  Panphus  (E.).  Scjiitbis  (M.  M.) 
Pj-ramids  be^un? 

Invasion  of  shepherds:  not  fully  expelled 

for  511  years. 
Native  kiugs,  17th  dyn.    Shepherd  kings. 

1.  S(Uatt^. 

2.  Bcon. 

3.  Apachnas. 

6.  Keres. 

7.  Osirtcsen  I.  Tosertasis  (M.  M  ),  Misar- 
tesen  (Plinj-);  several  obelisks  and 
monuTnents  left  by  him. 

4.  Apophis. 
Osirtesen  breaks  the  power  of  the  shep- 

lierds 
8   Amun  Mtithah  I 
9.  Amun  Mulliah  II. 

10.  Osiriesen  II. 

5.  Janias. 

11.  Osirtcsen  III. 

12  Amun  Muthah  III ,  left  .several  monu- 
ments. 

6.  Kertos. 

13.  Hakorf  Aeheres  (M.  M.),  Alisphrag- 
mutliosis  (M.J.) 

7.  Ascth. 

14.  Amos.  Siege  of  shepherds  in  Avaris. 
Expulsion  of  shepherds;  death  of  Azeth. 
14   Anws  alone.     18th  dyn.,  Amosis  (M  ), 

Cheops  (?  Her.) 

15.  Ame.noph  I. 

Regency  till  Thothmos  III.  Joseph  (S  S  ), 
Chebr'on  (Hebrew  ?  M ),  Amenenthe 
(Chainp),  Aniun-ueitrgon  (Wilk.),  Ain- 
nuih  (Hierogl.) 

Appearance  of  the  Phoenix,  or  2d  Hermes, 
supposed  to  be  Joseph  the  Hebrew. 

16.  77(o(/iTOos /,  and  Amesse.  Mceris  (H.), 
Mephres(M.  J) 

Regulation  of  Calendar.    Phoenix. 
Tlwtliiaos  alone. 

17  Thothmoa  II.  Mephra  Muthcsis  (M.  J.) 

18  Thothmos  III.  Mseris  (H.),  Thmosis 
(M.  J.) 

Ces-sation  of  Regency;  great  architectural 
work.s. 

19  A  meaoph  II  (M  )    .-Vnouphi.s  (E  ) 

20.   Thothmos  IV.    Onis  (M  J.),  Soris  (M.); 

Persecution  of  Israelites 
Regent  Achencheres.    Chnubus    Gneurus 

(B.) 
21    Amenoph     III.,     and    Amun     Toohn. 

Rathek  (Hierog.),  Danaus  (Gr.),  Rathoti's 

M  J) 
Danaus  expelled  by  Amenoph. 
Danaus  and  his  son  drive  Amenoph  into 

Ethiopia 
22.  Amun  me  Anamek.     Aehencheres  II. 


Palestine,  etc. 


(M 


),  Choncheres  (Syn.),   Bocohoris 


(Tac),  Busiris  (Grks) 
Dea^h  of  Amenoph. 


B.C. 
2069 

2059 

2017 

1996 
1978 

1975 


1836 


1728 


1577 

1571- 

32 


1531 


Ninu.s.  the  beautifier 
of  Nineveh. 

The  AssfirieiH  empire. 

Babylon  taken. 

Semiramis  succeeds 
Nnius. 

Abraham  born. 

Victories  of  Semi- 
ram  is. 

Ninyas  succeeds  Se- 
niiraniis. 

Abraii.  visits  F-gpyt 

Now  follow  the  reigns 
of  three-aud-ihirfy 
kings,  accordnig  to 
Eusebius,  or  six- 
and-thirty  accord- 
ing to  Syncellua, 
ending  with  Sarda- 
napalus  (see  p.  633, 
536) 

Jacob  born. 


Joseph  sold;  inter- 
prets Pharaoh's 
dream;  his  eleva- 
tion. 


Jacob  goes  to  Egypt. 


Joseph  dies. 


Israelites  multiply. 
Birth  and  early  life  of 
Moses. 


Moses  in  Midian. 


"  The  Exoda. 


EARLY    PROFANE    HISTORY — EGYPT,  ASSYRIA,  ETC.      o'37 

Tabular  History  of  Egypt,  etc. —  Conthiued. 


Egypt. 


B.C. 
1491 


1491 
1490 

1486 


1418 

1399 

13G6 

1331 
1823 


1321 
12G:5 
1223 
1222 


1209 
1194 
1179 

1164 
1149 

1134 

1119 

1101 

071 


Finfil  expulsion  of  shepherds  and  Danaus; 
the  mixed  multitude  (M.);  Exode; 
Bocchoris  drowned.  Syn.  tsaj-s  this  oc- 
curred 7(M)  years  after  Meues,  and  after 
twenty-five  reigns. 

23.  Harnesses  I.   Sethos  (T.),  Suphis(M.M.) 

24.  Anitin,  or  Fht/tah  me  Phoenicheen,  or 
Arineen.    Arinais  (M.),  Hermaius(i\l..J.) 

25.  Hi  messes  II.  Sethos  (T),  Souphis 
fl\l.  M  ),  Hesostris  (Grks.),  Sesoosis  (D.), 
Great  warrior. 

26.  AimnophlV.  Phthahmen(WiIk.).  Me- 
nephtlia  (Cliamp.).  Mencheres  (M.  M.) 

27.  I'Jth  dynasty.  Ihtluthmen  Se  Phthah, 
Sethos  (IM.),  Musthis  (E.) 

28.  Osiri  men  Phthah.  Rapsaces  (M.), 
Phius(M.  M.) 

29.  Osiri  ta  Ri'merrer.    Ammeiiemes  (M.) 

30.  Pamesses  III.  Aphrops  (BI.)  Sesoosis 
II.  (D.),  Sesostris  II.  (M.),  Mseris  (Her.) 
adorn.s  Theljes. 

The  Cycle  of  Mseris  begins. 

31.  Pamesses  IV.    Ammenephthes  (M.) 

32.  Pamesses  V.     Menthe  Suphis  (M.  I\I.) 

33.  Aitocris  and  Pamesses  VI.  Nitocris 
and  Thuoris  (M.  M.),  Nitocris  (E.),  Pro- 
teus (D.),  2tl//i  D;/n. 

34.  Pamesses  F//.  (Syn.),  Rhemphis  (D.) 

35.  Pamesses  VIII.    Ousiomares  (Syn.) 

36.  Pamesses  IX.  Rhamsinitus(H.).  iN'ileus 
(D.).  Sethos  NiUis  (E.) 

37.  Pamesses  X.  (Syn.),  Semphuerates  (E.) 

38.  Pamesses  XL  (Syn.),  Chuthen  Taurus 
(E.) 

39.  Amun  Mai  Pouee.  Rhamesse  Jubasse 
(Syn.) 

40.  Amumneses.    Rhainesse  Vaphris  (Syn.) 
The    ceptre  now  pa-'Ses  to  Lower  Eaypt. 

There  are  in  the  21st  dyn.,  nine  Theban 
kings,  and  seven  known  Tanite,  reign- 
ing 130  years. 

22d  dynasty.    Sheshonk  or  Shishak. 


Palestine,  etc. 


B  C. 

1491- 

51 


1466 
1451 
1444 

1433! 

1402 


1383? 


1313 
1283? 


1261 

1225? 

1213 

1198 

1192 
1183 
1176 
1116 
1112 
1106 
1056 
1045 
1044 
1016 


976 


Israel  in  the 
ness. 


wilde> 


Danaus  (Eratos.) 
Charge  to  Joshua. 
Conquest   of   Canaan 

completed. 
Deucalion  (Eratos.) 
Judges.    . 
Othnie!. 
Ehud. 

Erectheus  (Eratos.) 
Shamgar. 
Deborah. 
Cadmus  (Eratos) 
Pelops  (Eratos.) 


Hercules  (Eratos.) 
Gideon. 

Arogonauts  (Eratos.) 
1st  Theban  war. 
2d  Theban  war. 
Jephthah. 

Troy  besieged  (Erat.) 
Trojan  war  ends. 
Cireste-*  at  .\rgos. 
Death  of  Samson. 
Samuel. 
Heraclidse. 
David,  king. 
Death  of  Codrus. 
Ionic  migration. 
Solomon,  king. 


Division  of  kingdom. 


Assyria. 


From  841-773.  Thonus  Concholerus  and  Sardanapalus  reign. 
In  800,  Jonah  visits  Nineveh  ;  in  773,  the  governors  of  Media  and 
Babylon  rebel.  Nineveh  is  besiegod,  and  in  771,  Sardanapalus 
perishes  in  his  palace  by  fire.  Three  kingdoms  are  formed,  of 
which,  at  first,  Assyria  is  chief. 

I  Media. 


Assyria. 


Bahx/lon. 


Pul  reigns  over  all;  makes  I.«raelites  pay  tributes,  769. 
Gives  his  kingdom  to 


B.C. 

747 
740 

738 


Tigl.ath  Pileser. 
Victories        in 
Syria. 
2  Kings  xvi. 


IB.  C. 

766 

I  747 

733 


Belesis,  or 
Nabonassar. 

Nadius. 


B.C. 

776 


Arbnces.     who 
Conspired 
against      Sar- 
danapalus, 


Egypt,  etc. 


B.C. 

972 


812 


776 
773 

753 


Shish.ik      (Sesos- 
tris?)    invades 
Judica,  2  Chroo. 
xii.  9. 

Bocchoris. 


[Era  of  Olymp."! 
So  (or  see  below.) 

[Decennial        Ar- 


598  EARLY    PROFANE    HISTORY — EGYPT,    ASSYRIA,    ETC. 

Chronology  of  Scripture,  etc. — Continued. 


Assyria. 


B.C. 

730 

721 

714 
713 

712 


711 

710 

699 

677 

667 


650 
or 
630 


B.C. 

625 


623 


608 


606 
606 
606 

604 


587 
682 
673 


Assyria. 

I 

Shalmanezer, 
2  Kings  xvii. 

Samaria  sub- 
dued. 

Sennacherib. 

Sennacherib  in- 
vades Judtea. 

Sennacherib  in- 
vades Judrea  a 
second  time, 
2  Kinfjs  xix. 

Sennaclierib  as- 
sassinated in 
the  temijle  of 
Nisroch. 

Esarhaddon. 

Other        kings 
mentioned, 
but  doubiful. 

Esarhaddon 
takes      Baby- 
lon. 

Esarhaddon 
carries       Ma- 
nasseh  to  Ba- 
bylon. 

Ninus  III.,  or 
Saosduehinus. 
f  Chiualada- 
I  nus,  Nabu- 
^chadonoser, 
I  or  Sardana- 
Lfjalus  II. 


Babylon. 


B.C. 
7.S1 

720 
721 


710 


625 


Porus. 
Jugseus. 
Merodach  Bal., 
Isa.  xxxix. 


Babylon  inde- 
pendent un- 
der Merodach 
who  sends  to 
Hezekiah ; 
again  depend- 
ent till 


Nabopolassar, 
father  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar 
the  Great. 


B.C. 


7.53 
743 


720 


710 
672 
657 


641 


Media. 


forms    a   Me- 
dian republic, 
Phraortes 
chief. 

[Rome     found- 
ed.] 

[First     Messe- 
nian  war.] 

[First  recorded 
eclipse  of  the 
moon,  19th 
March.] 


Dejoces  king, 

slain. 
[Tullus       Hos- 

tilius.] 
[Byzantium 

biailt. 


Phraortes. 


Cyaxares  I. 


Babylon  and  Persia. 


Nabopolassar,  king  of 
Babylon,  as.serts  inde- 
pendence of  As.syria. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  his  son, 
marries  the  daughter  of 
Cyaxares  of  Media. 

Nineveh  besieged  by  Ba- 
bylon and  Media,  under 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

Taken  and  ailded  to  Media. 

Takes  .lernsalem. 

Nebuchadnezzar  defeats 
Necho. 

Nebuchadnezzar  reigns 
alone :  founds  Babylonian 
empire,  etc. 

Nebuchadnezzar  conquers 
Judi-oa. 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes 
Shu.-^an.  -Dan.,  Ezek. 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes 

Tyre,  after  thirteen  years 


Media  and  Persia. 


B.C. 
641 


621 
619 


601 
595 

572 


Dynasty  of  the  Kaianites, 
Kair-Kobad  or  Cyaxares 
I.,  subject  to  Scythians, 
expels'  them,  and  takes 
Nineveh. 

Previous  to  this  time, 
there  is  no  credible  hi.s- 
tory  of  Persia,  Kal-Kans, 
or  A  sty  apes. 

[Draco."  Athens.] 

[Tarquin  I.,  Rome.] 


Birth    of    Kai-Khosru 

(Cyrus). 
[Sappho,  Solon,  Thales.] 


[.aisop  flou.] 


Egtpt,  etc 


B.C.  / 

chons  at  Ath.] 


725  So,  the  Etliiopian, 
invades  Juda;a, 
2  Kings  xvii.  4. 


713 


711 


685 


670 


647 


616 
010 

609 
600 
600 
594 

571 


Usurpation  of 
Sevechus,  the 
priest. 


Tiraca  the  last 
Ethiopian,  fights 
with  Sennache- 
rib, 2  Kings  xix. 
9:  Isa.  xxxvii.  9. 

Egypt     governed 
by  twelve  kings, 
for  fifteen  or 
twenty-five 
years. 

Psammitichus    I. 
overthrows 
them,  and  rules; 
takes  Ashdod, 
see  Isa.  xx. 

Memphis      made 
capital;  P.«ammi- 
tichus  intro- 
duces Greek. 


Pharaoh-Necho 
II.,    2    Chron. 
Xxxv.,  xxxvi. 

Navy;  canal  to 
connect  Medit. 
and  Red  Seas  at- 
teiTipted,  fails. 

Necho  invades 
Asia. 

Defeated  by  Ne- 
buchadnezzar. 

Psammis  suc- 
ceeds Necho. 

A  pries.  or  P. 
Hophra.  con- 
spires with  Zede- 
kiah.  .against  Ne- 
bucha<lnezzar. 

A  pries  deposed  by 
NeV)uehadnezzar, 
Jer.  xliv.  30; 
xlvi.:  Ezek.xxix. 
SO,  32. 


EARLY    PROFANE    filSTORY — EGYPT,    ASSYRIA,    ETC.  599 

Chronology  of  Scripture,  etc. — Continued. 


ASSYRIA. 

Egypt,  etc. 

Babylon  and  Persia. 

Media  and  Persia. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

siege. 

569 

Amasis  made  king 

570 

(Tf)l(lenimaj<e  setup. 

by  Nebiii'liaflnez- 

5fil 

Kvil-l\lnro(i;i,ch  suoceeds. 

5fiO 

[Peisistratus,  Athens.] 

zar;  Egypi   very 

53!l 

Evil-Mcrodaoh     sUiin     by 

559 

Cyaxares  II..  (Darius). 

prosperous. 

Vyma. 

Cyrus  general,  and  rule.?. 

554 

S.-lon    vi.sita 

6&S 

Nenj^his.sar  (Belsh.),  sue. 

Per.'iian  monaraliy  founded 

Egypt. 

SSli 

Babylon      besieged;     tlie 
'•writing  on  the  wall." 

by  Cyrus. 

655 

DariiiH,    king   of   Babylon 
an<l  Media. 

651 

1  Nabonadius     rules;     as- 

551 

Zoroaster. 

■536 

Pyth.agoras   visits 

or 

>   pi  res    to    be    indepen- 

Cyaxares  dies. 

Egypt. 

65:f 

)    dent. 

Cyrus  reigns  alone. 

535 

Egy  pt  made  tribu- 

540 

Babylon  again  besieged. 

546 

Conquers  Croesus  and  Asia 

tary  by  Cyrus. 

5^8 

Babylon   taken  by  tyrus, 

Minor. 

and  annexed   to  Persian 

5.38 

Takes  Babylon. 

525 

Psammenitus 

ein|)ire. 

535 

And  Egypt. 

■" 

revolts,    and     is 
defeated.         Isa. 

629 

Death  of  Cyrus  in  battle  (Her.),  in  peace  (Xen.) 

xix.:     Egypt     a 

b%S 

Cambyses,  his  son,  succeeds;  conquers  Egypt. 

Persian          pro- 

b'^2 

SiTierdis  the  Magian. 

vince;     end     of 

621 

Slain,  and  .succeeded  by  Darius  Hytaspes,  Dan.  xi.  2. 

dynasty  of  Pha- 

518 

Bahylon  revolts,  and  is'destroyed. 

roah. 

608 

Egyptian  canal  completed  (see  (ilO,  Egypt). 

486 

Egyi)t          revolts 

499 

Macedon  and  Thrace  tributary.   lonians  revolt,  and  Athenians 

(aiid     is     again) 

assist.     War  against  Greece. 

484 

Subdued. 

492 

Two  expeditions  against  Greece  defeated. 

4B0 

Again   rebels  un- 

49.1 

Egypt  revolts. 

der  Inarius,  aid- 

484 

Xerxes  succeeds  Darius ;  subdues  Egypt,  Dan.  xi.  2. 

ed  by  Athens. 

48.) 

E.\pedition  against  Greece  fails. 

448 

Herodotus     visits 

463 

Xerxes   murdered;  Artaxerxes  I.;   Longim.  succeeds,  Neh. 

Egypt. 

li.  (i:  Themistocles  ni  Persia. 

414 

Intlep.Amyrtffiua; 

457 

Esther  qaeen. 

nine   kings   suc- 

4.'-)4 

Ezi-a  visist  Jerusalem. 

ceed;      Tausiris, 

445 

Nehemiah. 

Psammitichus 

42.T 

Xerxes  II.  succeeds,  and  is  assassinated;  Sogdianus. 

11.,  etc. 

424 

Darius  II.;  NothuH. 

350 

Subdued    by    Oc- 

414 

Egypt  regains  her  independence. 

chus  the  Persian. 

405 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon.    See  p.  53  . 

See  p.  .338. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

civil  and  moral   history   op  the  .tews  from    malaghi 
to  john  the  baptist. 

Sec.  1.  Sketch  of  the  Civil  History  of  the  Jews 
DURING  the  Period  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments. 

108.  Although  we  have  no  account  of  this  period  in  Scrip- 
ture, its  events  are  frequently  referred  to  in  prophecy,  and 
many  of  them  throw  light  upon  the  New  Te.^tament.  The 
following  sketch  is  founded  chiefly  on  Jo.sephus  and  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees. 


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03 


OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS   CONNECTED.  603 

110.  After  Nehemiali  (B.  C.  420),  Jud!«a  continued  subject  to  the 

kinrrs  of  Pei'sia  for   nearly  a  hundred  years.     It   ceased, 

,  .  The  Jews 

howeyer,  to  form  a  distinct  government,  and  was  annexed      under  the 

to  the  satrapy  of  Syria;  the  administration  of  affairs  being  lersiaas. 
entrusted  to  the  high  priest,  subject  only  to  the  control  of  the  Syrian 
governor.  This  union  of  the  civil  government  and  the  pontificate 
soon  made  the  office  one  of  high  ambition  to  the  different  members  of 
the  family  of  Aaron,  and  gave  occasion  to  many  violent  and  disgrace- 
ful contests. 

111.  Upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  army  by  Alexander,  Syria 
fell  under  his  power ;  and  Tyre  was  taken  after  an  obstinate 
resistance.     Alexander  then  marched  into  Judaea,  to  punish    ^  (j'^si  '"' 
the  Jews,  who,  out  of  respect  for  their  oath  to  the  king  of 

Persia,  liad  granted  tlie  Tyrians  supplies  of  provisions  and  refused 
them  to  him.  But  (it  is  related)  as  he  approached  Jerusalem,  and  saw 
a  solemn  procession  of  the  people  coming  to  meet  him,  headed  by  the 
high  priest  Jaddua,  and  all  the  priestly  race,  in  their  robes  of  office, 
God  turned  his  heart  to  spare  and  favor  them.  He  continued  to  them 
the  free  enjoyment  of  tlieir  laws  and  religion;  granted  them  exemp- 
tion from  tribute  during  their  sabbatical  years ;  and  when  he  built  the 
city  of  Alexandria,  placed  a  great  number  of  Jews  there,  and  gave 
them  the  same  privileges  as  his  Greek  subjects.  On  the  division  of 
Alexander's  empire,  Judaea  ultimately  fell  to  the  share  of 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  and  formed  part  of  the  monarchy  of  Egypt.  Tlie  Egyp- 
That  prince  removed  many  of  the  people  to  Alexandria, 
confirmed  their  privileges,  and  even  advanced  some  of  them  to  offices 
of  authority  and  trust.  By  successive  deportations  and  voluntary  re- 
movals, Egypt  became,  and  long  continued,  an  important  seat  of  the 
Jewish  population.  The  moral  influence  of  this  change  will  be  noticed 
below. 

During  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  the  pros]ierity  of  the  Jews  was 
much  promoted  by  the  internal  administration  of  an  excellent  high 
priest,  Simon  the  Just.  lie  repaired  and  fortified  their  city  and  temple 
with  strong  and  lofty  walls,  and  made  a  spacious  reservoir  of  water, 
"in  compass  as  a  sea."  He  is  said  to  have  completed  the  canon  of  tlie 
Old  Testament  by  the  addition  of  the  books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zecha- 
j-iah,  Nehemiali,  Esther,  and  Malachi.  The  Jews  also  aflirm  that 
Simon  was  "the  last  of  the  great  synagogue,"  which  is  described  as 
having  consisted  of  120  individuals,  among  whom  were  Ezra,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  Nelieiiiiah,  and  Malachi.  They  ajjpear  to  have  been  a 
succession  of  devoted  and  patriotic  men,  wlio  distinguished  themselves 
after  the  captivity  by  their  labors  in  collecting  and  revising  the  sacred 


604  OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS    CONNECTED. 

books,  and  in  settling  and  improving  the  civil  and  religious  institutions 
of  their  country.     Simon  died  in  the  year  291  B.  C. 

After  the  Jewish  nation  had  been  tributary  to  the  kings  of  Egypt 
for  about  a  hundred  years  (during  the  last  sixty  of  which  it  enjoyed 
almost  uninterrupted  tranquillity  under  tlie  shadow  of  their  power,) 
it  became  subject,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  to  the  kings  of 
Syria  (B.  C.  198).  They  divided  the  land  into  five  provinces ;  three 
of  which  were  on  the  west  side  of  Jordan,  namely,  Galilee,  Samaria, 
and  Judffia  (though  the  whole  country  was  frequently  called  Judata 
after  this  time) ;  and  two  on  the  eastern  side,  namely,  Trachonitis  and 
Peroea :  but  the  Jews  were  allowed  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws, 
under  the  high  priest  and  council  of  the  nation. 

Judtc-a,  being  situated  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  was  much  affected 
by  the  frequent  wars  in  which  those  countries  were  engaged.  The  evils 
to  which  it  was  thus  exposed  were  aggravated  by  the  corruption  and 
misconduct  of  its  high  priests  and  chief  men,  and  the  increasing  wicked- 
ness of  the  people. 

112.  God  saw  fit  to  punish  the  Jews  for  this  defection  by  the  hand 

of  Antioclius   Eiiiplianes,  kino;  of  Syria,   who   came  and 
The  Syrians       ,        ,        ,      ,  ■  ,  V        /-    ,  i  ■  i 

j)iundered   the  city  and  temple  oi   Jerusalem  witli  every 

circumstance  of  cruelty  and  profanation,  and  slew  or  enslaved  great 

numbers  of  the  inhabitants  (B.  C.  170).     For  three  years  and  a  half 

they  were  altogether   deprived    of  their  civil  and    religious  liberties. 

The  daily  sacrifice  was  taken  away;  the  (cinple  itself  was  dedicated  by 

Antioclius  to  Jupiter,  whose  statue  wa,s  erected  on  the  altar  of  burnt 

offering;  the  observance  of  the  law  of  God  was  prohibited  under  the 

severest  penalties ;  eveiy  copy  of  the  sacred  writings  which  could  be 

seized  was  burned;  and  the  people  were  required,  under  pain  of  death, 

to  sacrifice  to  idols.     Never  before  had  the  Jews  been  exposed  to  so 

furious  a  persecution.     Numerous  as  were  the  apostates,  a  remnant 

continued  faithful:  and  those  events  were  doubtless  made  instrumental 

in  cnilmg  the  attention  of  the  heathen  around  to  those  great  principles 

for  winch  many  of  the  Jews  at  that  tune  were  willing  to  peril  their 

lives. 

113.  At  length  God  raised  up  a  deliverer  for  his  people  in  the  noble 

family  of  the  Asmonseans.  Mattathias,  a  priest  eminent 
nro-uis'^™'^'    for  Ins  piety  and   resolution,  and  the  lather  of  five  sons, 

encouraged  the  people,  by  his  example  and  exhortations, 
"to  stand  up  for  the  law;"  and  having  collected  around  him  a  large 
number  of  faithful  men,  he  undertook  to  free  the  nation  from  the 
oppression  and  persecution  of  the  Syrians,  and  to  restore  the  worship 
of  the  God  of  Israel ;  but  buing  very  old  when  engaged  in  this  arduous 


OLD   AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS    CONNECTED.  605 

work,  lie  did  not  live  to  see  its  completion.  At  liis  death,  his  eldest 
son,  Judas,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  (B.  C.  163),  in 
Mdii'-li  he  was  assisted  by  his  four  brothers,  esjiecially  by  Simon,  the 
elder  of  them,  who  was  a  man  of  remarkable  prudence.  The  motto 
on  his  standard  was,  Exod.  xv.  11,  "  Who  is  like  unto  thee  among  the 
gods,  0  Jehovah?"  The  Hebrew  words  being  Mi  Camoka  Baelvm 
JiihovoJi ;  and  fram  the  initial  letters  of  these  words  M  C  B  I  was 
derived  the  word  Ifaccabi,  or  Afaccahee,  and  became  the  surname  of 
the  fiiinily,  and  was  applied  also  to  all  who  joined  their  cause. 

After  several  victories  over  the  troops  of  Antiochus,  he  gained  pos- 
session of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple.  His  first  care  was  to  purify  both 
from  all  traces  of  idolatry.  The  temple  was  consecrated  anew  to  the 
service  of  God,  and  the  daily  sacrifices  were  re.^umed.  This  roconsecra- 
■  tion  of  the  temple  and  revival  of  worship  was  ever  after  celebrated  by 
an  annual  feast  of  eight  days.  It  occurred  at  the  time  of  the  winter 
solstice,  and  was  called  the  feast  of  the  dedication,  John  x.  22. 

114.  Under  the  Maccabean  princes,  Juda>a  became  a  free  state,  sup- 
ported by  regular  troops,  strong  garrisons,  and  alliances  with  other 
powers,  including  even  Rome  itself  Tlie  couniiy  began  to  enjoy  its 
former  fertility  and  peacefulness ;  and  the  boundaries  of  the  state  were 
extended  in  the  direction  of  Syria,  Phcenicia,  Arabia,  and  Idum^a. 
This  prosperity,  however,  was  but  of  short  duration.  The  decline  of 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  the  gradual  extension  of  the  Roman  ])ower,  soon 
led  to  the  overtlirow  of  the  Jewish  commouwealtli.  Pompey  marched 
his  army  into  Juda;a,  besieged  and  took  Jerusalem,  and  made  Judaja 
tributary  to  the  Romans,  though  it  was  still  governed  by  the  Macca- 
bean ]irincos.  The  last  of  that  family  was  conquered  and  deposed  by 
Herod  the  Great,  an  lduma3an  by  birth,  but  of  the  Jewish  religion ;  a 
favorite  of  Rome,  and  connected,  by  his  marriage  to  Mariamne,  with 
the  Asmonrean  family..  He  enlarged  the  kingdom,  but  reduced  the 
power  of  the  high-pri-estliood,  wliich,  instead  of  being  an  hereditary 
office  held  for  life,  was  now  granted  and  held  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
monarch.  He  was  a  cruel  tyrant  to  his  ])eoplc,  and  even  to  his  own 
children,  three  of  whom  he  put  to  death;  a  slave  to  his  passions,  and 
indifl'erent  by  what  means  he  gratified  his  ambition.  But,  to  preserve 
the  Jews  in  subjection,  and  to  erect  a  lasting  monument  to  his  own 
name,  he  repaired  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  at  a  vast  exjiense,  and 
greatly  added  to  its  magnificence. 

115.  In  the  thirt3''-sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Herod,  while  Herod. 
Augustus  was  emperor  of  Rome,  the  Saviour  of  the  world 

wa*  born. 

61* 


t)U6  MORAL    CONDITION    OF   THE    JEWS. 

Herod  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  part  of  Palestine  by  his 
son  Archelaus,  who  acted  with  great  cruelty ;  and  in  the  tenth  year  of 
his  goverumeut,  upon  a  complaint  being  made  against  him  by  the  Jews, 
he  was  banished  by  Augustus  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died.  Pub- 
lius  Sulpitius  Quirinius  (who,  according  to  the  Greek  way  of  writing 
the  name,  is  by  Luke  called  Cyrenius),  the  president  of  Syria,  was  then 
sent  to  reduce  the  countries  over  which  Archelaus  had  reigned  to  a 
Roman  province ;  and  a  governor  of  Judaea  was  appointed,  under  the 
title  of  procurator,  subordinate  to  the  president  of  Syria.  During  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  Juda>a  and  Samaria  were  governed  by  a  Roman 
procurator,  who  had  the  power  of  life  and  death ;  while  Galilee  was 
governed  under  the  authority  of  the  Romans  by  Herod  Antipas,  a  son 
of  Herod  the  Great,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch. 

Sec.  2. — Sketch  of  the  Moral  and  Religious  History 
OF  the  Jews,  during  the  period  between  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments. 

116.  Between  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  canon  and  the 
time  of  our  Lord,  the  Jews  appear  in  a  somewhat  new  light. 
Their  intercourse  with  Gentiles  in  Babylon  and  elsewhere, 
and  the  severe  chastisements  they  had  undergone,  checked 
their  tendency  to  idolatry,  and  confirmed  them  in  their  own 
faith.  The  Scriptures  were  also  more  frequently  consulted 
than  under  the  earlier  monarchy,  and  synagogues  were  estab- 
lished in  most  of  the  cities  of  Palestine. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Jews  with  other  nations  had  become  during 

the  same  period  more  general.     As  early  as  the  time  of  the 

inierpf.nfse    captivity  a  colony  was  formed  in  Egypt,  thus  violating  the 

with  tliu  p-,^y  (Dent,  xii.),  and  weakening  the  ties  which  bound  them 
lieathen.  ^  ,  _  ,    " 

to  the  holy  city.     Their  earlier  connection  with  Egypt  had 

been  a  scourge,  and  now  it  became  a  snare.  From  choice  or  necessity, 
settlers  established  themselves  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  in  Africa,  and 
in  Italy,  so  that  when  our  Lord  appeared,  there  was  scarcely  a  country 
in  the  whole  Roman  empire  in  which  a  Jewish  colony  might  not  be 
found.  It  was  well  nigh  literally  true  that  Moses  had  in  every  city 
those  that  preaclie<l  him,  Acts  xv.  2L 

As  a  consequence  of  this  intercourse,  the  original  language  of  Pales- 
tine, which  had  been  subject,  as  we  have  seen,  to  various  influences 


RELIGIOUS    CONDITION   OF   THE   JEWS.  607 

(Ft.,  i.  I  34),  was  forgotten  by  many  of  the  Jews,  and  Greek  became  as 
fiuuiliar  in  the  towns  of  Juda;a  as  Aramasan.  Hence  the  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  the  admission  by  the  Jews  into  their 
purer  faith  of  some  of  the  absurdities  of  heathen  philosophy.  Hence, 
also,  an  extensive  acquaintance  among  the  Gentiles  with  the  Jewish 
i;criplures,  and  a  general  expectation  throughout  all  the  East  of  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah. 

117.  Otlier  influences  were  also  at  work,  of  a  directly  reli- 
gions kind. 

Most  of  the  rites  of  the  law  derived  their  significance  from  their 
symbolical  character.  Tliey  were  doctrines  in  action ;  and  other  iu- 
though  some  were  intended  merely  to  preserve  the  Jews  fluence.'i. 
distinct  from  neigliboring  nations,  most  were  intended  to  teach  lessons 
of  piety  and  morality,  or  to  point  attention  to  the  office  and  work  of 
the  Messiah. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  period,  however,  all  that  was  spiritual  in 
the  law  was  overlooked,  the  ritual  alone  being  regarded.  Hence  arose 
a  variety  of  sects,  a  knowledge  of  whose  tenets  helps  us  to  appreciate 
the  allusions  of  our  Lord.  This  knowledge,  moreover,  is  highly 
instructive  in  illustrating  the  deceitfulness  of  human  nature,  and  its 
tendencies  in  our  own  age.  We  may  notice,  in  fact,  in  Juda?a,  the 
direction  which  the  mind  of  man  everywhere  takes  as  true  religion 
decays.  There  was  the  first  traditional  tendency,  under  Pharisaism, 
whose  influence  foreign  human  elements  were  mingled  with  j^^'j^'^'^^f®" 
the  Divine.  Forms  which  compressed  and  destroyed  the  senes. 
substance  of  piety  were  substituted  for  such  as  grew  of  it :  the  law  was 
made  void  through  traditions.  In  the  place  of  the  real  essence  there 
came  the  dead  ceremonial.  This  was  Pharisaism,  or  legal  Judaism. 
But  extremes  confirm  one  another.  The  foreign  additions  introduced 
by  one  sect  were  disowned  by  others;  and  with  the  rejection  of  the 
additions  came  the  rejection  of  much  that  was  true.  Hence  arose  8ad- 
ducceism,  or  rationalistic  Judaism,  ending  often  in  infidelity.  In  time, 
it  was  earlier  than  Pliarisaisra,  but  it  never  flourished  till  that  system 
became  prevalent.  Neither  error  met  the  wants  of  men  of  warmer 
devotional  feeling.  The  Pharisee  believed  too  much,  the  Sadducee  too 
little.  Both  tailed,  in  the  opinion  of  this  third  sect,  to  see  the  import 
of  Scripture,  which  is  not  on  the  surface,  but  beneath,  and  must  be 
reached  b}''  profound  meditation  and  allegorical  interpretations.  Hence 
arose  the  Essenes,  the  representatives  of  the  monastioism  of  all  ages. 


608  JEWISH    SECTS — TRADITION. 

How  easy  to  avoid  the  errors  of  others,  and  yet  have  errors  no  less 
fatal  of  our  own ! 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  three  Grecian  sects — the  Stoics,  the 
Epicureans,  and  the  Pythagoreans — did  not  widely  differ  from  these 
Jewish  sects.  Sir  John  Malcolm  has  also  shown  that  the 
drn'^^Greek  three  chief  Mohammedan  sects  fell  into  the  same  errors. 
sects,  etc.  ijj^g  Sunis  are  the  traditionists ;  the  Sheas  adhere  to  the 
Koran ;  and  the  Sufis  sought  their  religion  in  what  Mohammed  called 
"internal  divine  sensation,"  (History  of  Persia,  chap  xxii.) 

Later  than  the  time  of  our  Lord,  these  sects  were  known  by  different 
names.  The  Pharisees  were  called  successively,  Rabbinists  (discijJes, 
that  is,  of  the  rabbis,  or  great  teachers);  Cabalists  (i.  e.  traditionists); 
and  Talmudists.  Those  who  held  the  doctrine  of  the  Sadducees  on  the 
supremacy  of  the  literal  text  of  the  Pentateuch,  though  not  holding 
their  other  errors,  were  called  Karaites,  or  Scripturists.  The  Essenes, 
also,  are  known  in  history  as  Therapeutse  (i.  c.  soul-physicians);  though 
some  think  that  this  name  was  given  to  a  distinct  but  similar  sect. 
(Burton's  Bampton  Ijecture,  Note  32;  and  Neander's  Church  History,  i.) 

118.  It  is  instructive  to  observe,  that  while  the  Pharisees 
used  tradition  for  the  discovery  of  truth,  the  Sadducees  used 
rationalistic  logic  for  the  same  purpose,  as  did  the  schoolmen 
in  later  times ;  and  that  these  sects  owed  their  origin  to  the 
tendencies  of  human  nature,  and  the  decay  of  spiritual  religion. 
The  great  question  between  them,  moreover,  was  on  the  extent 
and  authority  of  tradition.  The  Sadducee,  though  willing  to 
compare  it  with  so  much  of  Scripture  as  he  believed,  denied 
its  authority :    The  Pharisee  received  it  as  Divine. 

119.  The  body  of  tradition  referred  to  in  these  disputes, 

was  collected  in  the  second  centurv,  or  later,  by 

Jewish  .  " 

tradition.  Jewish  doctors,  and  especially  by  Pv,.  Judah,  the 
Holy,  a  descendant  of  Gamaliel  (Lightfoot),  and  a  favorite  of 
one  of  the  Antonines. 

"■  The  collection  is  called  Mishna,  or  the  repetition.^  Later  doctors 
added  to  it  various  comments,  under  the  name  of  Gemara  (a  comple- 
tion); and  the  two  works — Mishna  and  Gemara — are  together  called 

»  SeuTipaxTK. 


MISHNA — GEMARA — TALMUD.  609 

tljf.  Talmud,  from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  to  teach.  The  Jewish 
Mishna,  with  the  comments  collected  by  Jeru.salem  rabbis  iriKlition- 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  has  the  name  of  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud.  The  comments  of  the  Babylonish  Talmud  were  collected  in 
the  sixth  century  by  rabbis  residing  at  Babylon.  The  Mishna,  or  text, 
is  the  same  in  each.  The  traditions  which  compose  it  arose  about  300 
years  before  Christ,  and  interpolations  excepted,  were  no  doubt  such  as 
met  our  Lord  in  the  days  of  his  personal  ministry. 

In  the  Talmud  are  found  many  critical  and  grammatical  comments 
on  the  texts  of  Scripture.  These  comments,  with  others  which  tradi- 
tion had  handed  down,  were  brought  together  into  one  book,  under  the 
title  of  Masora  (or  traditiun).  When  these  Masoretic  comments  origi- 
nated is  not  agreed.  Some  Jewish  writers  maintain  that  many  of  them 
are  as  old  as  the  days  of  Moses.  Kimchi  and  others  think  that  they 
commenced  with  the  revision  of  the  MSS.  of  Scripture  effected  by  Ezra; 
and  others  still  (among  whom  is  Eben  Ezra,  1150),  that  they  liad  their 
origin  in  the  school  of  Tiberias,  between  the  third  and  the  sixth  centu- 
ries after  Christ.  Eichhorn  thinks  it  demonstrable  that  they  are  not 
the  production  of  any  one  age,  but  were  written  at  long  intervals,  and 
some  of  them  in  comparatively  modern  times.  The  whole  were  pub- 
lished in  Bomberg's  E,abbinical  Bible  (Venice,  1518-36).  They  are 
printed  on  the  side  of  the  text  and  at  the  end  of  each  book.  Extracts 
from  this  Masora  (under  the  title  of  the  lesser  Masora)  have  been  fre- 
quently printed,  and  portions  of  these  are  found  in  nearly  all  editions 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

To  the  Masorites,  probably,  we  owe  the  points,  accents,  and  most  of 
the  corrections  of  the  printed  text,  together  with  a  large  mass  of  curious, 
though  unimportant  information,  on  the  words  and  letters  of  Scripture. 
Some  of  their  corrections  are  critical:  they  suggest  the  right  division 
of  words,  Psa.  Iv.  16;  cxxiii.  4;  the  transposition,  alteration,  and 
omission  of  consonants,  1  Kings  vii.  45 :  Ezek.  xxv.  7 :  Amos  viii.  8 ; 
grammatical  or  orthographical,  as  in  various  passages  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (see  Pent.)  and  Ez.  xxvii.  5;  and  euphemistic  or  explanatory, 
1  Sam.  V.  6;  vi.  4:  Deut.  xxviii.  17:  2  Kings  xviii.  27:  I.'^a.  xxvi.  12. 

The  Masorites  notice  seven  passages  in  wliicli  words  are  read  (keri) 
in  the  Hebrew  which  are  not  written  (kethib),  2  Sam.  viii.  3;  xvi  23; 
five,  where  words  are  written,  but  not  read,  2  Kings,  v.  18,  etc. 

They  made  it  their  business,  also,  to  count  the  words  and  letters  of 
each  book,  as  well  as  unusual  constructions  and  forms,  and  to  mark 
many  facts  of  no  importance,  except  that  the  care  thus  exercised  in 
accumulating  them,  tended  to  guard  the  purity  of  th'i  sacred  text. 
They  note,  for  example,  that  the  middle  letter  of  the  law  ..s  in  Lev.  xi. 


610 


PHARISEES — SADDUCEES. 


42;  the  middle  words  in  Lev.  x.  13;  the  middle  verse,  Lev.  xiii.  13. 
Of  the  Psalms,  the  middle  letter-  is  in  Ixxx.  14,  and  the  middle  verse, 
Ixxviii.  36.  They  also  state  how  often  each  letter  occurs  in  each  book 
and  in  all  the  Bible. ^ 

The  middle  letters  were  written,  and  are  still  printed,  in  an  unusual 
position,  or  of  unusual  size,  and  are  said  by  the  Cabalists  to  have  a 
deep  spiritual  meaning. 

120.  The  Cabala  (or  received)  was  the  mystical  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  said  to  have  been  received  from  God  by  Adam,  Abraham, 
and  Moses,  and  to  have  been  handed  down  through  Jo.shua  to  the 
seventy  elders  and  their  successors,  the  rabbinical  doctors.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  whole  system  of  philosophy  in  vogue  among  the 
Rabbins,  who  supposed  that  each  letter  of  Scripture  contained  some 
mystery  (see  examples,  Pt.  i.  ^  428). 


121.  The  Pharisees  formed  the  most 
numerous  sect  among  the 
Pharisees  and  .Jews.b  Their  name  sig- 
Sadducees.  nifies  expounders,  or  se- 
parated, either  because 
they  expounded  the  law  by  tradition,  or 
because  tliey  deemed  themselves  more 
holy  than  others,c  John  vii.  49.  They 
represented  the  legal  spirit  of  Judaism. 
and  reflecting  mo.st  truly  the  national 
character,  they  were  the  favorite  sect 
among  the  people.  They  were  among 
tlie  bitterest  enemies  of  our  Lord. 

Such  was  their  general  character;  in 
some  few,  however,  religion  was  the  ex- 
pression of  honest,  but  misguided  zeal, 
Rom.  X.  3. 


The  Sadducees  take  their  name  either 
from  T.-*edek,  righteousness,  or  from 
Sadok,  the  pupil  of  Antigonus  Socliieus, 
the  first  Misnnical  teacher,  and  president 
of  the  great  Sanhedrim  (B.  C.  2.50).  They 
denied  the  authority  of  tradition,  and  re- 
garded with  suspicion  all  revelatioiis 
made  later  than  jMoses.  They  objected 
to  all  development  of  Divine  trutli.even 
of  such  truth  as  W'as  plainly  implied  in 
the  Pentateuch  ;  so  that  they  olltn  mis- 
understood the  very  books  they  pro- 
fessed to  receive.  On  thi.s  ground,  tney 
denied  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrect-on 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Their 
denial   of  the   existence   of   angel  and 


spirit  is  hardlv  expUcable  on  any  princi- 
ple, except  that  when  once  men  have 
become  skeptical  their  unbelief  is  closely  allied  to  credulity.  The  precepts  of  the 
law  were  the  only  parts  they  regarded  as  clear;  all  el.se  they  thought  uncertain. 
Without  formally  denying  a  Providence,  they  made  God.  as  fitr  as  possible,  an  idle 
spectator  of  the  affairs  of  the  universe,  and  were  led  l\v  this  view  to  a  system  of 
deism,  which  all  but  set  aside  the  authoiity  of  revelation.  Their  doctrines  were 
favorably  received  by  the  young  men  of  Judrea,  and  produced  (as  Josephus  has 
affirmed)  dispositions  cold  and  repulsive.  Tlie  Sadducees  were  mostly  persons  of 
wealth,  who  lived  a  life  of  ease  and  earthly  enjoyment,  without  opening  their  minds 
to  any  higher  aspiration.s.  From  their  position,  they  gained  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant posts  in  the  country.  Caiaphas,  who  condemned  our  Lord,  was  a  Sad- 
ducee;J  and  Josephus  says  that  Herod,  who  tVlt  John's  preaching  so  keenly,  be- 
longed to  this  sect  e  He" thus  furnishes  an  illustration  of  the  power  of  eon.science 
over  a  system  of  infidelity  which  his  heart,  rather  than  his  head,  had  embraced. 

The  Herodians  were  chiefly  Sadducees 
in  their  religious  tenets  (compare  Mark 
viii.  1.5  with  Matt.  xvi.  0). but  were  rather 
a  political  than  a  religious  sect.  They 
took  their  name  and  (heir  views  from 
the  family  of  Herod  wlio  derived  their 


122.  Closely  akin  to  the  Pharisees  in 
their  religious  views  were 
Galileeans,  the  GatiUeans,  tliough  dif- 
Herodians.  fering  in  their  ))olitical 
tenets.  They  sprang  from 
Judas  of  Galilee  (Gamala).  wlio,  in  "  the 
days  of  the  taxing,"  taught  that  all  for- 


authority  from  the  Roman  government. 


a  De  Wette's  Intr.  i.  256;  Walton's  Proleg.  viii.  8;  Buxtorf 's  Tiberias. 

b  Josephus  reckons  them  at  C  nnn,  chiefly  of  the  priestly  order.  Founded  B.  C.  135. 

c  See  Lightfoot's  Hor.  Heb.  on  Matt.  xv.  2:?'l. 

d  Acts  iv.  6 ;  V.  17.  e  Matt.  xiv.  2. 


ESSENES — SCEIBES — PROSELYTES.  611 


ei?n  domination  w.t:  nnscnptural,  and 
that  God  was  llie  only  kins  of  the  Jews. 
iJoeiiiins  it  unlawful  to  jiiay  for  foreign 
princes,  they  pertormed  tlicir  sacrifices 
apart.    As   our  Lord  and   his  disciples 


It  wa.'!  their  principle  to  promote  inti- 
macy with  Rome  ny  flattery  and  un- 
limited submission.  Hut  especially  liy  in- 
troducing into  Judita  the  u>a,<;ev  of' the 
eonquorors.     This  union  with   idolatry, 


were  from  Galilee,  the  Pliarisees  at-  i  on  the  ground  of  worldly  policy,  was 
tempted  to  identify  him  with  this  sect.        probably  the  leaven  again-st  which  our 

Of  this  party,  the  most  violent   pro-    Lord  cautioned  his  disciples 

balily  were  called  zealots.    They  occur  |  

just  before  t.hfe  destruction  ('jf  Jerusalem,  and  are  perhaps  referred  to  in  Acts  xxi.  38. 

A  better  class  of  zealots  are  mentioned  in  Acts  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  3. 

123.  The  Essenes  are  reckoned  by  Philo  at  4,000,  and  probably  owe 

their  origin  to  Egypt.     They  renounced  the  pleasures  and 

.  The  Essene.s. 

conveniences  of  life,  and  were  in  their  creed  unqualified 

fatalists.  Matt.  xix.  12:  Col.  ii.  16-19,  and  some  parts  of  John  are 
supposed  to  refer  to  their  doctrines;  but  as  they  had  seceded  from  the 
body  of  the  Jewish  people,  they  are  not  formally  noticed  in  the  narra- 
tives of  our  Lord's  ministry. 

124.  The  scribes  were  a  learned  profession  and  not  a  religious  sect.  It 
was  their  business  to  make  copies  of  the  law  and  to  expound 

it.    Hence  they  were  called  lawyers*  and  doctors  of  the  law.** 
As  religionists,  they  generally  favored  the  Pharisees,  and  are  therefore 
often  mentioned  with  them  (Matt,  xxiii.),  though  all  sects  had  their 
friends  in  this  profession.<^ 

The  scribes  of  the  people  were  probably  members  of  the  Sanhedrim, 
not  of  the  priestly  order.  This  body,  the  Sanhedrim,  consisted  of 
seventy-two  members,  of  whom  twenty-four  were  priests,  and  twenty- 
four  elders  (Rev.  iv.  4) ;  and  probably  the  scribes  of  the  people  were 
the  rest  (see  1  Cliron.  xxvii.  32). 

125.  The  Proselytes  were,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a  very  numerous 
body.     The  name  was  given  to  those  Gentiles  who  took  upon 
themselves  the  obligations  of  the  Mosaic  law.     They  joined 

in  offering  sacrifices  to  the  God  of  Israel  in  the  outer  court  of  the  temple. 
■The  Pharisees  took  great  pains  to  make  these  proselytes,  and  were 
aided  in  their  efforts  by  the  fading  authority  of  the  old  religions,  and 
the  reverence  in  which  the  God  of  the  Jews  was  held  by  the  heatlien. 
As  these -teachers  had  no  true  idea  of  their  religion,  they  could  impart 
none;  their  converts,  therefore,  only  changed  their  superstition,  hushed 
the  accusations  of  conscience,  and  became  twofold  moie  than  before 
"the  children  of  hell."  These  were  called  Proselytes  of  Righteous- 
ness, and  were  often  among  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Christian  faith. 

126.  There  was  also  a  large  body  of  Gentiles  called  (in  later  times) 

»  Matt.  xxii.  35,  compared  with  Mark  xii.  28. 
^  Luke  V.  17,  21.  «  Malt.  ii.  4. 


612  SAMARITANS. 

Proselytes  of  the  Gate,-'  v/lio  simply  pledged  themselves  to  renounce 
idolatry,  to  worship  tlie  true  God,  and  to  abstain  from  all  heathenish 
practices.  They  had  generally  heard  of  tlie  coming  of  the  Messiah, 
and  were  free  from  most  of  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews.  Hence  the  new 
religion  made  great  progress  among  them. 

They  are  called  in  tlie  New  Testament  "  devout  persons,  fearing  God," 
and  religious  i)rosclytes,  Acts  xiii.  16,  43,  and  seem  to  have  been 
numerous  in  Damascus  and  Thessalonica  (xiii.  50;  xvii.  4 :  see,  also, 
z.  2). 

127.  The  Samaritans  claimed  an  interest  in  the  Mosaic  covenant, 

but  our  Lord  distino;uishes  them  from  the  lost  sheep  of  the 
Snmnri  tRiis. 

house   of    Israel,   and   from   the   Gentiles   (Matt.  x.  5,  6). 

Those  of  the  time  of  our  Lord  sprang  from  the  colonists  with  whom 

the  king  of  Assyria  peopled  Samaria  after  the  ten  tribes  were  carried 

away  (2  Kings  xvii.)     A  captive  priest  was  sent  to  teach  them,  and 

though   at  first  they  regarded  God  as  a  kind  of  tutelary  Deity,  and 

much  of  their  religious  system  was  corrupt,  yet  they  afterwards  sought 

to  be  united  with  the  Jews.     With  this  view,  Sanballat,  the  Cushite 

(not  the  Sanballat  of  Neh.  xiii.  28),  obtained  the  aid  of  a  Jewish  priest, 

Manasses,    whom    the    Jews    forced   into   banishment.     With    him,    a 

numerous  train  of  followers  settled  in  Samaria.     They  then  erected  on 

Mount  Gerizim  an  independent  temple,  which  remained  till  the  days 

of  John  Hyrcanus,  B.  C.  109,  and  established  what  they  deemed  a  more 

orderly  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law.     Their  faith  arwi  practice  they 

founded  on  the  Pentateuch  alone,  and  rejected  the  whole  of  the  other 

insjnred  writings. 

This  division  was  overruled  for  the  general  good.  The  Samaritan 
copy  of  the  law  has  been  carefully  preserved,  and  the  enmity  between 
the  Jews  and  themselves  has  made  both  parties  the  more  jealous  for  the 
purity  of  their  respective  texts.  The  Samaritans  were  free,  also,  from 
the  pride  and  narrowness  too  prevalent  among  their  neighbors.  Of 
spurious  descent  themselves,  and  despised  by  those  around  them,  they 
had  probably  a  more  just  appreciation  of  the  comprehensiveness  of  the 
Gospel.  They  regarded  all  nations  as  entitled  to  an  interest  in  its 
blessings.  They  accordingly  received  from  our  Jjord  one  of  the  earliest 
express  intimations  that  he  was  the  Messiah  (John  iv.),  and  were  other- 
wise frequently  noticed  by  him  in  the  course  of  his  ministry. 

As  they  received  only  the  Pentateuch,  it  is  peculiarly  interesting  to 

*  This  name  was  unknown  to  Christians  before  the  14th  century 
(Tjardner).  It  is  given,  however,  in  Maimonides  (A.  D.  1200),  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  class  existed  in  the  days  of  our  Lord. 


THE   GOSPELS.  618 

notice  the  passages  on  which  to  this  cla}^  they  rest  their  belief  on  the 
coming  of  a  Saviour.  They  point  to  Dent  xviii.  15-19;  and  conclude 
that  he  is  the  Saviour  of  the  world  from  Gen.  xii.  3;  xxii.  18;  xxvi.  4; 
xxviii.  14,  etc. 

After  the  time  of  our  Lord  three  sects  sprang  np  among  them;  of 
which  two,  founded  by  Simon  Magus  and  his  pup)il  Menander,  survived 
for  centuries,  and  were  often  confounded  by  heathen  writers  with 
Christians. 

128.  These  sects,  it  may  further  be  observed,  are  not  isolated  pheno- 
mena, confined    to  the  countries  or  times  in  which   they 

ThfiSG   S6Ct3 

appeared.  They  exhibit  human  nature  throughout  all  exhTbit  the 
time;  and  the  precepts  and  truths  which  were  adapted  to  oVhumaa^ 
their  condition  are  not  less  adapted  to  ourselves.  nature. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    GOSPELS. — INTKODUCTORY. 

129.  We  now  come  to  the  New  Testament,  the  fullest  and 
latest  revelation  of  God.     The  ancient  dispensation  ^,^^,   , 

*  -L  OldTestar 

made  nothing  perfect.     Apart  even  from  the  abuses  "?^"'j^u™" 
by  which  it  had  been  corrupted,  it  was  in  itself  in-  the  life  of 

...  . .  .  our  Lord. 

complete,   Gal.    iii.   21:    Heb.   vii.    18;    ix.  9,   11. 

TTTi  -1  •         T  .  Hf'  came  to 

Whatever  was   wantmg,   however,   m   the  ancient  ^p  ttie  .sub- 

T.     T    1       ,1        .  .  iect  of  the 

institution,  IS  supplied  by  the  incarnation,  the  life  &ospei. 
and  death  of  our  Lord :  facts  which  form  the  theme  of  the 
Gospels,  as  the  explanation  of  them  forms  the  theme  of  the 
Epistles.  He  is  himself,  in  truth,  the  Gospel.  His  coming 
and  work,  apart  even  from  all  he  directly  taught,  constitute 
the  glad  tidings  of  great  joy  unto  all  people.  Did  men  need 
52 


614  TRUTH — HOW   REVEALED. 

a  real  sacrifice  for  sin,  in  which  the  rites  of  the  law  should 
find  their  explanation  and  end  ?  That  sacrifice  he  offered. 
Did  men  need  a  perfect  rule  of  life  ?  That  rule  he  gave  when 
he  dwelt  among  us ;  and  immortality  he  brings  to  light,  not 
so  much  by  teaching  it,  or  promising  it,  as  by  the  actual  fact 
of  himself  rising  from  the  dead  in  our  nature,  and  on  our 
behalf.  There  is,  indeed,  no  question  in  religion  which  it  is 
essential  for  us  to  know,  which  the  life  of  Christ  has  not  solved. 
In  Him  we  see  God  himself  revealed,  his  mercy,  justice,  faith- 
fulness and  power ;  and  in  Him  we  see  no  less  clearly  our 
own  nature ;  its  sinfulness  in  his  sutferings ;  its  duties  in  hia 
example ;  its  dignity,  if  we  are  united  with  him,  in  his  ascen- 
sion and  glory. 

This  double  purpose  of  our  Lord — to  fulfil  the  ancient  in- 
Hence  oe-  stitute,  and  to  be  himself  the  foundation  of  a  new 
cuiiarities  one — explains  peculiarities  in  the  Gospels  which 
teaching.       would  otherwise  be  inexplicable. 

Henca,  for  example,  the  substance  and  even  the  form  of  his  teaching. 
Types  and  predictions  which  had  served  in  ancient  times  as  a  deposi- 
tory of  spiritual  truth  he  fulfilled.  His  lessons  are  often  given  iu 
parables,  testing  the  hearts  of  the  uncandid  and  indifferent,  and  remind- 
ing all  of  the  true  character  of  their  own  dispensation.  His  acts  were 
often  symbolical  on  the  same  ground.  He  washed  his  disciples'  feet; 
he  took  and  set  little  children  in  the  midst  of  them;  and  in  all  his 
miracles  he  carefully  looked  to  this  double  end — to  suggest  the  true 
rule  of  interpreting  the  ancient  law,  and  to  teach  the  mysteries  of  his 
own  kingdom. 

130.  To  this  cause,  too,  it  may  be  attributed  that  our  Lord's  revela- 
lations  were  gradually  disclosed,  and  never  fully  till  after 
grndiad  d\s-  he  had  risen.  Other  reasons  there  were  also.  The  preju- 
clo.siu-e^ol  (Jiggs  of  ];iig  disciples  were  strong,  and  a  gradual  disclosure 
of  truth  was  on  that  account  desirable ;  for  they  were  not 
at  first  able  to  bear  it.  It  was  his  rule,  moreover,  to  reward /ai^A  iu  a 
little,  by  imparting  more,  as  he  himself  taught  them.  But  the  chief 
reason  seems  to  be  that  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  spring  out  of  the 
facts,  and  could  not,  therefore,  be  revealed  till  the  facts  had  been  accom- 
plished. Hence  peculiarities  such  as  the  following.  He  first  hints  at 
Bome  doctrine,  or  event,  then  repeats  the  lesson  more  explicitly,  and 


TRUTH — HOW   REVEALED.  615 

theu  either  clearly  reveals  it,  or  refers  his  disciples  to  the  teaching  of 
the  coming  Spirit.  He  avoids  everywhere  a  full  disclosure  of  his  char- 
acter, even  forbidding  others  to  declare  it.  His  ministry  he  confines 
to  a  small  district  and  a  despised  people.  Doctrines  he  seldom  or  never 
propounds  ;  but  he  does  the  works  that  are  at  the  foundation  of  them. 
He  suffers,  and  hence  the  doctrine  of  atonement.  He  pleads,  and  hence 
the  doctrine  of  spiritual  influence.  He  rises  from  the  grave,  and  hence 
our  resurrection  and  glory.  The  truth  is,  as  Macknight  has  remarked, 
our  Lord  came  from  heaven,  not  so  much  to  teach  the  Gospel  as  to  be 
himself  the  subject  of  it,  leaving  the*  Spirit  to  be  its  chief  interpreter. 
We  study,  therefore,  the  law  in  the  Gospels;  the  Gospels  in  the  Epis- 
tles; and  all  in  Christ. 

"All  in  Christ"  we  repeat.  For  a  personal  Saviour  is  the  glory  of 
the  Gospel,  and  the  study  of  a  personal  Saviour  the  great  ^jj  i^y^iYx 
instrument  of  our  holiness.  Religion  is  not  merely  the  con-  ^"  Christ. 
templation  of  truth  and  the  practice  of  morality  ;  it  is  fellowship  with 
God  through  his  Son.  We  are  to  love  not  moral  beauty  only,  but 
Christ;  to  believe  not  so  much  in  it,  as  in  Him  Hence  the  peculiarity 
of  all  apostolic  teaching.  In  place  of  inculcating  virtue,  they  bid  us 
"walk  in  his  steps,"  and  do  what  is  "well  pleasing"  in  his  sight. 
Death  they  represent  as  union  with  him,  and  to  "follow  the  Lamb 
whithersoever  he  goeth"  is  given  as  the  sum  of  Christian  duty  and  of 
Christian  blessedness.  To  understand  even  the  morality  of  the  New 
Testament,  much  more  its  doctrines,  we  must  study  the  Gospels. 

131.  The  recorded  discourses  and  parables  of  our  Lord,  are 

to   us  with   the    Bible    in    our   hands,   sufficiently  ,        ,   ^ 

'  •'     Import  of 

clear.  The  rules  that  teach  their  meaning  and  his  miracles, 
application  may  be  gathered  from  Part  i.,  Sec.  7,  etc.  The 
significancy  of  his  miracles  is  perhaps  less  obvious.  They 
have  clearly  an  outward  and  inward  meaning. 

Outxvardly,  they  are  expressions  of  power  (Juvd^nc).  They  excite 
surprise,  and  so,  as  "wonders"  (T6/)«Ta),  they  j^rompt  inquirj' :  they 
give  evidence  of  a  Divine  mission,  and  are  therefore  signs  [a-M/uiix).  In 
each  of  these  characters  thej^  are  important.  The  constancj'-  of  the 
process  of  nature  had  been  converted  into  an  argument  against  an 
active  Providence.  In  miracles,  the  perpetu-ity  and  extent  of  provi- 
dential government  are  vindicated  and  proved.  They  show  that  a 
natural  law  is  one  thing,  and  a  living  agent  another.  Nor  are  they, 
a.s  evidence,  less  significant.     Inwardly,  in  the   moral   lessons  they 


OiG  MIEACLES — THEIR   IMPORT. 

teacU,  they  are  even  more  important.  As  a  whole,  they  may  be  called 
redemptive,  as  those  of  the  older  dispensation  were  chiefly  judicial: 
the  earlier  illustrating  a  state  of  law ;  the  later,  a  state  of  grace. 
Each  miracle,  moreover,  has  its  own  essential  characteristic,  teaching 
some  truth  or  duty,  and  often  foreshadowing  a  glorious  future.  The 
miracle:--,  in  fact,  of  our  Lord  are  as  parabolic  as  his  parables,  and 
should  be  studied  for  the  same  ends.  His  own  work,  his  kingdom,  and 
our  duty,  are  revealed  in  both. 

132.  If  the  truth  of  miraculous  interference  create  a  difficulty  in  the 

mind  of  an  inquirer,  \\  may  be  well  to  remind  him  that  a 
Miranlesnot       .        ,       ,,  ,       ,  ,  •  .  ,  x      -^  j 

contrary  to    miracle,  though  above  nature,  is  not  contrary  to  it,  ana 

nature:  ^^^  QVQn  be  said  to  be  in  the  strictest  harmony  with  it. 

What  we  call  natural  laws  are  nothing  more  than  uniformities  of 

exii-=tence  or  of  sequence,  and  really  imply  at  some  stage  Divine  power. 

They  account  for  nothing  ;   and  after  we  have  reached  the  highest  law 

we  say,  "  Here  God  himself  seems  to  interpose:  second  causes  can  bo 

traced  no  further."     A  natural  law,  therefore,  is  but  a  theory  (as  of 

motion,  for  example) ;  it  is  not  a  living  force.     It  is  only  the  plan  on 

which  some  agent  works,  and  that  agent  works  miraculously — that  is, 

supernaturally — though  with  constancJ^     The  miracles  of  the  Gospel, 

therefore,  suppose  no  greater  interference  than  may  be  found  already 

in  any  department  of  physical  science. 

133.  The  supernatural  interference  of  malevolent  beings  referred  to 

in  the  Gospels  has  also  created  difficulty,  but  admits  of  a 
atroncy  in  satisfactory  interpretation.  Some  have  said  that  such  in- 
disease.  terference  was  peculiar  to  the  time  of  our  Lord,  and  is  now 
withdrawn.  And  it  was  natural,  it  is  added,  that  the  manifestation 
of  God  in  the  flesh  should  be  accomplished  with  unusual  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  powers  of  evil :  their  design  was  the  defence  of  their 
own  cause;  God's  design,  in  permitting  it,  his  glory.  Others  have 
supposed  that  Scripture,  when  speaking  of  disease  as  the  result  of 
Satanic  agency,  lifts  up  a  veil  and  reveals  a  secret  which  is  still  true. 
Devils,  it  is  implied,  are  the  first  causes  of  suffering ;  though  second 
causes  are  also  permitted  to  work;  and  in  our  own  time,  it  is  added, 
they  act  with  power  as  real,  and  with  results  as  seemingly  natural,  as 
in  the  days  of  our  Lord.  Either  interpretation  is  consistent  with 
physical  facts.  What  men  call  causes  of  disease  are  either  second 
causes  or  symptoms.  The  agent  that  originates  them  is  not  seen. 
In  ascribing  them,  therefore,  to  an  extraneous  cause.  Scripture  is  in 
harmony  with  philosopliy ;  and  in  ascribing  them  to  a  spirit  of  evil,  it 
is  not  otherwise  than  in  harmony  with  the  indications  of  even  natural 
reason. 


THE   GOSPELS.  617 

13-1.  One  remark  more,  on  the  nature  of  our  Lord.     The 
Gospels  sive  the  life  of  One,  who  was  both  God  and    „,     ,  ^   , 

i  ■-  '  Christ  God 

Man;   and  we  must  not  be  surprised  iv   find  him    and  Man. 
spoken  of  now  in  the  one  character,  and  now  in  the  other. 

Sec.  1.  The  Gospels  in  their  mutual  relation. 

135.  The  word  Gospel  means  good  news,  and  corresponds 
exactly  to  the  Greek  term*  by  which  this  portion  of 
sacred  Scripture  is  distinguished. 

The  Gospels  were  written  at  diiferent  times,  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  by  the  men  whose  names  they  bear.  They  give  not  a 
complete  history  of  the  Saviour's  life,  but  such  facts  and  discourses  as 
explain  the  nature,  and  prove  to  difi'erent  readers  the  Divine  origin 
of  the  Christian  system.  The  four  books  make  really  not  a  biography, 
but  a  memoir,  and  only  one.  They  form  one  Gospel — a  "  four-sided 
Gospel,"  as  Origan  called  it — and  by  their  marvellous  unity  and 
diversity  are  adapted  to  interest  and  instruct  every  class  of  character 
in  every  age. 

136.  The  first  Gospel  (by  Matthew),  was  intended  for  Jews.  He 
therefore  gives  no  explanation  of  Jewish  customs  or  topo- 
graphy. The  genealogy  of  our  Lord  he  traces  through  his  teristics  of 
reputed  father  to  Abraham,  and  shows  how  the  New  Testa-  ^^°^- 
ment  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  Old.  The  second  Gospel  (by  Mark),  waa 
written  for  the  instruction  of  Roman  converts.  Jewish  customs  and 
places  have  consequently  explanations  appended.  Narrative  is  pre- 
ferred to  discourse,  and  the  writer  dwells  rather  on  the  actions  than  on 
the  teaching  of  our  Lord.  His  Gospel  is  thoroughly  practical,  and 
though  he  has  added  but  twenty-four  verses  which  are  not  found  in 
the  Gospels  of  Matthew  or  Luke,  the  whole  is  admirably  adapted  to 
the  energetic  business  habits  of  the  Roman  people.  The  third  Gospel 
was  written  by  Luke,  for  the  use  of  the  Gentiles  generally.  Here 
again,  Christ  appears  under  a  new  aspect,  not  as  the  minister  of  cir- 
cumcision— his  character  in  Matthew — -nor  yet  as  the  Lion  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  "Lord  of  all  power  and  might" — his  character  in  Mark — 
but  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  His  genealogy  is  traced  through  his 
mother  to  Adam,  the  head  of  the  whole  human  family.  While  Mat- 
thew tells  of  the  twelve  apostles  who  were  sent  to  Israel,  Luke  speaks 
also  of  the  seventy  disciples  who  were  sent  as  to  the  nations  of  the 

» tinyyiyjiv,  see  Luke  ii.  10. 
52* 


618  THE   GOSPELS — THEIR   PECULIARITIES. 

earth.  Several  parables  are  found  in  this  Gospel  alone,  and  among 
them,  the  good  Samaritan  and  the  prodigal  son — the  one  humbling  to 
Jewish  pride,  the  other  cheering  to  the  Gentile  penitent.  Jewish  cus- 
toms and  chronological  statements  are  made  intelligible  to  a  foreigner, 
while  the  fulness  of  his  record  of  the  discourses  of  our  Lord  meets  the 
curiosity  of  the  Grecian  character.  In  the  fourth  Gospel,  we  have 
something  meets  the  higher  speculative  tendencies  of  men ;  correcting 
what  was  false  in  the  Jewish  and  heathen  systems  of  religious  philoso- 
phy, and  completing  what  was  deficient  in  previous  relations.  None 
has  spoken  so  fully  of  the  Divine  character  of  our  Lord,  or  of  the 
inward  spiritual  life  which  springs  from  union  with  him.  As  Mat- 
thew's Gospel  was  called  the  material  one,  so  John's  was  called  the 
spiritual,  or  Divine.* 

Thus  it  is  that  the  Gospel  stands  "  four-square,"  with  a  side  fronting 
each  side  of  the  spiritual  world  :  Matthew,  addressing  the  Jew,  reveals 
the  Messianic  king;  Luke,  the  Greek,  reveals  the  man;  Mark,  show- 
ing the  power  and  vital  force  of  truth ;  and  John,  its  attractive  and 
subduing  love.  Matthew  exhibits  chiefly  the  Jewish  and  subordinate; 
John,  the  spiritual  and  Divine,  in  our  Redeemer ;  Mark,  his  authority 
over  nature  and  devils ;  Luke,  his  personal  history  as  man.  In  all 
combined,  Jesus  is  represented  as  the  Messiah,  the  Teacher,  the  Pat- 
tern, the  Brother,  and  the  God. 

Sec.  2.  The  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels. 

137.  The  general  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
Testament  has  been  already  given.     Evidence  of 

Genuine-  ,  .  ■      ^         ^       ^  p    r^ 

ness  of         the  genuineness  oi  particular  books  ■  of  Scripture 
we  shall  briefly  sum  up  in  a  tabular  form.     The 
authors  referred  to  belong  to  the  first  two  centuries  and  a  half 
'  of  our  era. 

The  passages  on  which  the  table  is  formed  may  be  seen  referred  to 
m  Less'  Treatise  on  the  Authenticity,  etc.,  of  the  New  Testament. 
For  passages  marked  thus  f ,  see  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament,  vols,  i.-iii.  The  testimony  of  the  later  witnesses  may  be 
seen  in  Lardner's  Credibility.  Several  of  the  earlier  testimonies  may 
also  be  seen  there,  but  Less'  list  is  more  carefully  prepared  than  his. 

By  Clement. 


THE   GOSPELS — THEIR   GENUINENESS. 


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Tlie  testimonies  marked  J  are  less  decisive  than  those  marked  1  or  f, 
though  most  of  them  would  be  deemed  quite  satisfactory  in  a  case  of 
ordinary  criticism .  A  few  other  passages  may  be  seen  in  the  works 
of  Davidson  and  Lardner.  They  are  not  included  above,  because  not 
decisive. 

Evidences  of  authenticity  may  be  seen  in  Part  i.,  Sec.  4.  These 
testimonies  on  the  genuineness  of  the  Gospels  apply  to  the  whole,  with 
Blight  e.xceptions.  The  1st  and  2d  chaps,  of  Matt.,  the  last  eleven 
verses  of  Mark,  the  1st  and  2d  chaps,  of  Luke,  the  last  two  verses  of 
John,  John  vii.  53  :-viii.  1,  and  John  v.  34,  have  been  questioned; 
though  now  they  are  all  generally  admitted  to  be  genuine.  The  least 
certain  are  the  last  two  passages. 

.   Sec.  3.  Introductions  to  the  Gospels. 


THE    gospel    according   TO    MATTHEW. 

13S.  Matthew  was  a  native  of  Galilee,  and  lield  the  office 
of  receiver  of  customs  under  the  Roman  Q;overn-  .,  , 
ment  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias  (Matt.  ix.  9).  By  Mark  ''i^  in-tory. 
and  Luke  he  is  called  Levi  (Mark  ii.  14  :  Luke  v.  27-32), 
which  was  probably  his  Hebrew  name,  as  Matthew  was  pro- 
bably the  name  he  assumed  on  obtaining  a  Roman  office.  At 
the  call  of  Christ,  he  left  his  business,  and  became  one  of  the 
disciples  a  short  time  before   the  delivery  of  the  sermon  on 


020  THE    GOSPEL    BY    MATTHEW. 

the  mount.  In  enumerating  the  apostles,  he  speaks  of  him- 
self as  Matthew  the  publican  (x.  3),  anxious  to  magnify  the 
grace  of  God  in  his  call.  The  language  in  which  he  describes 
the  abandonment  of  his  worldly  prospects  for  Christ  is  a  re- 
markable instance  of  humility,  and  illustrates  one  principle 
on  which  the  Gospels  are  composed.  The  writers  never  make 
themselves  prominent,  nor  do  they  give  any  details  respecting 
their  personal  history.  Their  theme  is — not  themselves,  but 
Christ  Jesus  their  Lord. 

The  exact  date  of  this  Gospel  is  not  known.     By  some  it  is  placed  as 

early  as  A.  D.  37;'  by  others  as  late  as  63.     The  weight  of 

evidence,  however,  is  in  I'avor  of  a  few  years  later  than  the 

earlier  date  (i.  e.  about  A.  D.  42),  and  it  was  certainly  written  before 

the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

It  was  a  general  tradition  in  the  early  church  that  there  was  a  Gos- 
pel, written  by  Matthew,  in  Syro-Chaldaic.  That  he  did 
language  write  some  notices  of  our  Lord's  life  in  the  vernacular  lan- 
written.  guage  of  Palestine,  is  probable.  But  the  originality  and 
genuineness  of  the  Greek  Gospel  are  sustained  by  the  strongest  evi- 
dence. No  trace  of  any  Hebrew  Gospel  now  remains.  In  Palestine, 
moreover,  Greek  was  the  language  of  books,  of  business,  and  of  com- 
mon life.  Looking,  therefore,  to  the  habits  of  his  countrymen,  and  to 
the  approaching  dissolution  of  the  Jewish  State,  he  had  every  induce- 
ment to  employ  that  tongue. 

His  Gospel  may  be  thus  divided : 

Chaps,  i.,  ii.    Contain    a   brief  notice   of  the   infancy  and 
childhood  of  our  Lord. 
Chaps,  iii.-iv.  12.  A  record  of  his  entrance  on  his  public  ministry, 

and  of  events  preparatory  to  it. 
Chaps,  v.-vii.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  public  teacher,  illus- 
trated in  the  sermon  on  the  mount. 
Chaps,  viii.,  ix.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  worker  of  miracles, 
giving  in  one  view  several  miracles  of  different  kinds  performed 
in  various  places. 
Chap.  xiii.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  teacher  by  parables,  in 

some  of  which  there  are  also  prophetic  intimations. 
Chaps,  x-xx.  We  have  instruction,  miracle  and  narrative  in  more 
regular  order,  and  in 

0  Till'^mont,  Owen  and  Tnmlme,  .^8:   Irf-nii'us  later  than  60. 


THE   GOSPEL    BY   MAEK.  621 

Chaps,  xx.-xxviii.  We  have  a  record  of  the  last  sufferings,  death, 
and  resurrection  of  our  Lord. 
The  intention  of  the  writer  is  clearly,  hy  a  simple  record  of  what 
our  Lord  did  and  suffered,  to  redeem  his  Master's  memory 
from  reproach,  to  disarm  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen,  d!™p^.    i 
and  to  set  forth  for  future  ages  the  true  character  of  the 
Messiah.     Hence  his  frequent  appeals  to  the  prophets  (i.  23  ;  ii.  6,  15, 
18;  iii.  3;  iv.  15;  viii.  17,  etc.),  his  accounts  of  the  refutation  of  the 
various  Jewish  sects,  his  care  in  narrating  such  parts  of  our  Lord's 
discourses  as  were  best  suited  to  awaken  his  own  nation  to  a  sense  of 
their  sins,  to  correct  their  hopes  of  an  earthly  kingdom,  and  to  pre- 
pare them  for  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  church.     For  the 
special  instruction  of  Jewish  Christians,  he  gives  the  predictions  of  our 
'  Lord  in  relation  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  arguments  by  which  he  sought 
to  reconcile  his  disciples  to  opposition  and  persecution  for  their  adhe- 
rence to  him. 

THE   GOSPEL   ACCOKDING   TO   MARK. 

139.  Mark,  who,  besides  his  Latin  name  of  Marcus,  appears 
to  have  had  the  Hebrew  one  of  John,  was  the  son 

'  Mark's 

of  Mary,  a  pious  woman  at  J  erusalem,  who  received  history. 
in  her  house  the  assemblies  of  the  primitive  church,  and  wel- 
comed the  apostle  Peter  after  his  deliverance  out  of  prison  by 
the  angel.  Acts  xii.  12.  Mark  was  the  nephew  of  Barnabas, 
Paul's  companion  in  his  travels.  Col.  iv.  10.  These  two  be- 
ing at  Jerusalem  about  the  time  of  Peter's  deliverance,  took 
Mark  with  them  upon  their  mission.  Acts  xii.  25.  He  accom- 
panied them  to  Antioch  ;  and  thence,  on  their  first  journey, 
as  far  as  Perga,  in  Pamphylia ;  where  he  left  them  and 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xiii.  5,  13.  We  afterwards  find 
him  at  Antioch,  with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  desiring  to  accom- 
pany them  on  a  second  journey;  but  Paul,  regarding  him  as 
unfit  for  the  work,  since  he  had  left  them  on  the  former  occa- 
sion, was  unwilling  to  take  him.  This  decision  caused  a  warm 
dispute  and  a  temporary  separation  between  the  two  apostles; 
and  Barnabas,  influenced  probably  by  his  affection  for  his 
kinsman,  "took  Mark,  and  sailed  unto  Cyprus."  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  MarR  afterwards  acknowleds;ed  his  error. 


622  THE   GOSPEL    BY    MARK. 

whatever  it  was — whether  he  was  wanting  in  the  courageous 
self-denial  of  the  missionary,  or  had  misgivings  on  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen — for  the  apostle  Paul  ap- 
pears to  have  given  him  his  confidence  and  affection,  and  com- 
mends him  to  the  churches.  See  Col.  iv.  10:  2  Tim.  iv.  11 : 
Philem.  24. 

To  these  notices,  gathered  from  the  sacred  writers,  others 
add  that  Mark  afterwards  went  to  Egypt,  and,  having  planted 
a  church  at  Alexandria,  died  there. 

Thus  it  appears  that  Mark,  though  not  himself  one  of  the 
twelve,  was  a  friend  and  companion  of  the  apostles ;  and 
living  at  Jerusalem,  was  upon  the  spot  where  the  most  impor- 
tant events  in  our  Lord's  life  occurred,  and  where  many  of  his 
miracles  were  performed.  But,  in  addition  to  these  means  of 
knowledge,  it  is  the  concurrent  testimony  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian writers  that  Mark  attended  Peter  (by  whom  he  was  pro- 
bably brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  see  1  Pet.  v.  13), 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  his  ministry  ;  and  having  for 
some  years  enjoyed  the  intimate  friendship  of  that  apostle, 
wrote  this  account  of  our  Lord's  life  under  his  immediate  di- 
rection. So  that  Justin  calls  his  Gospel  "the  Gospel  of  St. 
Peter."  Some  commentators  suppose  this  fact  to  be  referred 
to  in  2  Pet.  i.  15,  16. 

The  internal  evidence  is  in  favor  of  Peter's  superintendence. 
Scarcely  an  action  or  a  work  of  Christ  is  related  at  which 
Peter  was  not  present ;  and  those  events  in  our  Saviour's 
life  are  related  in  detail  which  must  have  made  the  deepest 
impression  upon  Peter.  Many  things  honorable  to  Peter  are 
omitted  by  Mark,  which  are  mentioned  by  the  other  evange- 
lists ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  failings  of  Peter  are  fully 
recorded.  Comp.  Mark  viii.  29,  with  Matt.  xvi.  17.  See, 
ako,  Mark  viii.  33 ;  xiv.  31-71. 

The  time  when  this  Gospel  was  written  is  uncertain.     Various  dates 
have  been  assigned  to  it,  between  A.  D.  48  and  65.     Some 
suppose  it  written  at  Rome,  others  at  C^aarea;  but  all  agree 
that  it  was  intended  for  Roman  converts. 


THE    CxOSPEL    BY    LUKE.  623 

Tlie  chief  peculiarities  of  Mark  as  a  writer  are,  (1.)  That  he  relates 
rather  the  works  than  the  discourses  of  our  Lord.  His 
descriptions  are  more  graphic  than  those  of  iMattheW  and 
Luke.  He  frequently  employs  the  present  tense,  introduces  persons 
as  speakers,  and  is  often  minute  in  his  descriptions  of  persons  and 
localities.  In  many  instances  where  the  same  events  are  related  by 
Matthew  and  Mark,  the  latter  iills  up  the  outline  of  the  former,  giving 
greater  distinctness  to  the  picture.  Compare  Mark  v.  22-43,  and 
Matt.  ix.  18-26:  Mark  ix.  11-29,  and  Matt.  xvii.  14-21. 


THE   GOSPEL    ACCORDING   TO    LUKE. 

140.  Luke,  the  writer  of  the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name, 
is  generally  allowed  to  have  been  the  "beloved  phy-  ^  , 
sician"  mentioned  by  Paul,  Col.  iv.  14.  According  history. 
to  the  testimony  of  some  of  the  Fathers,  he  was  a  native  of 
Antioch.  He  would  appear,  from  his  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  Greek  language,  as  well  as  from  his  Greek  name, 
Aot/xa?,  to  have  been  of  Gentile  extraction.  But,  from  the 
Hebrew  terms  occurring  in  his  writings,  and  from  his  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Jewish  religion,  ceremonies  and  customs, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  he  was  in  early  life  a  Jewish  prose- 
lyte;  and  having. afterwards  embraced  the  Gospel,  he  became 
a  faithful  and  zealous  companion  of  Paul  in  many  of  his  labors 
and  travels,  Acts  xvi.  10 .  sx.  5,  etc.  We  learn  from  Acts 
xxviii.  15,  and  Philem.  24,  that  he  was  with  the  apostle  at  the 
time  of  his  first  captivity  at  Eome ;  and  from  2  Tim.  iv.  11, 
that  during  his  second  imprisonment  Luke  alone  remained  by 
his  side. 

Luke  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  scholar.  His 
style  is  more  classical  than  that  of  the  other  evangelists. 
Being  a  physician,  his  descriptions  of  diseases,  and  his  accounts 
of  cures  wrought  by  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  have  more 
of  technical  definiteness  than  the  other  Gospels. 

With  regard  to  the  questions  ivhen  and  where  this  Gospel  was  writ- 
ten, there  is  no  certain  information.     Some  suppose  that  it 

.  .  Date, 

was  written  during  the  time  that  Luke  was  in  Paul's  com- 


624  THE   GOSPEL   BY   JOHN. 

pany,  probably  during  his  confinement  at  Eoine,  aboiit  the  year  62  or 
63,  A.  D.  Others  give  it  an  earlier  date,  and  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  at  Philippi,  about  57,  A.  D.,  see  2  Cor.  viii.  18-21.  But,  how- 
ever that  may  be,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  originally  written  for  Gen- 
tile readers,  as  that  of  Matthew  was  originally  designed  for  Jews.  He 
has  always  before  his  eyes  the  "salvation  prepared  for  all 
people;" — "a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles"  (ii.  31,  32), 
and,  as  writing  for  heathen  who  had  departed  so  widely  from  God,  he 
has  been  careful  to  record  the  Lord's  declarations  concerning  the  free 
mercy  of  God  to  the  greatest  sinners  (vii.  36-50;  xv. ;  xviii.  10-14; 
xix.  5-10;  xxiii.  40-43,  etc.) 

The  Gospel  of  Luke  is  generally  considered  to  be  more  of  a  regular 
biography  than  any  of  the  others.  He  appears  to  have  preserved  the 
chronological  order  of  his  main  facts ;  closing  the  various  periods  of 
his  history  with  a  number  of  incidental  circumstances  and  discourses, 
which  belong  to  that  division  of  time,  but  the  exact  sequence  of  which 
he  is  not  careful  to  specify. 

The  numerous  and  important  additional  facts  which  Luke  has 
supplied,  give  to  hie  Gospel  a  peculiar  value.  He  relates  with  remark- 
able clearness  the  conversations  of  Jesus,  with  the  incidents  which  gave 
rise  to  them,  the  remarks  of  those  who  were  present,  and  their  results. 
Though  containing  information  supplementary  to  that  given  by  Mat- 
thew, his  Gospel  has  not  the  character  of  a  supplemental  document; 
but  is  evidently  an  independent  and  original  work.  Generally,  the 
parable  and  discourses  of  Luke's  Gospel,  are  less  full  than  those  of 
Matthew. 

THE    GOSPEL    ACCORDING   TO   JOHN. 

141.  John,  the  younger  brother  of  James,  who  with  him 
J  hi 's  his  ^''^^  called  to  the  apostleship,  was  the  son  of  Zebe- 
toiy-  dee  and  of  Salome.     His  father  was  a  fisherman, 

living  at  Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth.  The  family  a2')pear  to  have  been  in  easy  cir- 
cumstances ;  at  least  we  find  that  Zebedee  emjDioyed  hired 
servants,  Mark  i.  20 ;  and  that  Salome  was  among  the  women 
who  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  Jesus,  Matt,  xxvii.  56. 

Having  been  brought  up  in  the  knowledge  and  the  love  of 
the  true  God  by  a  pious  mother,  he  appears  to  have  early 
become  a  disciple  of  our  Lord's  forerunner,  and  to  have  been 
directed  to  him  by  Jesus,  whom  he  followed  ;  it  being  gene- 


THE    GOSPEL    BY    JOHN.  625 

rally  considered  that  lie  was  one  of  the  two  disciples  mentioned 
in  chap.  i.  37-41.  He  was  soon  admittted,  with  his  brother 
James,  and  Peter,  to  particular  intimacy  with  the  Saviour, 
who  selected  them  as  witnesses  of  the  most  important  and 
solemn  events  of  his  life,  Mark  v.  37  :  Matt,  xviii.  1 ;  xxvi.  37. 

It  appears  that,  of  all  the  apostles,  John  was  especially 
favored  with  our  Lord's  regard  and  confidence,  so  as  to  be 
called  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved."  He  was  devotedly 
attached  to  his  Master ;  and  though  he  fled,  Hke  the  other 
apostles,  when  Jesus  was  apprehended,  he  recovered  his  firm- 
ness, was  present  during  the  trial  and  crucifixion  of  our 
Saviour ;  and  was  intrusted  by  Him  with  the  care  of  his 
mother  (xix.  26,  27). 

John  is  said  to  have  remained  at  Jerusalem  till  the  death 
of  Mary,  about  the  year  A.  D.  48.  After  Paul  had  left  Asia 
Minor,  John  went  to  labor  there,  residing  chiefly  at  Ephesus, 
and  founding  several  churches  in  that  country.  Shortly 
afterwards,  during  the  persecution  under  Domitian  (or  accord- 
ing to  others,  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nero),  he  was 
banished  to  Patmos,  an  island  in  the  JSgean  Sea ;  where  he 
received  the  visions  of  the  Apocalypse.  On  the  accession  of 
Nerva  he  was  liberated,  and  returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he 
continued  to  labor  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  in  the 
hundredth  year  of  his  age,  about  A.  D.  100. 

According  to  the  general  testimony   of  antiquity,  John  wrote  his 
Gospel  at  Ephesus,  about  the  year  97,  long  after  the  de- 
struction  of  Jerusalem.     He  therefore  makes  no  mention  of 
our  Lord's  predictions  of  that  event,  and  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews; 
those  proi)hecies  having  at  that  time  received  their  accomplishment. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  John  had  the  other  three  Gospels 
before  him  when  he  wrote ;  inasmuch  as  he  omits  all  that 
had  been  described  in  them  with  sufficient  minuteness.  He  Peeuliari- 
Bupposes  the  great  events  of  our  Saviour's  life  and  his 
principal  instructions,  to  be  already  known  to  his  readers.  If  at  any 
time  he  relates  what  had  been  mentioned  by  the  other  evangelists,  it  is 
generally  with  a  view  to  introduce  some  important  discourse  of  our 
53 


626  CHRONOLOGY    OF   THE    GOSPELS. 

Lord ;  or  because  it  was  particularly  connected  with  the  main  object 
of  hii?  Gospel. 

The  object  which  this  evangelist  had  in  view  is  very  clearly  stated 
in  chaps,  i.  1-18  ;  xx.  31.  His  design  appears  to  have  been 
to  convey  to  the  world  just  and  adequate  notions  of  the 
real  nature,  office,  and  character  of  the  Divine  Redeemer.  For  this 
purpose  are  especially  recorded  those  passages  of  our  Saviour's  life, 
which  most  clearly  displayed  his  Divine  power  and  authority  ;  and 
those  of  his  discourses  in  which  he  spoke  most  plainly  of  his  own 
nature,  of  the  work  given  to  him  by  the  Father,  and  the  efficacy  of 
his  death  as  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  And  it  is  from 
this  Gospel  that  the  most  numerous  and  decisive  proofs  of  our  Lord's 
deity  are  derived.  Yet  no  evangelist  has  portrayed  the  softer  linea- 
ments of  our  Lord's  humanity  with  more  delicacy  and  beauty,  or 
disclosed  more  of  the  inmost  affections  and  feelings  of  the  Saviour's 
heart.  The  other  evangelists  give  the  history  of  our  Lord  in  Galilee 
chiefly ;  in  .John  he  is  seen  generally  in  Judsea.  Here  we  find  him 
attending  three  passovers  at  least,  the  others  giving  the  history  of  but 
one.  Two-thirds  of  this  Gospel  are  new ;  the  most  important  addi- 
tions being  in  chaps,  xiii.-xvii.,  and  in  chap.  xi.  He  records  but  six 
miracles,  and  omits  most  of  the  parables,  and  the  sermon  on  the 
mount. 

This  Gospel  was  probably  the  last  written  of  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible ;  and  while  proving  the  Divine  nature  of  Christ,  it  corrected 
several  of  the  heresies  which  sprang  up  in  the  first  age  of  Christianity, 
and  supplies  an  answer  to  some  that  prevail  in  our  own. 

Sec.  4.  The  Chronology  of  the  Gospels. 

142.  The  chronology  of  the  Gospels  is  a  subject  of  much 
interest  and  considerable  difficulty.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  evidence  and  results  which  have  been  ascertained 
by  recent  and  protracted  inquiry. 

1.  The  present  Christian  era  A.  D.  1,  is  A.  U.  C.  754,  and  was  fixed 
in  the  6th  century  by  Dionysius  Exiguus.  It  came  into  use  in  the  8th 
century,  and  was  adopted  by  Bede.  Shorly  afterwards  we  find  it  em- 
ployed in  public  transactions  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne.  Now  Herod 
the  Great  died  A.  U.  C.  750,  just  before  the  Passover  (i.  e.  between  the 
latter  part  of  March,  and  the  latter  part  of  April):  a  statement  made 
by  Josephus,  and  confirmed  by  astronomy,  which  shows  that  an  eclipse 
of  the  moon,  said  to  have  taken  place  just  before  his  death,  did  take 


CHRONOLOGY    OF   THE    GOSPELS.  627 

place  in  that  year.  Allowing,  then,  four  or  six  months  for  the  visit  of 
the  Magi,  and  the  flight  into  Egypt,  the  birth  of  our  Lord  cannot  be 
later  than  January,  750,  or  October,  749,  see  Matt.  ii.  1-6:  Jos.  Antiq. 
xvii.,  xviii.  1  ;  xvii.  9,  3.  The  Christian  era,  therefore,  is  wrong  by 
at  least  four  years,  and  in  this  decision  nearly  all  chronologers  agree. 

The  conclusion  to  which  the  testimony  of  Josephus  leads  us,  is  con- 
firmed by  other  evidence.  .  .  .  From  Luke  iii.  1,  2,  23,  we  learn  that 
John  entered  upon  his  ministry  in  the  15th  year  of  Tiberius,  and  that 
Christ  was  about  thirty  years  of  age  at  his  baptism.  Both  probably 
entered  upon  their  work  when  they  were  thirty  (see  Num.  iv.  3,  35, 
39,  43,  47).  Tiberius  was  associated  with  Augustus  (and  the  original 
of  Luke  implies  that  he  dates  from  that  time),  A.  U.  C.  764;  so  that 
the  loth  year  of  Tiberius  begins  A.  U.  C.  779.  Christ,  therefore,  was 
born  in  A.  U.  C.  750,  or  749.  .  .  .  Again,  from  John  ii.  20,  we  learn 
that  then  the  temple  had  been  forty-six  years  in  building  (Greek). 
Josejylius  states  that  Herod  began  this  work  in  the  18th  year  of  his 
reign  (which  is  reckoned  from  the  death  of  Antigonus,  A.  U.  C.  714). 
Hence,  when  our  Lord  spoke  (the  time  being  the  date  of  his  first  Pass- 
over, when  he  was  probably  thirty  and  a  half  years  old),  the  65th  year 
from  the  commencement  of  Herod's  reign  was  in  progress,  or  A.  U.  C. 
7T9.  On  this  reckoning,  therefore,  Christ  must  have  been  born  A.  U. 
C.  749.  The  Latin  fathers,  moreover,  had  a  tradition,  that  Christ  was 
put  to  death  in  the  consulate  of  the  Gemini,  Rubellius  and  Fufius,  i.  e., 
A.  U.  C.  782-3,  and  reckoning  his  ministry  at  three  and  a  half  years, 
we  are  again  brought  to  A.  U.  C.  749,  as  the  date  of  his  birth. 

2.  This  view  represents  our  Lord  as  entering  upon  his  ministry  when 
he  was  thirty.  Usher  overlooking  part  of  the  evidence,  and  misunder- 
standing Luke  iii.,  supposes  our  Lord  to  have  commenced  his  ministry 
in  the  34tli  year,  i.  e.,  A.  D.  30.  The  conclusion  is  now  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  an  error. 

3.  On  the  duration  of  his  ministry,  there  is  also  a  difference  of 
opinion.  The  first  three  evangelists  seem  to  give  events  connected 
with  only  one  Passover ;  the  last  mentions  three,  and  probably  four 
(see  next;  Sec.)  Usher  supposes  that  three  only  are  mentioned,  and 
hence  he  makes  the  duration  of  our  Lord's  ministry  two  and  a  half 
years.  Greswell  and  Robinson  suppose  that  four  are  mentioned,  and 
make  his  ministry  three,  or  three  and  a  half  years. 

4.  The  date  of  our  Lord's  death  is  of  course  known ;  the  day  of  his 
birth  can  be  only  conjectured.  Lardner  reckons  tliat  Christ  was  born 
l)etwecn  August  and  November,  748,  or  749 ;  and  Greswell  maintains 
that  he  was  born  Ajunl  5,  750.  As  early  as  the  3d  and  4th  centuries, 
the  6th  of  January  and  the  25th  of  December  were  celebrated  as  the 


628  HARMONIES    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

festival  of  his  birth  and  baptism,  by  the  two  chief  sections  of  the 
church. 

Sec.  5.  The  Gospels  Habmokized. 

143.  While  the  Gospels  as  they  lie  before  us  are  a  precious 
^  ,  record  of  our  Saviour's  life,  it  is  hi"hly  interesting 
ofasyiioi>    Iq  compare  them,  and  to  ascertain  the  chronological 

tlCill  view  of  -l-  '  O 

tiu-Uospfis,  order  of  the  events  they  describe.     The  evaneelists 

find  ot  n  ,  ,  ~ 

chroiioiogi-    are  their  own  best  interpreters.     Each  narrative  is 

cal  liar-  ^ 

mony.  supplementary  to  the  rest,  iri  minute  as  well  as  in 

important  particulars.  The  characteristic  of  their  testimony 
is  unity  in  diversity.  And  these  advantages  appear  only  on 
comparison  of  the  narratives  themselves. 

144.  This  process  is  easy.      A  precise  chronological  arvfi-nge- 
,.    ,  ment  of  the  events  and  discourses  is  more  difficult, 

A  synoptical  _  ' 

view  easy:     thoush  also  instructive.     A  synoptical  view  of  the 

chronojiiei-  o  j        i. 

cal airaiv^e-  Gospcls  may  be  framed  by  all ;  a  chronological 
cult.  harmony    requires    much    learned    research.      The 

order  adopted  in  the  Harmony  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
which  is  founded  on  Dr.  Robinson's,  carefully  compared  with 
the  Harmonies  of  Greswell  and  Wieseler,  is  perhaps  the  best. 

145  In  fixing  the  order  of  the  events  of  the  Gospels,  the  first  ques- 

First  ones,    tion  to  be  decided  is,  the  number  of  passovers  that  occurred 

tion;  num-  during  our  Lord's  ministry.  One  only  is  mentioned  by  the 
her  of  pas-  &  •'  ,,,^,.. 

severs.  first  three  evangelists;  three  at  least  by  the  last  (John  ii.  13; 

vi.  4;  xiii.  1),  and  probably  four  (v.  1).*  Some,  as  Sir  I.  Newton  and 
Dr.  Macknight,  have  supposed  even  a  fifth,  but  of  this  there  is  no  satis- 
factory evidence.  A  few  maintain  but  one;  many,  as  Lardner,  Bengel, 
Benson,  three ;  but  most,  including  Grotius,  Lightfoot,  Newcome,  Heng- 
stenberg,  four. 

146.  An  extreme  view,  in  opposition  to  all  attempts  to  frame  a  har- 
mony of  the  Gospels,  was  once  common  on  the  continent,  and  was 
maintained  by  Osiander  (1537),  and  other  Lutherans.  In  this  view, 
each  Gospel  was  held  to  preserve  a  strictly  chronological  order,  and  all 

^  See  on  the  grammar  of  this  passage,  if  read  witliout  the  article, 
WiniT,  ?  xix.  4  :  Matt,  xxvii.  15  :  Mark  xv.  IG :  and  on  tlie  wliolo  ques- 
tion, The  liannuuy  of  the  Gospels,  Religious  Tract  Society. 


CHRONOLOGY    OF   THE    GOSPELS.  629 

everts,  however  apparently  identical,  which  occupied  in  any  two  Gos- 
pels different  places,  were  deemed  distinct.  Elsewhere,  and  in  later 
times,  sounder  views  prevailed,  especially  through  the  expositions  of 
Calvin  and  Bengal.     It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  evangelists 

do  not  jirofess  to  adhere  to  a  chronological  order,  and  that 

I  u  J  J.!        i  '      i_  -i-  T      Which  Gos- 

no  narraon)'-  can  be  made  without  some  transposition.     In  pel  is  on  the 

this  principle  all  modern  harmonists  concur,  and  they  differ  ^q"!®  /'l'^' 
onl}-  in  the  importance  which  each  attaches  to  the  order  of    ological. 
some  one  evangelist.     In  the  chronological  tables  given  by  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, the  order  of  John  is  never  altered,  though  between  the  events  he 
records,  large  portions  of  the  other  evangelists  are  introduced.     Mark's 
order  is  only  twice  inverted,  Luke's  not  much  oftener,  Matthew's  most 
of  all ;  though  in  no  case  are  the  alterations  very  serious.     The  first 
three  Gospels  are  sometimes  called  synoptical,  from  the  fact  that  their 
narratives  are  parallel  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  those  of  John. 
147.  Two  things  are  very  obvious  on  comparing  the  Gospels.     They 

contain  manv  verbal  agreements  so  marked  as  not  to  admit 

.  .'  Verbal 

the  supposition  that  they  are  accidental;*  and  they  contain  agreements 

some  apparent  discrepancies.  The  first  fact  has  been  vari-  g^^J^'^t"'^® 
cusly  explained.  A  common  opinion  was,  that  the  Gospel  origin  of 
first  written  was  freely  used  by  subsequent  writers;  and 
each  of  thu  first  three  Gospels  has  been  regarded  as  the  Gospel  which 
was  used  in  this  way.  Now,  however,  this  theory  has  few  advocates. 
The  inspired  writers  themselves  say  nothing  of  such  dependence  as  this 
practice  would  imply.  The  passages  and  expressions  in  common,  more- 
over, are  few,  compared  with  those  which  are  peculiar;  so  that  thi:^ 
theory  creates  more  difficulties  than  it  explains.  A  second  opinion 
maintains  that  all  the  evangelists  used  some  common  Gospel  now  lost; 
but  the  absence  of  all  traditional  support  for  such  a  theory,  and  the 
difficulty  of  applying  it  so  as  to  explain  the  admitted  facts,  have 
induced  most  critics  to  reject  it.  The  latest  sugge?ition  is,  that  all  the 
Gospels  are  founded  on  narratives  alread}^  familiar,  through  frequen'^. 
repetition,  to  the  inspired  writers.  The  chief  facts  of  our  Lord's  life 
and  teaching  had  certainlj'-  been  promulgated  for  many  years  before 
the  Gospels  were  written,  and  many  expressions  and  descriptions  must 
have  been,  from  this  circumstance,  familiar  to  the  inspired  writers. 
Olshausen  combines  the  first  and  the  last  of  these  views  ;  Matthew  and 
Luke  were  written,  as  he  thinks,  independently,  and  Mark  had  the 

'  The  English  version  does  not  always  give  a  full  idea  of  the  remark- 
able samonoss  of  expression  to  be  found  in  the  different  Gospels :  see 
Dr.  Stroud's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 


630  CHRONOLOGY   OF   THE   GOSPELS. 

Gospel  of  Matthew  before  him.  These  theories  are  important  chiefly 
as  they  serve  to  remove  objections  founded  on  the  marked  verbal  agree- 
ment of  the  inspired  writers.  This  last  theory,  it  will  be  noticed,  ex- 
plains the  facts  without  adding  materially  to  the  difficulties. 

148.  The  apparent  discrepancies  of  the  Gospels  are  not  numerous, 
Apparent  but  they  are  obvious,  and  have  created  probably  more  diffi- 
^'es-Tovv"  culty  than  their  marked^  agreement.  Examples  are  the  fol- 
I'econciled.    lowinc. 

The  genealogies,  Matt.  i.  1-17:  Luke  iii.  23-32.  The  solution  of  the 
difficulty  is  found  in  the  fact  that  Matthew  traces  our  Lord's  descent 
through  Joseph,  and  Luke  through  Mary. 

The  call  of  Peter,  Matt.  iv.  18-22:  Mark  i.  16-20:  Luke  v.  1-11. 
Greswell  supposes  two  transactions ;  Kobinson  but  one,  maintaining, 
with  Spanheim,  that  one  evangelist  supplies  what  another  omits,  and 
that  there  is  no  discrepancy. 

The  sermon  on  the  mount,  Matt.  v.  1 :  Luke  vi.  20.  Greswell  thinks 
the  sermon  was  delivered  twice;  Kobinson  but  once,  the  narrative  of 
Luke  ending  vi.  19.  A  third  solution  explains  "in  the  plain"  (st/,  vi. 
17)  as  meaning  on  a  level  spot  upon  the  mountain,  Matt.  v.  1. 

The  two  demoniacs,  Matt.  viii.  28:  Luke  viii.  26:  Mark  v.  2.  Mat- 
thew says  there  were  two;  Mark  and  Luke  mention  l)ut  one.  Le 
Clerc  remarks  that  the  fuller  account  includes  tlie  briefer,  and  the 
briefer  does  not  contradict  the  fuller.  Matthew  reads  Gergesenes, 
though  there  is  a  difference  of  reading.  Gergesa,  however,  was  com- 
prehended in  the  district  of  Gadara. 

Tlie  centurion's  servant,  Matt.  viii.  5-12:  Luke  vii.  1-10.  Some  sup- 
pose these  to  have  been  two  transactions,  but  they  occurred  in  the  same 
city  and  about  the  same  time.  What  Matthew  says  the  centurion  did, 
Luke  says  was  done  by  the  elders  of  the  Jews  and  his  friends ;  not  an 
uncommon  mode  of  speech:  compare  Mark  x.  35,  and  Matt.  xx.  20.  A 
third  explanation  supposes  both  the  centurion  and  the  elders  to  have 
gone  to  Christ ;  he  later  than  they. 

The  two  blind  men  near  Jericho,  Matt.  xx.  29-34:  Mark  x.  46-52: 
Luke  xviii.  35-43.  Here  are  several  difficulties.  Matthew  speaks  of 
lv:o,  Mark  and  Luke  of  one.  Matthew  and  Mark  say  the  occurrence 
took  place  as  Christ  departed  from  Jericho ;  Luke  says  it  took  place 
when  he  was  come  nigh.  Greswell,  after  Jjightfoot,  regards  tliese 
miracles  as  distinct;  the  one  occurring  as  Christ  entered  Jericho,  the 
other  as  he  left  it.  The  word  used  by  Luke,  however,  may  mean  (hel- 
lenisticall}^)  to  he  near,  answering  to  our  phrase  "  in  the  neighborhood," 
1  KmsTS  xxi    2:   Deut.  xxi.  3:   UiUh  ii.  20:   Phil.  ii.  30.     De  Wette  and 


CHRONOLOGY — LESSONS.  631 

several  others  translate,  when  Christ  was  drawing  near  to  Jerusalem, 
at  Jericho,  etc.,  see  ver.  31 ;  xix.  29,  41. 

These  instances  illustrate  the  difficulties  of  the  narrative,  and  explain 
the  various  modes  adopted  in  removing  them.  On  any  interpretation, 
the  moral  lessons  of  the  narrative  are  unimpaired. 

149.  The  study  of  the  Gospels  synoptically,  and  in  ]^^°^^^^^^ 
the  order  of  time,  Avill  often  suggest  important  les-  t'^e  Gn-peia 

'  C'o  ^  in  this  uay: 

sons.  illustrated 

in  events. 

Look,  for  example,  at  the  record  of  Christ's  early  life.  The  first  act 
of  worship  was  paid  to  him  by  Gentiles,  whose  gifts  proved  a  provi- 
dential supply  to  his  J'amily  when  escaping  from  the  jealous  hatred  of 
Herod.  The  history  of  the  subsequent  youth  of  our  Lord,  till  he  was 
twelve  years  old,  is  given  in  one  sentence :  "  he  grew,  and  waxed  strong 
in  spirit,  filled  with  wisdom,  and  the  grace  of  God  was  upon  him." 

He  was  not  in  haste  to  enter  upon  the  more  public  duties  of  his 
office.  After  his  baptism  even,  there  is  an  interval  of  several  months 
before  he  reveals  himself  (at  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem)  as  a  "  Teacher 
sent  from  God."  That  interval  he  spent  (in  part)  in  the  wilderness, 
conquering  temptation,  and  enduring  mysterious  suffering.  He  thus 
learned,  at  the  outset,  to  succor  the  tempted.  These  temptations  pre- 
ceded his  puiilic  ministry,  and  followed  the  public  recognition  of  him 
by  the  Father,  at  his  baptism.  The  same  voice  was  again  heard  on  the 
eve  of  the  crucifixion.  Tokens  of  peculiar  favor  often  precede  severe 
suffering,  and  both  prepare  for  the  discharge  of  onerous  duties. 

The  threefold  recognition  of  sonship  is  instructive  :  first,  at  his  birth, 
to  indicate  his  Divine  nature  (Luke  i.  35);  the  second,  at  his  ba])tism, 
to  indicate  the  divinity  of  his  mission;  the  third,  at  his  transfiguration, 
to  indicate  his  regal  dignity  and  authority,  "  Hear  ye  him."  At  his 
resurrection  all  were  confirmed,  and  he  "was  declared  to  be  the  Son  of 
God  with  power." 

The  first  announcement  of  Christ  refers  to  his  kingdom,  Matt.  iii.  2; 
the  second  to  his  sacrifice,  John  i.  29. 

The  first  miracle  of  our  Lord  was  performed  in  Galilee,  and  taught 
that,  in  his  official  character,  no  earthly  relationship  could  be  acknowl- 
edged (Jolin  ii.  4);  that  he  came,  not  as  Jolin,  austere  and  unsocial,  but 
sympathizing  witli  man  in  every  condition  of  joy  as  well  as  of  sorrow. 
It  taught,  also,  tliat  the  water  of  [lurilying  under  the  law  was  to  give 
place  to  tlie  wine  of  his  kingdom  •  the  richest  revelation  being  reserved 
to  the  close. 


632  CHRONOLOGY— LESSONS, 

The  first  of  his  public  acts  (John  ii.  15),  and  one  of  the  last,  was  to 
purity  the  temple,  showing  that  he  was  its  Lord,  and  fulfilling  a  pro- 
phecy of  Malachi  (chap.  ni.  i).  He  also  intimated  tliat  thenceiurth  his 
own  body  (as  alterwards  his  church)  was  to  be  the  true  temple  (John 
ii.  21),  wherein  God  himself  would  dwell. 

His  first  recorded  discourse  was  with  Nicodemus,  on  regeneration,  oa 
salvation  by  faith,  on  God's  love  to  the  world  in  the  gift  ot  his  Son.  He 
announced  at  the  same  time  that  he  was  the  bon  of  God  and  the  Son 
of  Man;  that  his  kingdom  was  to  be  established  in  human  heart?;  that 
he  himself  was  to  be  lilted  up,  not  on  an  earthly  throne,  but  on  the 
cross.  The  first  scenes  of  hie  life,  therefore,  in  Jerusalem,  shadowed 
forth  the  truths  which  were  embodied  in  terrible  reality  in  the  last 
His  second  discourse  was  with  the  Samaritan  woman,  and  ended  in  the 
conversion  of  many  of  the  Samaritans.  The  earliest  extensive  success 
of  our  Lord's  mission  was  witnessed  in  a  district  that  was  the  most 
despised,  and  where  he  had  wrought  no  miracles.  He  was_/?r«<  rejected 
at  Mazareth. 

How  instructive  to  observe,  that  though  "the  whole  multitude  of 
the  disciples"  had  rejoiced  and  praised  God,  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem, 
"for  all  the  mighty  works  which  they  had  seen,"  within  a  week,  one 
had  denied  our  Lord,  others  bad  slept  during  his  agony,  and  all  had 
forsaken  him.  "He  trod  the  wine-press  alone,"  though,  hut  a  few 
days  before,  that  prophecy  did  not  seem  likely  to  be  lulfiUed. 

The  day  after  he  delivered  the  parable  of  the  wicked  husbandmen, 
asserting  his  own  dignity  as  "the  Son,"  and  foretelling  his  death. 

The  contention  among  the  disciples  who  should  be  greatest  seems  to 
have  been  settled  by  our  Lord  taking  a  towel,  girding  himself,  and 
washin"  their  feet;  thus  teaching  them  that  the  chief  among  them  was 
to  be  as  he  that  did  serve.     Compare  Luke  xxii.  24-30,  and  John  xiii. 

1-20. 

Careful  attention  to  the  order  of  the  narrative  will  show  that,  while 
Pilate  declared  that  he  found  no  fault  in  Him,  and  Herod  acknow- 
ledged that  there  was  no  charge  against  him  worthy  of  death,  he  was 
crucified  on  the  charge  of  blasphemy,  making  himself  eg^aal  with  God. 
That  was  his  true  character,  or  he  was  justly  condemned. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  was  after  Judas  Iscariot  had  left  the  company 
that  our  Lord  gave  his  disciples  the  new  commandment,  instituted  the 
last  supper,  and  delivered  the  tender  farewell  discourse  recorded  in 
John  xiv.-xvi. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  Gospels  is  occupied  with  the  events  of  the 
last  seven  days  of  our  Saviour's  life,  including  his  crucifixion.     The 


TOPICS    IN    READING    THE    GOSPELS.  633 

prominence  given  to  these  scenes  he  himself  explains.  "  The  hour  is 
come  when  the  Son  of  Man  shall  be  glorified.  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto 
you,  except  a  corn  of  wheat  fall  into  the  (/round  and  die,  it  abidcth 
alone ;  but  if  it  die,  it  bringeth  forth  much  fruit." 

150.  The  connnection  of  miracles  and  parables  is  no  less 
instructive. 

Ill   parables 
and  mira- 
cles. 
For  parables,  see  Part  i.  §  418.     For  miracles,  we  may 

take  the  8th  and  9th  of  Matthew.  Christ  first  heals  with  a  touch  the 
man  whom  the  law  had  pronounced  unclean  (viii.  2-4),  and  then  pro- 
ceeds to  assert  practically  his  power  over  disease  (14-17),  over  devils 
themselves  (16),  over  physical  nature  (23-27),  over  even  brute  creatures 
(28-34).  What  can  be  more  complete  than  this  view  of  his  reign  ? 
In  chap,  ix.,  we  see  him  in  his  spiritual  kingdom,  forgiving  sin  (1-8), 
and  answering  prayer,  direct  (20-22),  intercessory  (23-26),  united 
(27-31),  unuttered  (32,  33).  Whether  these  are  precisely  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  this  group  may  admit  of  a  question,  but  there  are 
characteristic  features,  and  our  wisdom  is  to  ascertain  and  examine 
them. 

So,  again,  of  the  cases  in  which  Christ  raised  the  dead.  Three  only 
are  given,  but  each  is  characteristic.  In  the  case  of  Jairus's  daughter, 
the  spirit  had  but  just  quitted  the  body  ;  the  son  of  the  widow  of  Nain 
was  being  carried  to  the  grave ;  and  the  summons  to  Lazarus  was 
addressed  to  one  who  had  been  dead  "  four  days  already."  Christ 
therefore  raised  the  dead  from  the  couch,  the  bier,  and  the  sepulchre ; 
an  ascending  series  of  difficulties,  but  all  -possible  with  him.  Each 
miracle,  moreover,  had  in  other  respects  its  appropriate  lessons. 

Sec.  6.  Topics  to  be   Noticed  in  Reading  the  Gospels. 

151.  In  the  study  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  Gos- 
pels especially,  we  need  to  inquire  and  compare.  The  in- 
spired writings  are  infinitely  rich  in  truth,  and  each  verse  is 
so  connected  with  the  rest  that  an  intelligent  inquirer  may 
easily  extend  his  investigations  from  one  passage  over  the 
whole  of  Scripture.  Without  attempting  to  exhaust  topics 
of  inquiry,  we  mention  the  following.     The  letters  may  bo 


634 


GOSPELS — METHOD    OF   STUDY. 


prefixed  to  each  verse,  or  not,  according  to  tlie  taste  of  the 
reader. 


A-  Wliat  analogies  between  sensible  and 
spiritual  things  may  be  here  traced? 

a.  Wliat  propheoy  is  liere  accompli alied? 
wlieri'  Inund?  when  wii. ten ?  what 
rule  oC  inlorpreiailwn  is  iHtistrated  i* 

jB.  What  lilrsi<ui(i  is  here  sought  or  ao- 
liDOwiedged,  or  promi'^ed.  and  why  ? 

C.  What  fw.s/om  is  here  referred  to? 

c.  What  trait  of  character  is  here  given? 
good  or  bad?  belongin.u  to  our  na- 
tural or  our  renewed  state?  what 
sdvanlnges  are  connected  with  it? 

B.  Wiiat  diirlrhie  is  liere  taught?  how 
illnstraled?  what  is  practical  in 
Hiience  ? 

d  What  duty  is  here  enforced,  and  how? 
from  what  motives? 

D-  What  difficiiitt/  is  here  fotind  in  his- 
tory or  m  doctrine?  how  explained? 

.E.  What  evn-Dgclicnl  or  other  cjpcrience 
is  here  recorded? 

e.  What  cxampte  is  here  placed  before 

lis?  of  sin  or  of  holiness?  lessons? 
i*".  What  /acii   are    here    related?    what 

doctrine  or  duty  do  they  illustrate? 

do  you  commend  or  blame  them, 

and  why? 
What  is  the  geographical  position  of 

this  country,  or  place  ?   and  what 

its  history? 
H.  What   facts   of  natural  history  or  of 

general  htstory  are  here  referred  to 

or  illustrated? 
I.  What  institution  or  ordinance  is  here 

mentioned?     on     wliom     binding? 

what   its  design?  what  its  connec- 
tion with  other  institutions? 

f.  What   instructions    may   be   gathered 

fit'iii     this     fact,    or     parable,  or 
miracle? 


G. 


K.  What  knowledge  of  human  nature,  or 
want  of  knowledge,  is  here  dis- 
played? 

L.  What  /ofOy  expressions  of  devotional 

fervor? 
I.  What  Levitieal  institute  is  here  men- 
tioned? why  appointed? 

Af.  W'hat  miracle  is  here  recorded?  by 
whom  wrought?  in  whose  name? 
what  were  its  results?  what 
taught? 

N.  What  IS  worthy  of  notice  in  this 
runnof 

P.  Wlial  yirohibition  is  here  given?  is  it 
woril,  or  thought,  or  deed,  it  con- 
demns? 

p.  Wha'  is  the  meaning  of  the  parable 
here  given?  what  truth  as  to  God, 
Christ,  man,  "the  kingdom"  is 
taught? 

P.  What  promise  is  here  given?  to 
whom? 

R.  What  prophecy  is  here  recorded  f  \s 
itfultilled?  how?  when? 

S.  What  sin  IS  here  exposed? 

s.  What  sect  is  here  introduced?  men- 
tion its  tenets? 

T.  What  tijpe  is  liere  traced? 

t   What  threatening?  when  inflicted? 

U.  What  unjustifiable  action  of  a  good 
man?  what  unusual  excellence  in 
one  not  pious? 

W.  What  vjoe  is  here  denounced?  what 
u-arning  given?  against  wliom,  and 
why? 

X.  What"  is   here   taught  of   the  work, 

character,  person  of  Christ? 
X.  What  sublimity  of  tliought  or  of  lan- 
guage   IS    here?    what   inference 
follows? 


LESSONS  TO  BE   GATHERED    FKOM  A  COMPARISON  OF  PASSAGES. 

152.  Sometimes,  instead  of  marking  the  lessons  taught  in 
single  verses,  it  is  useful  to  compare,  in  order  to  ascertain  and 
contrast  the  duties  or  truths  involved.  The  following  (taken 
from  Nichols'  Help)  are  specimens.  Many  more  might  be 
added. 

Give  instances  of  our  Lord's  attandance  on  public  worship,  at  the 
temple,  and  in  the  synagogue ;  his  submission  to  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Mosaic  law  (Luke  iv.  16:  John  vii.  37);  his  retirement 
for  [irivate  prayer,  and  under  what  circumstances  (Matt.  xiv.  23; 
XXVI.  36;  Mark  i.  35;  Luke  vi.  12);  his  prayers  for  others  (Luke 
sxii.  32,  for  Peter:  John  xvii.,  for  his  church  ;  Luke  xxiii.  34,  for  his 
enemies);  his  prayer  with  others  (Luke  ix.  28). 


GOSPELS — METHOD    OF   STUDY.  G35 

Give  instances  of  his  submission  to  the  will  of  his  lieavenly  Father 
(John  iv.  34;  v.  30;  xviii.  11);  liis  zeal  (John  ii.  17;  iv.  31-34:  Luke 
ix.  51,  etc.);  his  giving  an  improving  turn  to  events  and  circumstances 
(Matt.  ix.  27:  Lukexii.  15:  John  iv.  32  ;  vi.  27;  vii.  37),  his  humility 
(John  viii.  50;   xiii.  1,  etc.);   and  his  self-denial. 

Give  illustrations  how  our  Lord  acted  as  a  son  (Luke  ii.  51 :  John 
xix.  26);  as  a  friend  (John  xi.) ;  as  a  subject  (Matt.  xvii.  24);  as  a 
teacher  (Matt.  xi.  29). 

Give  instances  of  his  reproof,  and  show  the  grounds  of  it  in  the 
following  cases  (his  apostles,  as  Peter,  Matt.  xvi.  23 :  Luke  xxii.  61 : 
John  xxi. ;  James  and  John,  Luke  ix.  55;  Thomas,  John  xx.  27; 
Judas,  John  xii.  7,  8 :  other  disciples,  Luke  xxiv.  25).  What  sins 
seemed  to  call  forth  his  severest  reproof  (John  viii.  44:  Matt,  xxiii.)? 

What  does  our  Lord  say  of  unbelief  (Matt.  xi.  21 :  John  iii.  36) ;  of 
covetousness  and  other  vices;  and  of  f)articular  virtues? 

Who  were  particularly  the  objects  of  our  Lord's  commendation,  and 
for  what  (Matt.  vui.  10;  xv.  28;   xxvi.  13:   Luke  x.  42;  xxi.  3)? 

When  did  our  Lord  give  offence,  and  what  occasioned  it  (Mark  vi.  3 : 
John  vi.  66:   xix.  7)? 

What  charges  were  brought  against  our  Lord?  By  what  oppro- 
brious names  was  he  called?  Collect  the  different  reasons  which  were 
given  by  individuals  for  not  following,  or  for  rejecting  him  (Mark 
vi.  3;  X.  22;  John  vii.  41).     What  reason  does  he  give? 

Give  instances  of  our  Lord's  command  of  temper  under  circumstances 
calculated  greatly  to  irritate  it  (Matt,  xxvii.  14:  Luke  xxii.:  John  xiii); 
and  of  his  condescension  to  the  infirmities  of  others  (John  xx.  27: 
Matt.  xxvi.  41). 

Under  what  circumstances  did  our  Lord  turn  away  from  those  who 
applied  to  him,  or  refuse  to  comply  with  their  request  (ilark  viii.  11,  12  ; 
X.  35,  etc.:  Luke  xxiii.  8),  or  seem  to  check  their  coming  (Matt.  vui. 
19,  20 :  Mark  v.  19 :  Luke  xiv.  25,  etc.)  ? 

Isa.  Iii.  13,  speaks  of  his  dealing  prudently.  Observe  his  prudence 
in  declining  all  interference  with  civil  affairs  (Luke  xii.  13:  John  vi.  15); 
and  in  the  use  of  means  for  the  preservation  of  his  life  (Matt.  iv.  12: 
Mark  iii.  6,  7:  John  vii.  1-10;  x.  39 ;  xi.  53,  54);  as  also  his  wisdom 
in  suiting  his  instructions  to  his  hearers. 

What  does  our  Lord  say  as  to  the  great  principle  which  influenced 
him  in  all  he  did  (John  iv.  34)?  also  as  to  iiis  object  in  coming  into 
the  world  (Matt.  xx.  28:  Luke  xix.  10:  John  ix.  39;  x.  10;  xviii.  37)? 

How  does  our  Lord  describe  a  future  state  of  happiness  and  of 
misery?     How  does  he  describe  his  kingdom  and  his  second  coming? 


C3d  THE    GOSPEL    AND    THE    GENTILES. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

the  book  of  acts. 

Sec.  1.  The  Gospel  and  the  Gentiles. 

153.  And  now  the  Gospel  is  about  to  be  diffused  among  the  nations. 
The  Book  of  Acts  gives  us  the  history  of  its  progress  in  Judaea  (i.-vii.), 
in  Samaria  (viii.),  and  then  "  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth" 
(x.-xxviii.)  How  far  did  the  Gentiles  need  the  Gospel?  and  what 
new  truths  did  it  reveal  to  them  ?  are  therefore  instructive  questions. 
Some  reply,  by  affirming,  that  to  the  Gentile  world,  the  Gospel  was 
welcomed  chiefly  as  a  code  of  perfect  morality ;  others 
Gosperio  affirm  with  Paley,  that  its  chief  excellence  was  its  revela- 
the Gentiles,  ^^j^  q£  eternal  life;  and  others  still,  that  it  is  essentially  a 
revelation  of  religion,  the  morality  of  the  heathen  being  political  or 
secular,  not  spiritual  or  religious.  It  tells  nothing,  they  say,  of  man's 
relation  to  God,  nor  did  it  base  moral  sentiment  on  his  character  or 
will.  This  peculiarity,  it  is  added,  Josephus  pointedly  marks.  Other 
nations,  says  he,  have  a  morality  without  religion;  among  the  Jews 
alone  is  religion  made  the  basis  of  virtue. 

Unsatisfactory  as  these  statements  are,  each  of  them  contains  a  por- 
tion of  the  truth.  The  whole  truth  we  reach  only  by  combining  them, 
and  adding  others  which  they  do  not  include.  It  may  indeed  be  sum- 
med up  m  one  sentence — the  Go.^pel  is  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  of  God  in  him, — but  this  summary  involves  particulars,  which 
must  be  stated  in  detail,  before  we  can  understand  its  significancy  and 
beauty. 

154.  (1.)  Apart  from  the  Gospel,  men  had  a  very  imperfect  know- 
ledge of  their  nature  and  guilt.  The  fact  that  they  were 
Man  igno-  g^^^j^g^g  ^^s  obvious  to  all.  But  the  extent  of  their  sin, 
exient  of  needing  as  it  did  to  be  compared  with  a  perfect  law  :  tlie 
^"^  ^  '  aggregate  of  it,  springing  from  a  depraved  nature  ;  the  guilt 
of  that  very  depravity,  itself  the  result,  not  of  chance  or  of  circum- 
stances, or  of  any  corrupt  tendency  in  the  matter  (vkm),  of  which  man 
was  formed,  least  of  all  of  an  act  of  God,  but  of  man's  own  voluntary 
transgression,  they  did  not  know,  or  had  forgotten.  A  law  to  test  the 
measure  of  our  guilt,  a  history  to  trace  our  ruin  to  ourselves,  and 
evidence  to  prove  that  man's  nature  is  not  better  than  his  practice,  are 


STATE   OF   THE   GENTILES.  637 

thorefore  strictiy  revelations ;  and  they  seem  as  essential  to  our 
penitence  as  to  our  restoration.  Once  all  men  possessed  the  knowledge 
of  these  truths,  but  now  it  can  be  regained  from  the  Bible  alone. 

155.  (2.)  Of  God  himself,  the  heathen  were  no  less  lamentably  igno- 
rant. Whether  he  were  one  or  many,  or  as  most  held,  both  of  God's 
many  and  one  :  whether,  as  the  Stoics  maintained,  God  was  cliaracter. 
everything,  and  everything  God,  matter  itself  being  but  the  remotest 
emanation  of  Deity ;  or,  as  the  Platonists  limited  the  doctrine,  God 
■was  all  spirit,  and  all  spirits  were  God,  emanating  from  him,  and  ulti- 
mately absorbed  into  him ;  or,  whether  he  were  not  a  being  who  took 
no  interest  in  earthly  concerns,  as  Epicurus  taught,  none  knew.  All 
did  know,  however,  that  the  objects  of  popular  worship  embodied  the 
vices  of  their  worshippers,  and  that  easy  indifference,  virtuous  con- 
tempt, or  guilty  fear,  were  the  feelings  with  which  they  were  regarded. 
A  God  of  holiness,  of  providence,  and  of  love,  guided  by  integrity, 
was  either  altogether  unknown,  or,  if  made  the  theme  of  discussion,  was 
regarded  with  dismay.     "This,"  says  Cicero,  "is  the  common  principle 

of  all  philosophies,  that  the  Deity  is  never  di.spleased,  nor 

J        u     ■    fl    l  •    •  "  ■   1  I     J         DeOff.iii.28. 

does  he  mtiict  injury  upon  men,    a  principle  involved  no 

leas  in  the  moral  character  ascribed  to  the  divinities,  than  in  the  apa- 
thetic indifference  thought  essential  to  their  dignity. 

156.  (3.)  The  influence  of  the  evils  already  named  on  the  moral  sys- 
tems of  the  heathen,  is  obvious.     The  relations  and  truths 

on  which  morality  is  based,  were  imperfectly  perceived,  and  system  of 
the  obligations  thence  arising,  still  more  imperfectly  felt,  """o^'ify- 
In  Greece,  religion  was  devotion  to  external  nature,  and  at  last  to  art: 
in  Rome,  devotion  to  country,  and  then  to  power ;  in  each  respectively, 
it  was  energy  and  taste.  Political  virtues  both  recognised  ;  and  at  first, 
Rome  prized  as  the  highest  political  virtue,  domestic  fidelity ;  but  in 
neither  nation  had  religion  any  good  moral  tendency,  and  in  both,  re- 
ligion became  the  chief  servant  of  licentiousness  and  vice. 

157.  (4.)  Nor  was  this  tendency  checked  by  any  belief  of  a  personal 
conscious  immortality.  A  resurrection  of  the  dead  was  uni- 
versally rejected  as  ridiculous.  An  immortality  of  the  soul,  lainty  of  a 
properly  so-called,  none  admitted.  That  the  souls  of  men  '"'"''^  ''*'^- 
might  survive,  in  some  shadowy,  semi-conscious  state,  or  even  enjoy 
for  a  time,  the  company  of  their  deities,  a  few  were  disposed  to  main- 
tain ;  but  the  evidence  was  so  faint,  and  the  difficulties  were  so  serious, 
that  even  the  greatest  of  heathen  philosophers,  Socrates,  was  con- 
strained to  conft'ss,  that  whether  it  were  better  to  live  or  die  was  known 
only  to  the  gods. 

54 


638  STATE    OF    THE   GENTILES. 

158.  (5.)  It  is  not  intended  by  these  statements  to  deny  that  there 

may  not  be  found  in  the  waitings  of  some  ancient  philoso- 

a  system'      phers,  both  classic  and  oriental,  glimpses  of  diviner  truth, 

that  shall      moral   and  speculative.     Such   climpses  there   are.     Plato 

reconcMle  ^  ,  . 

his  hopes      attempted,  as  the  founder  of  Buddhism  did,  to  bring  back 

himselV   '      the  faith  of  man  from  innumerable  visible  deities  (6mi  yivnToi), 

and  God.       j.^  ^^j-^g  Great  Invisible  (~v);  Socrates  discourses  eloquently 

on  "the  good,"  -'the  beautiful."     But,  on  the  other  hand,  both  Plato 

and  Socrates,  when  speaking  most  justly,  confess  that  they  are  but 

guessing  at  truth,  and  that  whether  their  conclusions  are  sound,  cannot 

be  told  till  some  Divine  teacher  appear The  real  difficulty  in  ail 

these  inquiries  remained,  a  difficulty  which  drew  thousands  to  results 

which  their  better  principles  condemned.     If  man  is  thus  guilty ;  if 

this  be  virtue;  if  God  is  just;  if  another  life  be  a  reality: 
Can  auilty  >  j        >  j 

man'be.just  how  is  man  to  attain  the  purity  and  blessedness  of  which 
w  ^°  •  we  thus  dream  ?  In  the  absence  of  light,  the}'  denied  the 
truths  they  dreaded;  or  in  spite  of  light,  followed  the  evil  they  loved, 
till  they  reaped  the  fruit  of  their  practice,  in  diminished  knowledge 
and  grosser  sin. 

159.  (6.)  The  moral  condition  of  the  nations  to  whom  the  Gospel 

came,  was  just  such  as  their  ignorance  and  the  corrupt  tea- 
.al  cond'kion    fiencies  in  which  that  ignorance  originated  might  lead  us  to 

expect.  Paul  has  described  it  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans; 
and  Wetstein,  Tholuck,  and  others,  have  shown  from  ancient  authori- 
ties that  the  picture  of  the  apostle  has  not  one  touch  too  many,  or  too 
dark. 

These  were  the  evils  with  which  the  Gospel  had  to  contend;  and  these 
evils  it  subdued.  To  the  wants  which  these  evils  indicated  the  Gospel 
was  adapted.  These  wants  it  relieved,  and  these  wants  it  will  at  length 
for  ever  remove. 

160.  Such  everywhere   is   nature  without  revelation,  man  without 

God.  The  evils  thus  traced  iii  Greece,  re-appear  in  India, 
unh'ersal'.  "*   ^"^^  '"  ^^^  midst  of  our  Western  civilization.     Man  without 

the  Bible,  and  man  rejecting  the  Bible,  tend  (the  latter  most 

rapidly)  to   the  same  condition ;    and   it  is   that  condition  which  the 

Gospel  is  intended  to  relieve.     Its  essence  is  the  life  and  work  of  our 

Lord.     He  was  Man;  sinless  and  holy,  as  man  once  was. 
How  re- 
moved  by      He  obeyed  tlie  law  which  we  had  broken,  and  in  obeying, 

t  e  (jospe .    expounds  and  enforces  it.     He  died  in  our  stead,  showing 

what  our  sins  deserved,  and  how  they  all  may  be  cancelled      In  our 

nature,  and  as  our  representative,  he  conquered  death  and  ascended  to 


I      GOSPEL    ADAPTED    TO    THE   GENTILES.  639 

God,  a  pledge  and  proof  of  our  ascension.  In  heaven  he  forms  the 
bond  of  union  between  God  and  man,  blending  with  his  Divine  nature 
our  own,  and  ready  to  employ  the  fruits  of  his  ministry,  both  his 
power  with  God,  and  his  fellow-feeling  with   our  infirmities,  for  our 

profit He  was  Ood,  the  brightness  of  the  Father's  glory,  tfte 

express  image  of  his  person,  the  Eternal  God  in  human  form,  thus 
realizing  the  yearnings  of  many  for  some  object  of  reverence  and  of 
love.  In  his  acts  he  showed  what  God  is,  how  tender,  how  holy ; 
revealed  those  relations  which  we  already  know  -that  he  sustains  to 
man,  and  disclosed  others  even  more  adapted  to  impress  our  hearts. 
That  he  was  Creator  and  Preserver,  men  had  gathered  from  his  works; 
that  he  might  become  Judge  they  feared.  But  here  he  is  seen  as 
our  Brother,  our  Eedeemer,  our  Friend.  The  Lawgiver  becomes  obe- 
dient to  his  own  law,  and  bears  its  penalty;  his  position  assuring  to 
us  the  sufficiency  of  his  sacrifice.  None  knev/  so  well  man's  guilt,  and 
none  knew  so  well  the  requirements  of  his  own  government:  the  first 
is  cancelled ;  the  second  honored  by  his  suffering.  In  efi'ecting  the  great 
end  of  this  mission,  he  has  moreover  performed  a  work  that  has  in  it 
the  elements  of  all  power;  over  man  and  with  God.  "Lifted  up,"  he 
"  draws  all "  unto  him  ;  and  ascending  on  high  he  receives  gifts  for  men, 
repentance  and  remission  of  sins,  holiness  and  eternal  life.  The  Gospel 
is,  in  one  word,  a  revelation  of  man,  and  of  God ;  of  new  relations,  and 
of  a  perfect  morality ;  of  eternal  life,  demonstrated  not  by  argument, 
but  by  facts,  and  above  all,  of  a  system  of  reconciliation,  which  har- 
monizes, enforces,  and  explains  all  its  other  disclosures,  and  fits  it  to 
become  "glad  tidings  of  great  joy  unto  all  people."  It  is  the  utter- 
ance at  once  of  infinite  sufliciency,  holiness  and  love. 

161.  It  may  be  convenient  to  mark  here  the  distinction  between  the 

different  books  of  the  New  Testament.     In  the  Evangelists 

.  7      ,      ^  ,     Relation  of 

■we  have  the  Gospel  incarnate  :  Christ  came  to  be  the  Gospel,  Go.<pels, 

and  to  do  what  should  form  the  basis  of  his  church.  In  the  Episl.es  to 
Gospels,  therefore,  though  much  is  revealed,  much  is  wrapped  oneanoiher. 
up  in  dark  sayings.  His  death,  his  resurrection,  the  gift  of  his  Spirit, 
the  nature  of  his  kingdom,  the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  his  second  coming, 
are  all  hinted  at,  or  foretold,  or  done ;  but  in  the  Gospels  we  look  rather 
for  the  facts  which  are  to  give  significance  to  some  future  disclosures  on 
these  topics,  than  for  explicit  teaching.  There  is  no  spiritual  truth 
which  may  not  be  found  in  the  narrative,  but  for  the  full  meaning  of 

that  narrative  we  need  the  later  revelations  of  the  Spirit In 

the  hook  of  Acts,  we  learn  the  meaning  of  much  of  our  Saviour's  teach- 
ing from  the  characters  and  lives  of  Christians,  and  the  dealings  of  the 


640  THE    BOOK    OF   ACTS. 

providence  of  God.  In  the  Epistles,  we  see  doctrine  and  duty  in  their 
connections  and  tendencies,  the  whole  explained  and  enforced  as  com- 
pletely as  the  Spirit  of  God  has  deemed  it  necessary  for  our  present 
state.  In  Revelation,  we  trace*  the  history  of  these  doctrines  embodied 
i#  the  church,  till  the  end  of  time.  The  Epistles  explain  and  apply 
what  the  Gospels  describe;  Revelation  completes  what  the  book  of  Acts 
begins ;  and  each  part  is  the  complement  of  the  rest,  the  facts  of  the 
life  of  our  Lord  being  the  foundation  of  the  whole. 

Sec.  2. — Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Acts. 

162.  This  book  continues  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  church, 
in  two  principal  sections:  the  first  relating  to  the  spread  of  Christianity 
in  Palestine,  chiefly  by  the  instrumentality  of  Peter,  chaps,  i.-xii.;  and 
the  second,  its  diiiusion  through  other  countries,  mostly  by  the  labors 
of  Paul  (xiii.-xxviii.)  While  the  book  is  thus  divisible  into  two  por- 
tions, it  describes  a  threefold  condition  in  the  church.  The  first  is 
described  in  chaps,  i.-xi.  18,  in  which  the  church  is  entirely  Jewish, 
though  at  Caesarea  a  Roman  convert  had  been  baptized  by  Peter,  A.  D. 
30-41.  The  second  period  is  found  in  chap.  xi.  19,  to  chap.  xv.  The 
Jewish  element  still  prevails,  but  Gentile  converts  are  numerous,  A.  D. 
42-50.  The  third  is  given  in  chaps,  xvi.-xxviii.,  and  here  we  find  the 
position  of  the  Gentiles  defined,  and  many  churches  formed  from  among 
the  heathen,  A.  D.  51-63. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  considered  as  a  regular  or  complete  history 
of  the  church.  Many  important  transactions,  referred  to  elsewhere, 
are  omitted.  It  gives  no  account  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  after  the 
imiirisonment  and  deliverance  of  Peter,  or  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Gospel  at  Rome,  or  of  many  of  Paul's  voyages  and  shipwrecks  men- 
tioned in  2  Cor.  xi.  25;  while,  respecting  the  extensive  labors  of  the 
other  apostles,  besides  Peter  and  Paul,  there  is  hardly  any  information. 

As  the  Gospels  are  far  from  being  a  full  account  of  all  that  our  blessed 
Lord  said  and  did,  but  are  rather  histories  describing  his  character, 
works,  and  the  chief  events  of  his  life,  and  the  first  introduction  of  the 
Christian  dispensation;  so  the  Acts  are  not  a  complete  record  of  the 
labors  of  his  apostles,  but  rather  a  narrative  of  facts,  confirming  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  illustrating  its  power  and  opera- 
tion ;  and  proving  the  claim  of  the  Gentiles  to  admission  into  the 
church,  objections  to  which  were  interposed  by  the  Jewish  converts. 

Some  account  of  Luke,  the  author  of  this  book,  has  been  given  in  the 


ACTS — LESSONS.  641 

preface  to  his  Gospel,  of  which  this  book  is  evidently  a  continuation, 
as  both  are  inscribed  to  the  same  person,  and  the  history  is  taken  np 
at  the  very  point  to  which  it  had  been  conducted  in  the  Gospel.  From 
his  frequent  use  of  the  word  wc,  it  is  clear  that  he  was  present  at  many 
of  the  transactions  which  he  relates.  He  accompanied  Paul  from  Troas 
to  Philippi  (xvi.  11);  and  probably  remained  there  till  the  apostle's 
second  visit,  two  years  afterwards,  when  he  left  that  city  in  his  com- 
pany (xx.  6);  and  from  that  time  to  the  close  of  the  narrative  he 
appears  as  the  companion  of  the  apostle.  He  went  with  him  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  afterwards  to  Rome;  where  he  remained  with  him  at  least 
the  first  part  of  his  confinement,  as  appears  from  two  Epistles  written 
by  Paul  from  that  city,  Col.  iv.  14:  Philem.  24.  As  his  name  does 
not  appear  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philipiuans,  written  not  very  long 
afterwards,  it  has  been  supposed  that  he  had  then  quitted  Rome. 
But  on  Paul's  second  imprisonment  at  Rome,  Luke  is  again  by  his  side, 
2  Tim.  iv.  11. 

RTiere,  or  at  what  time  precisely,  this  book  was  written,  is  not  cer- 
tainly known.  As,  however,  the  history  is  continued  to  the  second 
year  of  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and  there  breaks  off,  without 
mentioning  the  issue  of  his  trial,  or  his  release,  it  may  be  supposed 
that  it  was  written  about  A.  D.  63  ;  and  the  concluding  words  of  the 
narrative  would  rather  indicate  that  the  writer  was  then  at  a  distance 
from  the  apostle,  and  not  in  direct  communication  with  him.  Antioch 
has  therefore  been  assigned  as  the  place  where  it  was  written,  and 
Theophilus  has  been  supposed,  with  much  reason,  to  be  a  resident  in 
that  place  (see  Birks'  Horee  Evan.) 

The  narrative  of  this  book  is  highly  instructive. 

163.  (1.)  Mark  how  the  Divine  nature  of  our  Lord  is  acknowledged. 
Prayer  is  offered  to  him  by  Stephen  (vii.  59,  60),  and  such  prayer  is 
affirmed  by  Peter  and  Ananias,  to  be  descriptive  of  a  Christian  (ii.  21; 
ix.  14;  see  1  Cor.  i.  2).  Peter  speaks  of  Christ  as  Lord  ol  all  (x.  36; 
so  again,  xiv.  23 ;  xx.  35),  and  this  title  is  applied  indiscriminately 
throughout  the  book,  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son  (x.  36;  ix.  34,  36, 
42;  xi.  16,  2U-23;  xiii.  2,  7,  10-12,48).  Such  is  the  teaching  of  a 
system  which  denounces  idolatry,  and  claims  for  God  alone  supreme 
regard. 

His  office  and  work  are  no  less  clearly  revealed.  He  formed  the 
theme  of  apostolic  teaching.  Immediatelj'  after  the  ascension,  Peter 
pointed  to  him  as  fulfilling  the  promise  made  to  the  fathers,  as  the  seed 
in  whom  the  nations  were  to  be  blessed  (iii.  20-26)  And  this  truth 
they  proclaimed  doAly  from  house  to  house  (v.  42).     When  Paul  was 

54* 


642  ACTS — LESSONS. 

converted  "straightway  he  preached  Christ."  Five-and  twenty  years 
later,  the  last  record  which  the  book  contains  is,  that  lie  tauj^ht  "  those 
things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus"  (ix.  20;  xxviii.  31).     See,  also, 

ii.  22-40;    X.  34-43;  xiii.  16-41;    xvii.  18,  22-31 Examining 

the  inspired  narrative  on  this  topic  more  closely,  we  find  that  every- 
where, at  Jerusalem  to  the  Jews,  in  the  desert  to  the  Ethiopian,  to  the 
devout  Cornelius  at  Ctesarea,  to  the  proud  Greeks  at  Athens,  there  is 
but  one  message,  and  everywhere  it  is  delivered  fully,  and  without 
reserve  (compare  ii. ;  viii.  35;  x.  42,  43;  xvii.  31),  faith  in  it  being 
essential  to  salvation  (iv.  11,  12).  Salvation  involves  the  remission  of 
sin,  full  justification  before  God,  and  holiness  (ii.  38 ;  xiii.  39;  xxvi.  18), 
the  whole  purchased  by  the  sufl'erings  and  death  of  Christ  (xvii.  3; 
XX.  28),  and  given  through  the  Spirit  (v.  31 ;  i.  4 ;  ii.  33) ;  and  as  Christ 

is  their  Saviour  and  Lord,  so  is  he  Judge  (x.  42 ;  xvii.  31) If 

these  be  called  Pauline  doctrines,  and  not  Peter's  or  Christ's,  we  answer 
the  misrepresentation  by  appealing  to  the  facts  recorded  especially  in 
this  book  (x.  43 :  John  iii.  16,  etc.) 

(2.)  Nor  less  clearly  is  the  nature  and  ofiice  of  the  Holy  Spirit  revealed. 
Peter  calls  him  God  (v.  3,  4),  and  regards  the  sin  of  Ananias  as  a  denial 
of  his  omniscience.  He  who  is  called  by  Isaiah,  Jehovah,  is  called  by 
Paul  the  Holy  Ghost  (xxviii.  25:  Isa.  vi.  8,  9),  while  his  personality, 
(that  is,  his  existence  as  an  individual  intelligent  agent),  is  distinctly 
and  repeatedly  implied  (viii.  29;  x.  19;  xiii.  2;  xvi.  7;  xx.  28). 

His  ofiice  was  either  miraculous,  communicating  gifts  of  healing,  of 
tongues,  etc.  (ii.  17:  1  Cor.  xii.  10),  or  ordinary.  On  the  apostles,  his 
power  was  seen  in  opening  their  minds,  removing  their  prejudices,  em- 
boldening them  for  their  work,  and  enabling  them  to  confirm  their 
testimony,  with  miracles  such  as  none  could  question  or  explain  (iii. 
1-11 ;  iv.  31 ;  V.  12-16).  On  the  Jews  who  heard  the  Gospel,  he  dis- 
played his  power,  by  convincing  them  of  sin  (ii.  36,  37 ;  see  John  xvi.  8), 
and  changing  the  very  murderers  of  our  Lord  into  patterns  of  excel- 
lence. To  the  same  power  we  are  taught  to  ascribe  the  union  of  the 
first  Christians  (iv.  31,32);  their  consecration  and  liberality  (ii.  45); 
their  joy  in  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  though  it  seemed  a  myste- 
rious arrangement  (xi.  23,  24);  their  steadfastness  and  faith.  Stephen's 
wisdom  and  love,  his  zeal  and  peace,  had  the  same  origin;  "he  was 
full  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (vii.  55),  and  even  whole  churches  shared  the 
blessing  (xiii.  52).  How  instructive  and  consolatory,  that  the  dispen- 
sation of  the  Spirit  should  be  introduced,  not  onlj-  with  pecaliar  pro- 
mises (Luke  xi.  13 :  John  xvi ),  but  with  a  history  of  rich  manifestations 
of  grace.     If  in  the  Gospels  we  see  the  work  of  our  Lord,  in  the  Acts 


THE   EARLY    CHURCH.  643 

we  see  ihe  work  of  that  blessed  Agent,  to  whom,  so  far  as  man  is  con- 
cerned, the  first  owes  all  its  success.  We  need  but  more  of  His  intiu- 
ence  to  complete  the  triumphs  which  this  history  begins. 

(3.)  As  we  have  the  characters  of  individual  believers  described  in 
this  book,  so  we  gather  from  it  the  character  and  order  of  the  first 
churches  of  Christ.  As  the  apostles  gained  converts,  they  taught  thera 
to  meet  statedly  in  Christ's  name,  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  in- 
structed them  in  Christian  ordinances,  and  appointed  suitable  ministers 
to  feed  and  guard  the  flock.  Acts  ii.  42;  vi.  1-6;  xiv.  23:  xx.  7,  18, 
28-32.  Compare  on  the  character  of  those  who  were  to  compose  the 
churches,  the  descriptions  given  of  them  in  each  Epistle,  and  on  the 
character  of  the  officers,  the  pastoral  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus. 
The  church,  it  must  never  be  forgotten,  is  a  Divine  institution,  and 
combines  the  advantages  of  every  form  of  society  into  which  men  have 
been  gathered.  It  is  not  a  caste,  for  it  despises  none,  and  rejects  none; 
yet  like  caste,  it  preserves  amidst  human  change  a  sacred  order ;  all, 
kings  and  priests  unto  God.  It  is  not  a  secret  society,  for  it  makes  no 
reserve,  and  yet  its  members  have  a  hidden  life,  and  a  joy  with  which 
the  stranger  intermeddleth  not.  It  is  not  a  noAion,  for  it  selects  indi- 
viduals from  among  each  of  the  nations,  and  will  ultimately  include 
all;  yet  is  it  as  clearly  defined,  though  more  extensive.  It  is  not  a 
family,  and  yet  its  bonds  are  equally  tender,  only  they  are  incompa- 
rably more  expansive.  One  design  of  the  Gospel  was  to  reveal  Christ; 
another  design,  no  less  marked,  was  to  form  a  people  for  his  praise. 
Both  designs  illustrate  the  wisdom  and  love  of  God. 

(4.)  Mark,  as  the  Gospel  extends,  the  influences  that  oppose  it,  and 
the  excuses  framed  to  justify  opposition.  The  Jews  resisted  it  as  "con- 
trary to  their  law."  Among  the  Gentiles,  as  at  Thessalonica,  they 
affirmed  it  to  be  unfriendly  to  Csesar.  Elsewhere  they  charged  it  with 
turning  the  world  upside  down.  And  though  all  of  these  charges  were 
excuses  only,  they  had  in  some  measure  the  coloring  of  truth.  The 
real  reason  of  the  opposition — of  the  Jew,  was  that  the  Gospel  taught 
a  righteousness,  not  of  works,  but  of  faith,  E.om.  x.  3 :  1  Cor.  i.  21-25; 
— of  the  Greek,  that  it  pronounced  the  folly  of  much,  and  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  all,  his  boasted  wisdom  ; — of  the  Roman,  that  it  claimed  ex- 
clusive homage,  revealing  not  many  gods,  but  one;  and  of  all,  that  it 
required  humility  and  holiness. 

Tliese  influences,  alas,  differ  but  in  form  from  those  with  which  the 
Gospel  has  still  to  contend. 

In  the   Epistles,  as  in  our  own  day,  we  tracfi  them  at  work,  not 


644  CHRONOLOGY    OF   THE   ACTS. 

only  in  opposing  the  Gospel,  but  in  corrupting  and  perverting  it  (Pt. 
ii.,  chap,  vii.) 

Sec.  3. — The  Chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles, 
Arrangement  of  the  Whole. 

164.  The  chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  is  second  in  interest 

only  to  that  of  the  Gospels.  The  whole  period  included  in 
Chronolo;ry      ,        ,     ,     .       ,        ,   .i  •   ,      ,i  i        •         ■         ,  •  i 

of  the  Aeis     the  Acts  IS  about  thirty-three  years;  a  reckoning  m  which 

tie^'^^ptnod  Winer,  De  Wette,  Eichhorn,  Davidson  and    Birks  concur, 
included  in    Usher   and  Michaelis    make   it   thirty-two ;    Greswell  and 

Schott  thirty-one ;  and  a  few,  two,  or  even  four,  years  less. 
The  evidence,  however,  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the  highest  number ; 
though,  as  the  dates  depend  chiefly  on  facts  of  profane  history  and 
minute  coincidences,  to  which  different  weight  will  be  given  by  differ- 
ent inquirers,  certaintj''  can  scarcely  be  attained. 

From  Gal.  i.  18 ;  ii.  1 :  Acts  ix.  26,  we  gather  that  there  elapsed 
between  Paul's  conversion  and  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem,  a  period  of 
throe  full  years  (see  Greek),  and  that  in  the  fourteenth  year  (see  Greek), 
after  the  same  event  probably,  he  visited  it  a  third  time  (Acts  xv.  2); 
a  second  visit  being  paid  just  before  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  (xi. 
30 ;  xii.  23).  After  the  third  visit,  we  read  of  other  two  visits  (xviii. 
18,  22;  XX.  6).  In  the  interval,  he  had  spent  nearly  three  years  in 
Ephesus  (xx.  31),  a  year  and  a  half  at  Corinth  (xviii.  11),  three  months 
in  Greece  (xx.  3),  and  twice  he  had  gone  through  a  large  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  Alacedonia,  and  Greece.  After  the  fifth  visit  to  Jerusalem,  he 
was  imprisoned  two  years.  Felix  was  then  recalled,  and  Paul  was  sent 
to  Pvome,  where  he  lived  and  preached  two  whole  years  in  his  own 
hired  house,  "no  man  forbidding  him"  (xxviii.  30,  31). 

These  facts,  with  others  of  a  minute  and  apparently  trivial  kind,  fix 

the  dates  of  the  whole  narrative.  Herod  Agrippa  died,  as 
1     ^fixed      Josephus  states,  A.  D.  44.     Felix  lost  his  procui-atorship,  as 

may  be  gathered  from  the  narrative  of  Josephus,  in  A.  D. 

60.     Paul,  moreover,  must  have  reached  Rome  about  the  year  61 ;  for 

in  A.  D.  64  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  under  Nero,  began  (Tac. 

An.,  xiv.  65);  and  after  that  time  no  such  security  as  Luke  .speaks  of 

could  have  been  possible. 

165.  Reckoning  backward,  therefore,  from  A.  D.  61,  we 
Kc'bults.  ,       ■       1       ^  ,1        •  1, 

obtain  the  lollowing  results: 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   THE    ACTS. 


645 


A.  S.JA.  D. 
63    j    Gl 

60  I  58 


59      57 


56 


56 


52 


44 


38 

35 

33 
33 


53 


51 


44 


37 
34 


33 


OT 

K 

^ 

hA 

A.  I). 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

61 

01 

61 

58 

58 

58 

57 

57 

56 

53 


50 


44 


39 
36 


54 


50 


45 


43 

40 

39 
30 


54 


53 


a 

o 

eft 

■c 

ai 

§ 

« 

cq 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

01 

61 

58 

58 

« 

57 

57 

54 

55 

53 

54 

52 

52 

51 

50   1, 

I 

51      50 


5U 
45 


43      44 


45 
44 


42 

43 

41 

41 

40 

41 

40 

37 

38 

37 

37 

36 

30 

30 

Time 
of 

Year. 


Spring. 
Pent.... 


Januiiry... 


Mav.- 


Summer . 
Passover. 


Passover. 


Paul  reaches  Rome,  leaving  Syria  in 

60. 
Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  Acts  xxiv.  27, 

being  at  Philippi  at  the  Passover, 

XX.  6. 
Paul  spends  the  close  of  the  year  in 

Gh-eece,  xx.  3,  after  leaving  Ephe- 

SUS,  XX.  1. 

Paul  sj)ends  nearly  three  years  in 

EphL'sus  (two years,  three  months, 

or  more),  xix.  8,  10;  xx.  31. 
Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  xviii.  22. 
Paul  spends  a  year  and  a  half  at 

Corinth,  xviii.  11. 
Paul    mals.es    a     second    journey 

through  Asia  and  Greece. 
Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  xv.  2. 
Paul's  first  journey  to  the  Gentiles, 

xiii.  14. 
Paul  at  Antioch  and  at  Jerusalem, 

xi.  30;  xii. 
Paul  at  Antioch  a  year,  xi.  26. 
Paul  at  Tarsus. 
Paul  visits  Jerusalem  for  the  first 

time.  ix.  20:  Gal.  i.  18. 
Paul  converted.  Gal.  ii.  1.  See  above, 

A.  D.  50. 
Death  of  Stephen. 
The  Crucifixion. 


The  last  of  these  columns,  which  we  deem  on  the  whole  the  most 
satisfactory,  is  taken  from  the  Horae  Evangelica,  and  does  jtot  materi- 
ally differ  from  Davidson  and  the  author  of  the  Literary  History  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  two  principal  dates,  44  A.  D.  and  61,  are 
agreed  in  very  generally;  the  other  dates  are  dependent  on  the  gover- 
norship of  Aretas  (ix.  24,  25),  the  presence  of  Gallic  at  Corinth  (.xviii. 
12),  the  decree  of  Claudius  (xviii.  2),  and  other  similar  questions ;  the 
whole  too  minute  for  specific  inquiry  in  this  place.  The  evidence  may 
be  seen  briefly  stated  in  Davidson's  Introd.,  vol.  ii. ;  and  more  fully  in 
the  Literary  History  of  the  New  Test.,  chap.  vi. ;  or  in  Birks's  Horte 
Evan.,  p.  146.  The  general  results  are  given  in  the  dates  of  the  ap- 
pended tables. 

166.  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the  crucifixion  of  our 
Lord  (30  A.  D.)  to  the  close  of  the  canon  (97  A.  D.),  sixty-seven  years. 


646 


CHRONOLOGY    OF    ACTS    AND    EPISTLES. 


Year  of  Rome, 

of  Emperor, 

andA.D. 

30. 

V83-8. 

30-35? 

35-40. 

Caligula. 

40-43. 

4-7. 

43-46. 

Claufliu.s. 

46-54. 

10-14. 

Nero, 

55-60. 

1-6. 

814-16. 

60-63. 

Nero, 

61, 

6-9. 

Jerusalem 

62, 

Rome. 

63, 

Rome. 

63, 

Italy,  while 

waiting  for 

Timothy. 

63, 

Babylon. 

64. 


64, 
Syria. 
Rome. 


65. 

66. 
Rome. 


75? 
Syria. 

96, 
Patnios. 

97, 
Ephesus. 


Events. 


Introduction  to  the  Act.s,  i.  1-14. 

Events  till  the  appointment  of  deacons,  1. 1.5-vi.  6. 

Events  till  the  conversion  of  Cornelius,  vi.7-10. 
Events  till  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Antioch,  xi.  1-26. 
Events  till  the  end  of  first  missionary  journey,  xi.  27-xiv.  28. 
Events  till  the  end  of  second  missionary  joui-ney,x v.  1-xviii. 

22.    1  Tliess.  (A.  D.  62),  2  Thess.  (53),  Gal.  (53,  so  Tate,  etc.), 

written  durinji;  this  journey. 
Events  till  end  of  third  missionary  journey,  and  Paul's  appeal 

to  Caesar,  xviii.  23-xxvi.    1  Cor.  (57).  2  Cor.,  Gal.  (67,  so  Hug, 

etc.).  Rom.  (58).  written  during  tnis  journey. 
Paul's  voyage  to  Rome,  and  residence  there,  27,  28. 
James  writes  to  Jewish  Christians  generally,  i.-v. 

Paul  writes  his  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  i.-vi.  Shortly  after 
this  Epistle  was  written,  Timothy  and  Epaphroditus  arrive 
at  Rome;  the  latter  bringing  tidings  from  Colosse.  See 
Col.  i.  1-7. 

Paul  writes  to  the  Collossians.  i.-iv. 

Paul  writes  to  Phileinon  on  behalf  of  Onesimus.  who,  fleeing 
from  his  master  to  Rome,  had  been  converted,  Philem. 

Paul  writes  to  the  Philippians,  i.-iv. 

Paul  writes  his  key  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  i.-xiii.  Timothy  liberated,  Heb.  xiii.  Paul  visits 
Crete,  63,  and  leaving  Titus  there,  goes  to  Macedonia,  64. 

Peter  writes  his  first  Epistle  to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  scattered, 

and  persecuted.  1  Pet.  i.-v. 
Paul  writes  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus,  1  Tim.  i.-vi. 
Paid^  writes  to  Titus,  i.-iii 

Paul  winters  at  Nicopoh.s,  in  Dalmatia,  and  Troas. 
Jude  writes  his  Epistle  (see  below). 

Peter,  in  expectation  of  martyrdom,  writes  to  Jewish  and 
Gentile  converts  scattered  throughout  Pontus,  etc.  Mar- 
tyrdom of  Peter. 

Paul  arrives  at  Rome  a  prisoner,  and  is  brought  before  Nero, 
65. 

Paul  writes  second  Epistle  to  Timothy,  2  Tim.  i.-iii.  Mar- 
tyred at  Rome  (Usher.  67). 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem  (A.  D.  70). 

John  writes  his  first  Epistle,  i.-v.  (or  68  A.  D.) 

John  writes  his  second  Epistle  (or  68  A.  D.) 

Juhn  writes  his  third  Epistle  (or  68  A.  D.) 

Jude  writes  his  Epistle  (see  64  A.  D.,  and  Introd.  to  Jude). 

John  writes  the  Apocalypse  to  sujsply  the  place  of  a  succes- 
sion of  prophets,  1.-22. 

John  closes  the  canon  by  writing  his  Gonpel  (some  think,  bo- 
fore  his  Epistles). 


a  Those  who  question  Paul's  second  imprisonment,  and  suppo.se  him  put  to 
death  in  64  A.  D.,  place  1  Tim.  after  Acts  xix.  41  or  xx.  1,  and  Tit.  after  2  Cor.  See 
A.  D.  57. 


STUDY    OF    THE    EPISTLES.  647 


CHAPTER  VII. 

the  epistles  and  the  book  of  revelatioit. 

Sec.  1.  On  the  Study  of  the  Epistles. 

167.  In  the  first  fifteen  chapters  of  Acts  we  have  seen  the  Gospel 
extend  throughout  the  known  worhl.  In  five  and  twenty  years  after 
the  death  of  our  Lord,  churches  seem  to  have  been  formed  in  Asia  and 
Palestine,  in  Babylon  and  Egypt,  in  Greece  and  Italy;  "so  mightily 
grew  the  word  of  God  and  prevailed."  Wherever  the  truth  had  gone, 
it  had  found  the  same  opposition,  though  under  different 

forms,  and  had  produced  the  same  peaceful  and  sanctifying  E^gtles.^ 
results.  A  more  permanent  record  of  truth,  however,  than 
the  "  winged  words"  of  speech  could  supply  was  wanting.  The  spirit 
which  had  hitherto  opposed  the  Gospel  had  begun  to  pervert  it;  and 
evil  seducers  have  a  strong  tendency  to  wax  worse  and  worse.  To 
explain  in  writing,  therefore,  what  had  been  in  a  great  measure  taught 
orally,  to  preserve  these  lessons  in  "  everlasting  remembrance,"  and  to 
give  such  indirect  corrections  of  incipient  error  as  might,  if  prayerfully 
studied,  keep  the  church  from  subsequent  heresy,  is  the  aim  of  the 
Epistles. 

To  ascertain  their  meaning — 

168.  (1.)  Observe  by  whom,  and  for  whom,  they  were  written.    This 

rule  is  not  so  essential  in  the  case  of  history  or  epistles  as  q^  vvhom 

in  the  case  of  prophecy ;  for  the  former  are  generally  self-  a'jd  f"r 

.^     ^   .    ■;  '  ,    ,        .  whom,  they 

interpretative;  but  it  is  nevertheless  important.  werewrit- 

Of  the  one  and  twenty  Epistles,  thirteen  at  least  were  **'"■ 
written  by  Paul,  and  bear  his  name.  As  he  was  emphatically  the 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  he  treats  largely  of  the  mystery  of  their  call  to 
equal  privileges  with  the  believing  Jews.  He  maintains  their  freedom 
from  the  Mosaic  yoke,  urges  them  to  stand  fast  in  it,  and  proves  their 
subjection  to  the  great  law  of  faith  and  love.  In  defence  of  this 
doctrine,  he  resisted  Peter  to  the  face,  endured  the  ofl:ence  of  the  cross 
(Gal.  v.  11),  falling  at  last  a  martyr  to  his  attachment  to  this  and 
kindred  truths  (see  Introd.  to  2d  Ep.  to  Tim.)  His  sentences  are  often 
long  and  intricate.  His  style  is  full  of  thought,  prone  to  digression, 
but  highly  accurate,  well  guarded,  and  rich  in  allusion  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.    His  Epistles  should  be  illustratcMl  from  eaeili  otlier  and  from  his 


648  STUDY    OF    THE    EPISTLES. 

history.     In  the  Hebrews,  he  has  shown  most  impressively  how  of  the 
law,  as  elsewhere  of  law,  Christ  is  the  completion  and  end. 

Peter,  the  author  of  two  Epistles,  writes  chiefly  as  the  apostle  of 
the  circumcision.  His  writings  also  should  be  read  in  connection  with 
those  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  to  which,  in  almost  every  sentence, 
he  referred.  James,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  wrote  after  the 
fervor  of  its  first  love  had  begun  to  subside.  A  cold  negative  faith 
seemed  to  threaten  the  destrcution  of  all  spiritual  obedience.  Hence 
the  strain  of  his  Epistle.  Not  dissimilar  was  the  condition  of  the 
churches  John  addressed.  His  style  is  rich  in  aphorisms,  and  his 
strong  aiBrmations  need  to  be  guarded  by  other  parts  either  of  his  writ- 
ings or  by  Paul's.  Jude  wrote  but  one  Epistle,  and  that  resembles 
the  second  of  Peter,  by  which  it  may  be  illustrated.  The  Pv,evelation, 
again,  speaks  in  language  taken  very  largely  from  the  Old  Testament, 
and  needs  to  be  compared  with  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  discourses  of 
our  Lord. 

For  whom  was  each  book  written  ?  is  also  an  important  question. 
The  Gospels  were  intended  for  the  instruction  of  all  classes,  and  much 
of  what  they  contain  was  addressed  to  all.  The  Epistles,  it  must  be 
noted,  were  addressed  primarily  to  professing  Christians  exclusively, 
called  out  of  the  world  and  united  in  spiritual  communion.  Three  are 
addressed  to  private  disciples;  three  to  evangelists;  two,  Hebrews  and 
James,  to  Jewish  converts  exclusively ;  two  more,  1st  and  2d  Peter,  to 
Jewish  converts  chiefly ;  two  more,  1st  John  and  Jude,  to  the  disciples 
of  Christ  in  general ;  the  last  five  being  called  catholic  or  general 
Epistles ;  the  remaining  nine  are  addressed  to  various  churches,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  converted  Gentiles.  In  each  case,  the  author  and  the 
occasion  often  explain  or  illustrate  the  statements  of  an  Epistle ; 
though,  as  we  have  but  one  Gospel  for  Jew  and  Gentile,  the  help  thus 
afforded  is  in  this  respect  less  important  than  elsewhere. 

(2.)  Mark  the  special  design  of  each  Epistle. 

It  has  pleased  the  Divine  Spirit  to  instruct  mankind  not  in  formal 

treatises,  but  in  letters  written  under  his  guidance,  and  so 
TliG  de.si^^n 
of  each  °      as  to  meet  peculiar  emergencies;  and  to  the  emergency  of 

Epistle.  g^pi^  pjj^gg  esLch  Epistle  is  addressed.  Ascertain,  therefore, 
what  the  obvimcs  design  of  each  Epistle  is — the  obvious  design,  for  it  is 
an  abuse  of  learning  to  seek  for  some  hidden  dgsign,  and  then  to  inter- 
pret each  part  in  subordination  to  it  in  violation  of  the  natural  mean- 
ing. For  this  purpose,  the  plan  of  Mr.  Locke  is  deserving  of  all  praise. 
Read  through  an  Epistle  at  the  sitting,  and  observe  its  drift  and  aim. 
"  If  the  first  reading  (says  he)  gave  some  light,  the  second  gave  me 
more;   and  sn  I  persisted  on,  rending  constantly  thewholo  Epistle  over 


STUDY   OF   THE   EPISTLES.  649 

at  once,  till  I  came  to  have  a  good  general  view  of  the  '  writer's  pur- 
pose,' the  chief  branches  of  his  discourse,  the  arguments  he  used,  and 
the  disfiosition  of  the  whole.  This,  I  confess,  is  not  to  be  obtained  by 
one  or  two  hasty  readings ;  it  must  be  repeated  again  and  again,  with 
a  close  attention  to  the  tenor  of  the  discourse,  and  a  perfect  neglect  of 
the  divisions  into  chapters  and  verses.  The  safest  way  is  to  suppose 
in  the  Epistle  but  one  business  and  one  aim,  until,  by  frequent  peru- 
sal of  it,  you  are  forced  to  see  in  it  distinct  independent  matters 
which  will  forwardly  enough  show  themselves."  Let  this  plan  be 
adopted  by  any  humble  prayerful  Christian,  by  one,  that  is,  whose 
heart  is  on  the  whole  in  unison  with  the  writer's,  and  the  meaning  of 
the  whole  will  generally  appear.  In  the  meantime,  and  as  a  present 
blessing,  he  will  feel  and  appreciate  individual  promises  and  truths  to 
an  extent  unknown  before.  Scripture  is  in  fact  a  tree  of  life;  its 
matured  fruits  infinitely  precious,  and  its  very  leaves  for  the  healing 
of  the  nations 

To  aid  the  readers  in  ascertaining  the  design  of  the  Epistles,  we  have 
indicated  the  paragraphs  and  principal  sections  of  each.  In  paragraph 
Bibles,  the  reader  will  find  these  sections  indicated  in  the  mode  of 
printing.  In  tlie  absence  of  such  a  help,  an  ordinary  copy  of  the  Bible 
may  be  marked,  so  as  to  indicate  them  with  great  advantage. 

(3.)  Mark  the  prevailing;  errors  against  which  the  truths     , 

The  errors 
of  the  Gospel  are  specially  directed.  apainst 

The  first  of  these  errors  sprang  out  of  the  formalism  and  gj-edirecte^. 
superstitious  notions  of  the  Jews.  They  still  clung  to  their 
ritual  law,  and  concluded  that,  if  Gentiles  were  to  be  admitted  to 
equal  privileges,  it  must  be  through  circumcision.  "  EjfSept  ye  be  cir- 
cumised,"  was  their  statement,  "ye  cannot  be  saved,"  Acts  xv.  1.  Out 
of  this  question,  a  serious  controversy  arose  at  Antioch,  and  though  it 
was  decided,  under  the  special  direction  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  the 
negative,  it  sj^rang  up  again  and  again,  impeded  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel,  alienated  and  often  divided  the  church.  From  the  first,  Paul 
took  a  bold,  decisive  stand.  He  maintained  that,  A\diile  a  Jew  might, 
and  probably  ought,  to  submit  to  that  rite  so  long  as  the  ancient  law 
remained,  for  a  (ientile  to  submit  to  it  was  to  relinquish  his  liberty 
and  deny  both  the  universality  of  the  Gospel  and  the  suflicicncy  of  the 
Cross.  Througliout  his  preaching,  and  nearly  all  his  Epistles,  this 
view  is  maintained,  Acts  xv.  1-31 ;  xxi.  17-25:  2  Cor.  xi.  3  :  Gal.  ii.  4; 
iii.-v.;  vi.  12:  Col.  ii.  4,  8,  16:  Phil.  iii.  2:  Tit.  i.  10-14,  etc. 

While  the  Jndaizing  tendency  of  early  believers  did  mischief  in  one 
direction,  the  spirit  of  unhallowed  philosophy  did  mischief  in  another; 
proving  move  fatal  to  Christianity,  as  Burton  has  remarked,  than  per- 
55 


650  HERESIES   OF   THE   EARLY    CHURCH. 

secution  itself.  This  spirit  appeared  under  different  forms,  but  the 
essence  was  for  the  most  part  a  proud  rationalism,  that  refused  it  re- 
ceive as  true  any  doctrine  which  could  not  be  made  to  agree  with  a 
previous  system,  or  that  moulded  into  its  own  system  whatever  to  re- 
ceived. The  Greeks  sought  after  wisdom.  This  tendency  showed 
itself  early  in  the  various  Gnostic  (yv^<n;,  knowledge)  sects  which 
sprang  up  in  the  church ;  a  name  very  loosely  applied,  and  including 
the  advocates  of  very  different  views. 

One  sect  included  under  this  general  name  were  called,  also,  Docetas, 
or  the  Seemers  ;  as  they  could  not  comprehend  how  a  Divine  person 
(which  they  maintained  our  Lord  to  be)  could  unite  himself  with  that 
which  was  human.  They  contended  that  his  body  was  an  appearance 
only,  and  that  he  only  seemed  to  live  upon  earth.  This  heresy  denied 
both  his  brotherhood  with  our  race  and  the  reality  of  his  atonement; 
see  1  John,  Introd.,  and  iv.  23. 

Another  sect,  called  (from  Cerinthus,  their  founder)  Cerinthians, 
drew  from  the  same  principle  an  opposite  conclusion.  They  denied  the 
Divinity  of  Jesus,  and  supposed  that  the  Christ  was  an  emanation  of 
the  Godhead,  who  descended  on  the  man  Jesus  at  his  baptism,  and  so 
continued  with  him  till  his  death,  when  the  Christ  left  him  and  as- 
cended to  heaven,  1  John  ii.  22;  iv.  15:  Gospel  of  John. 

In  later  times,  and  after  the  canon  of  Scripture  was  closed,  these 
tendencies  took  even  a  more  decided  form.  The  school  of  Alexandria, 
applying  the  doctrines  of  Plato  to  the  Gospel,  broached  the  crudest 
notions  on  the  Divine  nature,  on  Christ,  and  on  man.  Later  still,  the 
schoolmen  applied  to  the  teachings  of  Scripture  the  logic  of  Aristotle, 
and  claimed  for  their  deductions  (see  Pt.  i.  §  463-5),  the  same  authority 
as  was  claimed  for  the  express  statements  of  the  Bible.  All  these 
attempts  spring  from  the  same  principle — that  our  reason  is  the  mea- 
sure of  religious  truth,  and  led  to  the  same  results,  the  corruption  of 
truth  and  the  division  of  the  church.  To  us,  they  teach  the  wisdom 
of  bringing  up  our  faith  to  the  level  of  God's  revelation  and  the  folly 
of  bringing  down  his  revelation  to  the  level  of  our  understanding. 
The  world,  by  wisdom,  knows  not  God. 

The  third  error  prevailed  among  all  sects,  Jewish  and  Gentile — the 
formalist  and  the  philosophic.  It  assumed  various  phases,  though 
representing  but  one  principle.  Ritualism  without  spirituality,  know- 
ledge {gliosis)  without  practice,  justification  by  faith  without  holiness. 
This  was  the  creed  which  the  apostles  rebuke,  and  was  received  in 
their  day  with  favor  by  the  Jews.  Many  of  the  Gnostics  held  it,  and 
in  the  persons  of  the  Nicolaitanes  it  called  forth  the  severe  condemna- 
tion of  the  latest  of  the  apostles.     It  is,  in  fact,  the  principle  of  licea- 


STUDY    01^   THE   EPISTLES.  661 

tious  religionism  in  every  age,  and  several  portions  of  the  Epistles  are 
directed  against  it.  The  followers  of  Balaam  (equivalent  to  Nicolai- 
tanes),  mentioned  by  Peter  and  Jude,  were  of  the  same  class. 

The  names  of  these  sects  (except  the  last)  are  not  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, but  their  principles  are.  And  herein  is  a  double  advantage.  We 
are  taught  not  to  restrict  the  teaching  of  inspired  men  to  their  own 
times,  and  we  are  supplied  with  letters  in  which  not  sects,  but  princi- 
ples— self-righteous  formalism,  rationalistic  pride,  and  practical  immo- 
rality— are  forever  condemned.  A  knowledge  of  these  sects,  however, 
illustrates  human  nature,  proves  our  need  of  a  revelation,  and  of  hu- 
mility in  studying  it,  and  gives  clearness  and  force  to  the  teaching  of 
the  Bible. 

What  a  proof  of  human  depravity  is  the  history  of  Divine  truth  in 
the  world.  God's  first  revelation  ended  in  the  wicked  imaginations 
that  preceded  the  deluge ;  his  second,  in  the  idolatry  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  and  again,  in  the  formalism  and  overthrow  of  the  nation;  his 
third  met  with  the  bitterest  opposition  at  the  outset,  and  ever  since  the 
world  has  sought,  under  various  influences,  to  corrupt  what  it  cannot 
otherwise  subdue. 

4.  The  most  important  rule  remains.     Carefully  compare  the  various 

parts  of  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  the  Epistles,  and  „ 

^  .  r  )  Comparison 

gather  from  the  whole  a  consistent  and  comprehensive  view  of  New  Tes- 

both  of  truth  and  duty.  the'greatest 

The  necessity  of  such  a  comparison  in  the  case  of  the  New  importance. 
Testamfnt  will  appear  on  comparing  it  as  a  composition  with  the  law. 
The  whole  of  the  first  dispensation  was  revealed  through  one  person — 
Moses,  and  to  one  congregation  assembled  to  receive  it.  The  New  Tes- 
tament was  composed  by  eight  different  authors,  and  was  addressed  to 
many  congregations  and  individuals  scattered  over  the  earth.  The  law 
was  written  in  the  plainest  style,  with  systematic  fullness,  was  adapted 
to  the  weakest  capacity,  and  required  submission  only  to  such  com- 
mands as  were  expressly  enjoined.  The  New  Testament,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  composed  of  detached  instructions,  many  of  them  given  inci- 
dentally and  indirectly,  nearly  all  addressed  to  those  who  were  already 
called  out  of  the  world,  and  had  witnessed  the  ordinances  or  believed 
the  truths  they  were  directed  to  maintain  Obedience,  moreover,  is 
required  to  whatever  was  taught  by  word  and  example,  as  well  as  by 
Epistles;-^  and  the  whole,  though  sufiiciently  plain  that  all  may  under- 
stand and  be  saved,  is  so  rich  and  profound  as  to  afford  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  the  holiest  spiritual  discernment. 

*  1  Cor.  iv.  16,  17;  xi.  2:  Gal.  i.  6-9:  Phil.  iv.  9. 


bOJ  TRUTHS    DISCUSSED    IN    THE   EPISTLES. 

We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  to  make  the  New  Testament  our 
standard  of  faith  and  practice,  it  must  be  compared  and  studied  with 
the  utmost  attention.  The  facts  of  our  Lord's  life,  the  practical  influ- 
ence of  them  on  the  early  church,  and  the  inspired  comments  of  apos- 
tles, must  all  be  examined ;  the  principles  and  duties  they  involve,  ex- 
plained ;  and  the  whole  cordially  believed  and  practised,  in  preference 
to  all  the  suggestions  and  inventions  of  man. 

169.  The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  truths  discussed  in 
the  Epistles.  The  passages  in  which  they  are  most  fully  discussed  may 
be  found  at  the  close  of  the  introductions  to  the  Epistles  named.  These 
passages  must  be  carefully  compared,  and  particular  phrases  in  them, 
with  similar  phrases  elsewhere,  such  as  may  be  found  in  any  Bible  with 
marginal  references. 

Man's  need  of  salvation,  Rom.    Justification  by  faith,  liom. 

The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience.  Ro7n. 

The  fruits  of  faith  in  Chriistian  character,  Heb. 

The  fruits  of  faith  through  the  Gospel,  1  Pet. 

The  fruits  of  justification  and  its  consequent  blessings,  Rom. 

Man's  connection  with  Christ,  and  man's  connection  with  Adam, ifofft. 

The  source  of  redemption,  JJorrt.;  and  the  peculiar  grace  bestowed  therein  on 

the  Gentiles,  Eph. 
The  relation  of  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews,  Rom.  (see  Heb.) 

Morality,  its  true  nature  and  vast  importance,  Rom. 

Morality,  evangelic  motives  to,  Rom.;  peculiar  motives  justly  binding  on  the 
•Jew,  Heb.;  and  on  heathen  converts,  Eph. 

Principal  duties  of  Christians  to  God,  Rom.,  Eph. ;  to  themselves,  Rom.;  to  rela- 
tives. Cor.;  to  fellow-men,  Rom.;  to  civil  government,  Titus;  and  to  fellow- 
believer.s  Cor. 

Holiness  essential  to  true  religion,  1  John.  Eminent  holiness  its  appropriate 
fruit  and  best  security,  2  Pet. 

The  spiritual  warfare,  Eph. 

Persecution,  its  comforts  and  lessons,  Phil.  Apostasy,  its  danger  and  sign.?, 
Heb.,  2  Pet. 

Apostolic  character  and  authority.  Cor.    False  teachers,  their  character  and 

end,  Cor. 
Christian  ministers,  their  character,  qnalilications,  and  duties,  Ti7n. 
Christian  ministers,  duties  of  tlie  church  to  them,  Tim. 
Deacons,  etc.,  tlieir  character  and  duties,  Tim. 

The  church,  its  member.?,  discipline,  divisions,  ordinances.  Cor. 

The  church,  its  members,  their  duties,  their  gifts,  the  excellence  of  love.  Cor. 

Christ's  dignity,  essential  and  mediatorial,  Heb.    Christ's  incarnation  and  its 

end,  Heb.  • 

The  superiority  of  his  office,  as  prophet,  leader,  and  priest,  Heb. 
The  superiority  of  his  sacrifice,  Heb. 


GENUINENESS   OF   THE   EPISTLES. 


653 


The  signifieanoy  and  inferiority  of  the  ancient  economy,  Heb. 
Our  .spiritual  liberty  in  relation  to  it,  Heb. 

The  corruption  of  Christianity  and  prevalence  of  infidelity  in  "the  last  time," 
Tim.    How  met,  Tim. 

The  resurrection  of  the  body,  Cw.    The  second  coming  of  the  Lord,  2  Tliess. 
The  judgment  and  its  issues — eternal  life,  eternal  death,  2  Pet. 

Sec.  2. — The  Genuineness  of  the  Epistles. 

170.  The  general  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles  has 
been  already  given.  So  far  as  particular  Epistles  are  concerned,  the 
evidence  may  be  given  in  a  brief  tabular  form.  For  an  explanation, 
see  chap,  v.,  ^  137. 


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1st  Corinthians 
2d  Corinthians 

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Ei)liesians 

Pliilippians 

Colossians 

1st  The.ss 

2d  Thess 

1st  Timothy.... 

2d  Timothy 

Titus 

Philemon 

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2d  Peter 

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Revelation 

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Sec.  3. — Helps  to  1st  Teessalonians,  etc.,  to  Jude. 


the    first    epistle   of  PAUL    THE  APOSTLE   TO    THE   THESSA- 
LONIANS,  CORINTH,  A.  D.  52. 

171.  Thessalonica  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  of  Mace- 
donia, and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  governor.     Its  position  on  the  great 
55* 


654  FIRST   EPISTLE   TO   THESSALONIANS, 

Egnatian  road,  and  at  the  head  of  an  excellent  harbor,  augmented  ita 
trade  and  wealth,  and  brought  to  it  a  mixed  population  of  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, and  Jews.  It  is  still,  as  it  has  ever  been,  a  flourishing  commer- 
cial town,  bearing  the  slightly  varied  name  of  Salonihi.  Its  geogra- 
phical position  and  maritime  importance  fitted  it  to  become  one  of  the 
starting  points  of  the  Gospel  in  Europe,  and  explain  the  fact  that 
from  this  city  the  word  of  the  Lord  had  sounded  forth  "in  every  place" 
(i.  8). 

The  Gospel  was  first  preached  here  by  Paul  and  Silas,  shortly  after 
their  release  from  imprisonment  at  Philippi,  Acts  xvii.  1-10.  Paul  ad- 
dressed himself  first,  agreeably  to  his  constant  practice,  to  the  Jews, 
and  afterwards,  with  still  more  success,  to  the  Gentiles.  What  time  ha 
spent  here  does  not  distinctly  appear;  but  it  was  evidently  more  than 
the  three  weeks  during  which  he  reasoned  with  the  Jews  in  the  syna- 
gogue on  the  Sabbaths.  Compare  Acts  xvii.  4,  5 :  1  Thes.  ii.  9 :  2  Thes. 
iii.  8:  and  Phil.  iv.  16. 

The  church  which  he  formed  during  this  period  was  composed 
partly  of  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes,  many  of  whom  were  women 
of  rank  and  influence  (Acts  xvii.  4),  but  chiefly  of  converts  from  idol- 
atry (i.  9). 

Being  driven  away  by  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  Paul  left  the  newly- 
planted  church  in  such  difiiculties  as  excited  his  anxiety  respecting 
them,  and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  from  Athens  to  encourage  and  com- 
fort them  under  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were  exposed  (iii.  1,  2). 
Timothy  returned  to  Paul  at  Corinth  (whither  the  latter  had  gone  in 
the  mean  time),  and  brought  him  so  good  an  account  of  the  steadfast- 
ness of  the  Thessalonian  Christians  as  filled  him  with  joy  and  grati- 
tude (iii.  6-9),  and  reawakened  his  desire  to  visit  them.  But,  having 
been  repeatedly  disappointed  in  his  plans  for  that  purpose  (ii.  17,  18), 
ne  wrote  this  letter  from  Corinth,  A.  D.  52. 

This  being  the  earliest  of  Paul's  Epistles,  was  accompanied  by  a 
solemn  charge  that  it  should  be  read  publicly  in  the  church  (v.  27). 

i.  In  the  first  portion  of  this  Epistle  (i.-iii),  the  apostle  expresses  hia 
gratitude  and  joy  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Thessalonians 
had  received  the  Gospel,  and  for  their  fidelity  and  constancy  in  the 
midst  of  persecutions  and  aiSictions;  vindicates  the  conduct  of  himself 
and  his  fellow-laborers  in  preaching  the  Gospel ;  and  declares  his  afi'ec- 
tionate  concern  for  their  welfare. 

ii.  The  remainder  of  the  Epistle  is  taken  up  with  practical  admoni- 
tions ;  warning  them  against  the  sin  for  which  their  city  was  notorious; 
and  exhorting  them  to  the  cultivation  of  all  Christian  virtues,  and  par- 
ticularly to  a  watchful,  sober,  and  holy  life,  becoming  their  happy 


SECOND    EPISTLE    TO    THE    THESSALONIANS.  655 

*  condition  and  exalted  hopes  (iv.  1-12;  v.)  Special  words  of  consola- 
tion are  addressed  to  those  who  had  been  bereaved,  who  seem  to  have 
imagined  that  their  departed  friends  would  lose  some  important  advan- 
tages, which  those  would  enjoy  who  should  survive  to  the  Lord's  com- 
ing (which  they  expected  speedily),  and  who  had  therefore  indulged  in 
excessive  grief  on  their  account.  Speaking  by  express  Divine  authority, 
he  assures  them  of  the  resurrection  of  the  pious  dead  on  Christ's  com- 
ing, to  be  followed  by  a  glorious  transformation  of  the  living ;  and 
exhorts  them  to  take  the  comfort  of  this  glorious  hope,  iv.  13-18. 

Connect  and  read  i.  1,  2;  ii.  1,  13,  17;  iii.  1,  6,  11 ;  iv.  1,  9,  13;  v. 
1,  4,  12,  14,  15,  16,  19,  23,  25,  27,  28. 

Note. — The  bold  type  used  here  and  subsequently  indicate  principal 
divisions;  the  others,  smaller  ones.  .The  former  may  be  regarded  as 
marking  the  beginning  of  new  subjects. 

THE   SECOND    EPISTLE    OF   PAUL    TO    THE    THESSALONIANS, 
CORINTH,    A.    D.    53. 

172.  This  Epistle  was  probably  written,  like  the  former,  from  Corinth, 
and  not  long  afterwards  (early  in  A.  D.  53);  Silas  and  Timothy  being 
still  in  Paul's  company  (i.  1).  Its  chief  object  appears  to  have  been 
to  correct  an  erroneous  notion  which  had  begun  to  prevail  among  the 
Cliristians  at  Thessalonica,  that  the  appearance  of  the  Saviour  and  the 
end  of  the  world  were  at  hand.  This  had  been  grounded  in  part  upon 
a  misconstruction  of  expressions  in  the  former  Epistle,  and  appears  to 
have  been  supported  by  some  who  laid  claim  to  inspiration.  There 
were  also  persons  who,  on  religious  pretences,  neglected  their  secular 
employments,  and  were  guilty  of  disorderly  conduct. 

The  commencement  and  conclusion  of  the  Epistle  are  occupied  with 
affectionate  commendations,  mingled  with  encouragements  to  perseve- 
rance, exhortations  to  holiness,  and  directions  for  the  maintenance  of 
discipline  with  regard  to  idle  and  disorderly  members,  i.;  ii.  13-17;  iii. 
In  chap.  ii.  1-12,  Paul  exposes  the  error  of  anticipating  the  near  ap- 
proach of  the  day  of  the  Lord.  Reminding  the  Thessalonian  Christians 
of  what  he  had  said  when  he  was  with  them,  he  tells  them  that  he  had 
spoken  rather  of  the  unexpectedness  of  the  event  than  of  its  nearness, 
and  that  it  must  be  preceded  by  a  great  apostasy,  and  by  the  temporary 
ascendency  of  the  "man  of  sin,"  the  spiritual  usurper  (which,  however, 
could  not  take  place  until  certain  obstacles  were  removed)  establishing 
a  system  of  error  and  delusion  by  which  many  would  be  carried  away. 

The  agreement  between  the  little  horn  of  Daniel's  prophecy  and  the 


656  MAN    OF   SIN — EPISTLE   TO   GALATIANS. 

man  of  sin  in  this  Epistle  is  very  striking.  In  Daniel,  he  does  not  rise  ' 
till  the  Roman  empire  is  broken  ;  in  Paul,  he  is  not  revealed  till  that 
empire — that  which  hindereth  (ii.  7) — is  taken  out  of  the  way.  In 
Daniel,  heweareth  out  the  saints;  in  Paul,  he  opposeth,  or  persecuteth. 
In  Daniel,  he  magnifieth  himself  above  every  god;  in  Paul,  he  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  God.  In  Daniel,  he  changes  times  and 
law.s ;  in  Paul,  he  is  the  lawless  (ver.  8,  Greek)  one.  In  Daniel,  hecauseth 
craft,  through  his  policy,  to  prosper ;  and  in  Paul,  he  comes  with  lying  won- 
ders and  all  deceivableness,  which  many  will  believe,  Dan.  viii.  25; 
xi.  36.  How  remarkable  the  connection  of  prophecy!  six  hundred 
•years  before,  Daniel  foretold  the  rise  of  this  power ;  Paul  adds  a  few 
touches;   and  by  John  its  history  is  to  be  more  fully  revealed. 

This  prediction  deserves  grateiul  attention  on  another  ground.  It 
tells  us  that,  while  the  coming  of  our  Lord  was  then  near,  it  was  also 
remote:  many  events  were  to  intervene;  and  with  all  the  light  of  pro- 
phecy it  must  ever  be,  as  to  the  precise  time,  unknown.  Comparing 
this  passage  with  others,  the  servants  of  Christ  are  taught  to  contem- 
plate the  revolution  of  many  succeeding  centuries,  without  being  stum- 
bled hj  the  delay  of  his  appearance  or  discouraged  by  the  prevalence 
of  wi  kedness  and  delusion  under  the  profession  of  his  name.  1  Tim. 
iv.  1-3:  2  Tim.  iii.  1-8:  2  Pet.  ii. ;   Pv,ev.  xi.-xiii. ;  xvii. ;  xxii. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows:  i.  1,  3,  11;  ii.  1,  5,  13,  15,  16;  iii.  1, 
6,  16,  17,  18. 

THE   EPISTLE    OF    PAUL    THE    APOSTLE   TO    THE    GALATIANS, 
EPHESUS    OR   CORINTH,  A.  D.  53    OR   57. 

173.  Galatia  was  a  large  province  in  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  Gauls,  who  conquered  the  country  and  set- 
tled in  it,  about  280  B.  C:  it  was  also  called  Gallo-Grascia,  on  account 
of  the  Greek  colonists  who  afterwards  became  intermingled  with  them. 
About  189  B.  C.  it  fell  under  the  power  of  Rome:  and  became  a  Roman 
province,  26  B.  C.  The  inhabitants  were  but  partially  civilized,  and 
their  system  of  idolatry  was  extremely  gross  and  debasing. 

Paul  and  Silas  travelled  through  this  region  about  A.  D.  51,  and 
formed  churches  in  it,  which  Paul  visited  again  in  his  second  journey, 
three  years  afterwards.  This  Epistle  was  probably  written  soon  after 
his  first  visit:  see  Acts  xvi.  6;  xviii.  23:  Gal.  i.  6,  8 ;  iv.  13,  19. 

It  appears  that,  after  having  received  the  Gospel  with  great  joy  and 
readiness  from  the  apostle's  lips,  many  of  these  converts,  amongst 
whom  were  not  a  few  Jews  and  proselytes,  had  been  perverted  by  some 
Judaizin;^  teachers,  who  had  taught  them  that  the  observance  of  the 


EPISTLE    TU    GALATIANS.  657 

ceremonial  requirements  of  the  law  of  Moses  was  essential  to  salvation. 
This  party  seems,  also,  to  have  questioned  Paul's  authority;  insinua- 
ting that  he  was  inferior  to  Peter  and  the  other  apostles  at  Jerusalem, 
from  whom  ihey  professed  to  have  derived  their  views  and  authority. 
To  settle  these  important  matters,  in  which  the  apostle  evidently  con- 
sidered that  the  very  life  and  soul  of  Christianity  were  at  stake,  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  with  his  own  hand  (vi.  11),  contrary  to  his  usual 
practice  of  dictating  his  letters.     It  may  be  divided  into  three  parts. 

i.  After  his  usual  salutation,  Paul  asserts  his  full  and  independent 
authority  as  an  apostle  of  Christ:  he  relates  the  history  of  his  conversion 
and  introduction  into  the  ministry;  showing  that  he  had  received  his 
knowledge  of  Christian  truth,  not  by  any  human  teaching,  but  by 
immediate  revelation ;  and  that  the  other  apostles  had  recognised  his 
Divine  commission,  and  treated  him  as  their  equal  (i.,ii.) 

ii.  In  support  of  his  doctrine,  that  men  are  accepted  of  God  by  faith 
alone,  and  not  by  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  law,  he  appeals  to 
the  experience  of  the  Galatians  since  their  conversion  to  Christianity, 
and  to  the  case  of  Abraham,  who  had  been  justified  and  saved  by  faith, 
and  shows  that  the  design  of  the  law  was  not  to  supersede  the  Divine 
covenant  of  promise  previously  made  with  Abraham,  but  to  prepare 
the  way,  and  to  exhibit  the  necessity  for  the  Gospel  (iii.)  He  draws 
a  contrast  between  the  state  of  pupilage  and  the  subjection  of  the 
people  of  God  under  the  law,  and  their  happier  condition  under  the 
Gospel,  when,  by  the  redemption  of  the  Son  of  God,  they  were  put 
into  possession  of  the  privileges  and  blessings  of  sonship:  and  address- 
ing that  portion  of  the  Galatians  who  had  been  heathen,  he  reminds 
them  that,  having  been  rescued  from  the  far  more  degrading  bondage 
of  idolatry,  it  was  especially  deplorable  that  they  should  fall  back  into 
the  slavery  of  superstition  (iv.  1-11).  He  tenderly  appeals  to  them  as 
his  spiritual  children,  reminding  them  of  their  former  attachment  to 
him  :  and  then,  addressing  those  who  relied  upon  the  law  and  the  letter 
of  the  Old  Testament,  shows  them  that  the  history  of  Abraham's  two 
sons  afforded  an  emphatic  illustration  of  the  relative  position  and  spirit 
of  the  two  contending  parties  ;  and  of  the  rejection  of  the  one,  and  the 
blessedness  of  the  other  (iv.  11-31). 

iii.  He  exhorts  the  believers  to  stand  firm  in  their  Christian  liberty, 
but  not  to  abuse  it;  shows  them  that  holiness  of  heart  and  life  is 
secured  under  the  Gospel  by  the  authority  of  Christ  and  the  grace  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  (v.);  and  enjoins  upon  them  mutual  forbearance,  ten- 
derness, love,  and  liberality;  and,  after  again  condemning  the  doctrine 
of  the  false  teachers,  closes  his  Epistle  with  a  declaration  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  sum  of  the  whole  (vi.) 


658  FIEST    EPISTLE    TO    CORINTHIANS. 

This  Epistle  resembles  both  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  and  that 
addressed  to  the  Romans.  Like  the  first,  it  defends  Paul's  apostolic 
authority,  and  shows  that  he  was  taught  immediately  by  Christ.  Like 
the  last,  it  treats  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  from  which  the  Gala- 
tians,  very  soon  after  Paul  left  them,  and  greatly  to  his  surprise,  liad 
been  seduced  by  false  teachers,  who  insisted  on  submission  to  the  Mosaic 
law  as  essential  to  salvation,  and  probably  insinuated  that  elsewhere 
Paul  himself  had  urged  the  same  doctrine.  Mark  the  sharpness  and 
tenderness  of  his  rebuke  (iii.  1 ;  iv.  19);  the  place  assigned  to  holiness, 
not  as  the  ground,  but  as  the  fruit  of  salvation,  and  inseparable  from 
it  (v.  6,  22).  Mark  also  how  little  we  can  depend  on  ardor  of  religious 
feeling  as  proof  of  the  strength  of  religious  principle  (iv.  15,  20). 

It  is  interesting  to  remark  that  the  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was 
addressed  were  Gauls  (whose  name  in  Greek  is  Galatians),  both  in  name 
and  character.^'  They  manifest  all  the  susceptibility  of  impression  and 
fondness  for  change  which  authors  from  Csesar  to  Thierry  have  ascribed 
to  that  race.  They  received  the  apostle  as  an  angel,  and  would  have 
plucked  out  their  eyes  and  given  them  to  him,  but  were  "  soon  removed" 
by  false  teachers  "to  another  Gospel,"  and  then,  under  the  influence  of 
the  same  ardor,  began  to  "bite  and  devour  one  another"  (iv.  14,  15; 
V.  15). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  i.  1,  6,  11 ;  ii.  15;  iii.  1,  6,  10,  15,  19, 
24;  iv.  1,  8,  12,  17,  21;  v."  1,  7,  13,  16,  19,  22;  vi.  1,  2,  6,  11,  17,  18. 

THE    FIRST   EPISTLE   OF    PAUL    THE   APOSTLE   TO    THE   CORIN- 
THIANS, EPHESUS,  A.  D.  57. 

174.  Corinth  was  a  large  city,  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Acliaia,  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece.  Its  situation  on  the  narrow 
isthmus  between  Peloponnesus  (now  called  the  Morea)  and  northern 
Greece,  gave  it  the  command  of  the  land  traffic  from  north  to  south ; 
whilst,  by  its  two  ports  on  the  Ionian  and  JEge&n  Seas,  it  received,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  rich  merchandise  of  Asia,  and,  on  the  other,  that  of 
I  taly  and  the  West.  Possessing  these  advantages,  Corinth  became  a 
place  of  very  extensive  commerce.  It  was  also  distinguished  for  its 
sumptuous  public  edifices,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts, 

»  See  Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  Paul,  i.  261. 

*>  On  the  maintenance  of  spiritual  liberty,  against  those  who  taught 
that  ritual  observance  was  essential  to  salvation,  and  those  who  taught 
that  "will  worship"  was  acceptable  obedience,  see  iii.  5,  6:  Rom.  vii. 
1-6  ;  Col.  ii.  16-23. 


FIRST    EPISTLE    TO    CORINTHIANS.  659 

and  of  polite  learning.  The  Isthmian  games,  also  (probably  alluded 
to  in  chap.  ix.  24-27),  which  were  held  near  the  city,  had  attained  great 
celebrity,  and  attracted  a  vast  concourse  of  strangers  fi-om  all  parts. 
From  these  causes,  Corinth  became  remarkable  for  wealth  and  luxury ; 
and  equally  so  for  profligacy  and  licentiousness,  which  were  greatly 
fostered  by  the  worship  of  Venus  established  there ;  so  that  it  became 
ultimately  the  most  corrupt  and  effeminate  city  in  Greece. 

The  first  entrance  of  the  Christian  religion  into  this  stronghold  of 
vice  is  related  in  Acts,  chap,  xviii.  Paul  was  then  on  his  way  from 
Macedonia  to  Jerusalem.  After  passing  some  time  at  Athens,  he  came 
to  Corinth  ;  and  was  there  joined  by  Silas  and  Timothy.  He  preached 
the  Gospel  in  that  city,  first  to  the  Jews ;  but,  wlien  they  "  opposed 
themselves  and  blasphemed,"  he  renounced  all  fellowship  with  them, 
and  turned  to  the  Greeks.  Some,  however,  of  the  principal  Jews  be- 
lieved. His  fears  and  discouragements,  while  engaged  in  this  work 
(see  chap.  ii.  3;  Acts  xviii.  9,  10),  were  met  by  a  special  revelation, 
assuring  him  of  the  Lord's  presence  with  him,  and  of  his  purpose  to 
collect  a  church  there.  Paul  continued  his  labors  at  Corinth  more  than 
a  year  and  a  half;  and  they  were  afterwards  followed  up  by  the  teach- 
ing of  Apollos,  Acts  xviii.  27,  28.  Thus  a  numerous  and  flourishing 
church  was  formed ;  teachers  were  set  over  them ;  and  the  ordinances 
of  Christ  were  regularly  observed. 

It  appears,  however,  that,  ere  long,  their  peace  was  disturbed  by  cer- 
tain individauls,  who  sought  to  ingraft  on  the  doctrines  of  Christ  the 
refinements  of  human  philosophy.  The  factious  teachers  attempted  to 
depreciate  the  apostle,  representing  him  as  deficient  in  the  graces  of 
style  and  the  arts  of  oratory,  and  even  calling  in  question  his  apostolic 
authority  :  they  also  pleaded  for  a  licentious  manner  of  life,  under 
pretence  of  Christian  liberty.  Hence  arose  divisions  and  irregularities ; 
and  the  church  was  fast  declining  from  its  original  faith,  purity,  and 
love. 

This  Epistle  seems  to  have  been  written  from  Ephesus,  after  Paul 
had  made  one  visit  to  Corinth,  and  when  he  was  about  to  make  another : 
see  chaps,  ii,  1;  iv.  19;  xvi.  5.  We  learn  from  Acts  xviii.  1,  and 
XX.  1-3,  that  Paul  visited  Achaia,  and  doubtless  Corinth,  twice ;  and 
that,  on  the  second  occasion,  he  went  thither  from  Ephesus,  after 
having  spent  two  years  in  that  city.  That  this  Epistle  was  written 
during  that  period  is  further  confirmed  by  various  incidental  refer- 
ences. See  chaps,  xv.  32 :  xvi.  8 ;  and  chap.  xvi.  9,  compared  with 
Acts  xix.  20-41 :  also  the  salutation  from  the  churches  of  Asia  in 
chap,  xvi  19  (see  Part  i.  sec.  398);  and,  further,  the  salutation  from 
Priscilla  and  Aquila,  who  were  at  Ephesus  at  the  time,  Acts  xviii.  26. 


G60  FIRST    EPISTLE   TO    CORINTHIANS. 

The  object  of  this  Epistle  seems  to  have  been,  partly,  to  reply  to 
one  which  Paul  had  received  from  the  church,  requesting  his  advice 
and  instruction  on  some  points  (see  chap.  vii.  1) ;  and,  partly,  to  cor- 
rect some  disorders  prevailing  among  them,  of  which  he  had  heard 
from  some  of  their  members  (i.  11 ;  v.  1 ;  xi.  18),  which  had  occasioned 
him  deep  concern,  and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  to  Corinth  (iv.  17). 

The  evils  which  Paul  sought  to  correct  among  the  Corinthians 
related  to  the  following  subjects: — ■ 

Party -divuions  (i.  10-16  ;  iii.  4-6).  A  fondness  for  philosophy  and 
eloquence  (i.  17,  etc.)  Notorious  immorality  was  tolerated  amongst 
them  (5).  Lmu- suits  were  carried  on  by  one  against  another  before 
heathen  judges,  contrary  to  the  rules  of  Christian  wisdom  and  love, 
and  sometimes  even  to  the  principles  of  justice  (vi.  1-8).  Licentious 
indulgence  (vi.  9-20).  In  their  religious  assemblies,  the  female  mem- 
bers of  the  church,  in  the  exercise  of  their  spiritual  gifts,  had  mani- 
fested an  unfeminine  deportment,  laying  aside  the  veil,  the  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  their  sex  (xi.  3-10).  The  Lord's  Supper  had  been  per- 
verted by  the  manner  in  which  it  was  celebrated  (xi.  20-34):  some 
having  made  it  an  occasion  of  jovialty,  and  a  source  of  humiliation  to 
their  poorer  brethren,  ver.  20,  21.  Miraculous  gifts,  especially  the 
gijt  of  tongues,  had  been  misused  (14).  And  the  momentous  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  had  been  denied  or  questioned  (xv.  12). 

The  matters  upon  which  the  Corinthians  had  requested  Paul's  in- 
structions are,  1.  Marriage,  and  the  duties  in  regard  to  it  in  their 
circum-stances  (vii.) ;  2.  the  effect  which  their  conversion  to  Christianity 
produced  upon  a  prior  state  of  circumcision  or  of  slavery^  (vii.  17-24) ; 
and  3.  their  duty  with  reference  to  eating  things  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols  (viii.)  They  had,  probably,  also  addressed  some  questions  to 
him  respecting  the  employment  of  spiritual  gifts,  and  the  order  to  be 
observed  in  their  religious  assemblies. 

In  no  Epistle  does  Paul's  own  character  appear  more  illustrious  than 
in  this.  The  assertion  of  his  apostolic  authority  is  beautifully  blended 
with  humility  and  godly  jealousy  of  himself  (ii.  3  ;  ix. ;  xvi.  27).  Means 
he  diligently  employs,  yet  is  profoundly  dependent  (iii.  6,  9 ;  xv.  10). 
Fidelity  he  combines  with  tbe  utmost  tenderness  (iii.  2;  vi.  12  ;  iv.  14) ; 
and  with  the  noblest  gifts,  he  prefers  love  to  them  all  (xiii.  1).  Herein 
lie  is  a  pattern  not  only  to  ministers,  but  to  private  Christians  of  every 

age. 

For  those  who  profess  to  have  no  sympathy  with  superstition,  and 
little  respect  for  authority,  these  Epistles  are  peculiarly  instructive. 
Tlipy  combine,  in  the  most  striking  way,  the  utterances  of  a  liberal, 


SECOND    EPISTLE    TO    CORINTHIANS.  6G1 

manly  spirit  with  doctrines  the  most  humbling.  They  cherish  the 
lottiBst  hopes  for  man,  and  for  truth,  and  they  tell  us  how  alone  these 
hopes  may  be  fulfilled. 

In  other  respects,  moreover,  these  Epistles  are  of  great  interest.  In 
their  contents  they  are  the  most  diversified  of  all  the  apostle's  writings ; 
and  more  than  any  other  they  throw  light  on  the  state  of  the  early 
church,  and  on  the  evil  tendencies  with  which  the  Gospel  had  to  strug- 
gle, even  among  good  men. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  i.  1,  4,  10,  13,  17,  26  ;  ii.  1 ;  iii.  1,  10, 
16,  18;  iv.  1,  6,  8,  14;  V.  1,  9;  vi.  1,  9,  12;-vii.  1,  17,  25,  29;  viii. 
1;  ix.  1,  24;  xi.  14,  23;-xi.  2,  17,  23,  27;  xii.  1,  31;  xiii.  1,  13; 
xiv.  1,  34,  36;-xv.  1,  12-20,  35,  51  ;-xvi.  1,5,  10,  12,  13,  15,  17,  19, 
21,  23. 

THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    OP   PAUL    THE    APOSTLE    TO    THE   COR- 
INTHIANS,   MACEDONIA,    A.    D.    57. 

175.  Not  very  long  after  writing  the  former  Epistle,  Paul  left  Ephe- 
sus,  and  went  to  Troas.  Here  he  expected  to  meet  Titus  (whom  he 
had  sent  to  Corinth) ;  and  to  receive  from  him  intelligence  of  the  state 
of  the  church,  and  of  the  effects  of  his  former  Epistle  (ii.  12).  But, 
not  finding  him  there,  he  crossed  over  to  Macedonia,  where  his  anxiety 
was  relieved  by  the  arrival  and  report  of  Titus.  From  him  Paul 
learned  that  his  faithful  reproofs  had  awakened  in  the  minds  of  the 
Corinthian  Christians  a  godly  sorrow,  and  a  practical  regard  for  the 
proper  discipline  of  the  church.  But,  with  these  pleasing  symptoms, 
there  were  others  of  a  painful  kind.  The  faction  connected  with  the 
false  teachers  was  still  depreciating  his  apostolic  authority,  and  mis- 
representing his  motives  and  conduct ;  even  using  his  former  letter  to 
bring  new  charges  against  him,  as  having  failed  to  keep  his  promise 
of  coming  to  see  them,  and  having  adopted  an  authoritative  style  of 
writing,  little  in  unison,  as  they  alleged,  with  the  conteniptibleness  of 
his  person  and  speech. 

Under  the  strong  and  mingled  emotions  caused  by  this  intelligence, 
the  ap)0stle  wrote  this  second  Epistle;  in  which  the  language  of  com- 
mendation and  love  is  blended  with  that  of  censure,  and  even  of 
threatening ;  and  sent  it  by  Titus  and  others,  intending  speedily  to 
follow  them,  as  it  appears  that  he  did.  It  was  designed  to  carry  for- 
ward the  work  of  reformation,  to  establish  still  further  his  authority 
against  the  objections  and  pretensions  of  false  teachers,  and  to  prepare 
the  Coiiiitliiaiis  for  his  intended  visit,  wben  he  desired  to  find  their 
56 


662  SECOND   EPISTLE    TO    CORINTHIANS — CONTENTS. 

disorders  rectified,  and  tlieir  promised  contributions  for  their  afflicted 
brethren  ready  (viii.  18  ;  ix.  3,  5 ;  x.  2,  11;  xiii.  1,  2,  10). 

Although  this  and  the  preceding  Epistle  are  full  of  references  to  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  Corinthian  church,  they  are  not  the  less 
important  or  instructive  on  that  account.  For  they  contain  directions 
and  admonitions  suited  to  many  of  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  life 
which  could  not  have  been  so  advantageously  introduced  in  a  more 
general  discourse  on  the  great  doctrines  and  duties  of  Cliristianity.  Prin- 
ciples and  rules  are  laid  down  which  are  of  general  application,  espe- 
cially in  opposing  dissensions  and  other  evils  arising  in  the  church, 
and  in  promoting  the  important  duty  of  Christian  liberty. 

The  principal  contents  of  this  Epistle  are  as  follows : — 

i.  The  apostle,  after  expressing  his  gratitude  for  the  Divine  consola- 
tion granted  to  him  under  his  sufferings  for  Christ,  states  the  reasons 
of  his  delay  in  visiting  Corinth :  and  refers  to  the  case  of  the  guilty 
person  upon  whom  discipline  had  been  exercised ;  whom,  being  peni- 
tent, he  exhorts  them  to  restore  to  their  communion  (i.  12  :-ii.  13). 

ii.  He  alludes  to  his  labors  in  the  service  of  the  Gospel  and  their 
success,  and  to  his  own  personal  relation  to  the  Corinthians ;  and  is 
thereby  led  to  speak  of  the  differences  between  the  ministry  under  the 
Old  Covenant  and  under  the  New  ;  showing  the  superior  glory  of  the 
latter  (3).  He  describes  the  principles  and  motives  by  which  he  and 
his  brethren  were  actuated  in  fulfilling  their  ministry  in  the  midst  of 
great  trials  and  afflictions;  and  exhorts  the  Corinthians  not  to  frustrate 
the  great  objects  of  the  Gospel  by  the  neglect  of  Christian  discipline 
and  purity  (iv.  :-7). 

iii.  Then,  resuming  a  subject  referred  to  in  his  former  Epistle,  with 
persuasive  earnestness  he  recommends  to  them  the  collection  for  the 
poor  among  the  saints  at  Jerusalem ;  and  shows  the  manifold  advan- 
tages of  such  services  (viii.:  9). 

iv.  He  vindicates  his  apostolic  authority  against  the  insinuations  of 
false  teachers ;  and  (though  with  evident  reluctance)  contrasts  his  own 
gifts,  labors,  and  sufferings,  with  the  character  and  conduct  of  those 
pretenders  who  opposed  him  (x. ;  xi.) :  he  refers,  in  proof  of  the 
Divine  a^iproval,  to  some  extraordinary  visions  and  revelations  with 
which  he  had  been  favored  (xii.  1-11):  shows  the  openness,  sincerity, 
and  disinterestedness  of  his  whole  conduct:  and  after  a  few  affection- 
ate admonitions  to  self-examination,  and  to  love  and  holiness,  closes 
the  Epistle  with  prayer  and  benediction,  (xii.  11-21;  xiii.) 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  i.  1,  3,  8,  12,  15,  23;  ii.  5,  12,  14;  iii. 
1,  4,  12;  iv.  1,  3,  7,  12;  V.  5,  11,  16,  20;  vi.  1,  11,  14;  vii.  1,  2,  5,  11, 


CORINTHIANS — THE   CHURCH.  663 

13;  viii.  1,  16;  ix.  1,  6;  X.  1,  7,  12;  xi.  1,  5,  13,  16;  xii.  1,  14,  19; 
xiii.  1,  5,11,  14. 

176.  (i.)  Not  the  least  instructive  part  of  these  Epistles  is  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  motives  and  spirit  of  the  apostles.     In    . 
1   Cor.,  Paul  shows   that  not  man  but  Christ  alone  is  the  authority 
centre  of  union  to  the  church,  tliat  ministers  are  but  fellow-  '^"j/^  c  larac- 
laborers  employed  and  endowed  by  God,  to  whom  all  their 
success  is  owing.     They  are,  therefore,  neither  to  be  overrated  nor  de- 
spised.    The  true  minister  of  Christ  maybe  known  by  his  patience,  his 
self  denial,  his  holiness,  and  the  spirit  in  which  he  exalts  his  Lord, 

1  Cor.  i.  10  ;-iv.  21 :  2  Cor.  iv.  ;-7 :  1  Thess.  ii.  1-12 ;  iii. ;  2  Tim. 
Elsewhere,  however,  he  insists  largely  on  the  dignity  and  authority  of 
his  office,  2  Cor.  x.-xii. :  Gal.  i. ;  ii. :  1  Cor.  xv.  9,  10:  Eph.  iii.  8.  In 
the  whole  of  these  passages  the  object  seems  three-fold ;  to  confirm 
and  prove  his  doctrine,  and  to  refute  false  teachers,  2  Cor.  xi.  3 :  to 
exhibit  to  Christians  and  to  Christian  ministers  an  eminent  example, 
Phil.  iii.  1  ;-iv.  9 :  Heb.  xiii.  .  7-14 ;  and,  above  all,  to  illustrate  the 
power  of  Divine  grace,  2  Cor.  xii.  9:  Gal.  i.  24:  1  Tim.  i.  16.  The 
whole  supplies  also  important  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel.' 

(ii.)  The  character  of  false  teachers,  against  whom  the  church  of 

Christ  is  often  warned,  may  be  gathered  from  many  passages. 

c  Ti-  1-+1  ffi-  ffi,  Chnractor 

Some  were  Judaizers,  denying  the  sumciency  ot  the  cross      of  false 

and  the  liberty  of  the  church;  some  philosophizing  teachers,       ^^°  ®^^" 

corrupting  the  simplicity  of  the  truth  ;  and  others,  "  dogs,"  turning  the 

grace  of  God  into  licentiousness,  1  Cor.  i.  10-iv.:  2  Cor.  xi.:  Gal.  i.  1-12; 

iv.  9-20;  V.  7-15:  Col.  ii.  16-23:  Acts  xv.  13-31  :-2  Thess.  ii.  1-12: 

2  Pet.  iii.:  Jude  4-19:  1  Tim.  vi.  20:  2  Tim.  ii.  16:  1  John  ii.  18-24; 
iv. 1-6:   2  and  3  John. 

(iii.)  The  church  is  many  and  one,  1  Cor.  xi.  16;  xiv.  33:  Gal.  i.  22: 
1  Thess.  ii.  14 :  Acts'  xvi.  5  :  1  Cor.  xii.  21-27 :  Eph.  iv.  3-5 ; 
V.  25-32:  Col.  i.  18-24:  Gal.  iii.  28:  Matt.  xvi.  28  :— chosen  ^"'^'^""'°"- 
(Eph.  i.  4:  1  Pet.  v.  13):  loved  (Eph.  v.  25:  Rev.  i.  5):— redeemed  by 
Christ  (Heb.  ix.  12:  1  Pet.  i.  18,  19),  and  subject  to  him  (Rom.  vii.  4: 
Eph  V.  24).  Christ  is  its  Foundation  and  Head  (Eph.  ii.  20 :  1  Pet.  ii. 
4,  6 :  Eph.  i.  22  ;  v.  23  :  Col.  i.  18).  The  church  is  his  body  and  bride 
(Eph.  1.  23:  Col.  i.  24:   Rev.  xxi.  9;  xxii.  7). 

« 

'  It  illustrates  both  the  humility  of  the  apostles  and  the  priesthood 
of  the  whole  ehurch,  to  notice  how  they  ask  the  prayers  of  their  con- 
verts, 2  Cor.  i.  11:  Rom.  xv.  30:  Ejih.  vi.  19:  Col.  iv.  3,  4;  1  Thess. 
V.  25 :  2  Thess.  iii.  1. 


664  CORINTHIANS — CHRISTIAN    DUTIES. 

(iv.)  For  the  general  character  of  its  members,  see  the  descriptions 

given    at   the  beginning  of   each   Epistle,  and  especially 

Itsrnembers.   ^  ^^^_    ...    g_^^^    ^   fjor.  vi.  14-17:    1    Thess.  i.  2-10;    ii.  13, 

14;  iii.  6;  iv.  9,  10:  Eph.  ii.  13-22:  Phil.  i.  7:  Col.  i.  3-8:  1  John. 
The  whole  and  each  member  ought  to  be  the  image  of  Christ,  2  Cor. 
iii.  18:  Rom.  viii.  14,  29:  Eph.  i.  4,  5;  iv.  23,  24:  1  Pet.  iv.  1;  and 
the  temple  of  the  Spirit,  1  Cor.  iii.  16,  17 :  2  Cor.  vi.  16:  1  Tim.  iii.  15: 
1  John  iii.  24;  iv.  12,  15:  John  xiv.  23:  xvii.  21-23. 

(v.)  On  the  duties  which  Christians  owe  one  to  another  Scripture  is 

beautifullv  explicit.     The  justice  and  benevolence  which  as 
Their  dii-  J        i  ■' 

ties,  motives  men  they  owe  to  their  fellows  (see  Piomans,  Pt.  ii.  §  179), 
arid  spirit.  ^-^^^^  ^^^  ^-^^^  ^^  their  brethren,  but  to  them  they  owe  other 
duties  besides,  and  all  are  enforced  by  motives  peculiar  to  Christians, 
being  taken,  in  fact,  from  their  mutual  relation  to  one  another  through 
the  love  and  grace  of  their  Lord,  1  Cor.  xvi.  13-16:  2  Cor.  xiii.  11: 
Eom.  xii.  3-10:  Gal.  vi.  2:  Eph.  iv.  1-16:  Col.  iii.  12-15:  Phil.  ii. 
1-16:  1  Thess.  iv.  9;  v.  11-21:  1  Pot.  i.  22;  iv.  8-11;  v.  1-7:  2  Tim. 
ii.  22:  James  ii.  1-18:  Heb.  x.  25;  xiii.  7,  17:  1  John  iii.  13-24;  iv.  7, 
11,  21;  V.  16,  17. 

(vi.)  Relative  duties  of  Christians.     In  relation  to  marriage,  1  Cor. 
vii.:  Gal.  iii.  28:  Eph.  v.  22,  23:  Col.  iii.  16-19:   1  Pet.  iii. 

Relative  ^-7 :  Heb.  xiii.  4 :  Tit.  ii.  4,  5.  On  the  true  dignity  and  be. 
duties.  . 

coming  behavior  of   Christian  women,   previous   passages, 

and  1  Cor.  xi.  1-16;  xiv.  34,  35:  1  Tim.  ii.  9-15.  As  parents,  Eph. 
vi.  4:  Col.  iii.  21:  1  Tim.  v.  8;  iii.  4,  5:  Tit.  ii.  4:  2  John.  As  chil- 
dren, Eph.  vi.  1,  2:  Col.  iii.  20:  Ileb.  xii.  9:  1  Tim.  v.  1 :  1  Pet.  v.  5 
(see  Job  xxxii.  6,  7).  As  masters,  Eph.  vi.  9 :  Col.  iv.  1 :  Philem.  16 : 
James  v.  4.  As  servants,  1  Cor.  iv.  2 ;  vii.  22 :  Gal.  iii.  28 :  Eph.  vi. 
5,  6:  Col.  iii.  22,  23:  1  Tim.  vi.  1,  2:  Tit.  ii.  9,  10:  Philem.  11:  Luke 
xii.  41-43 ;  xvi.  10-12.  As  men,  see  Rom.  Examples :  Parents,  Gen. 
xviii.  19;  xiii.  4:  2  Tim.  i.  5.  Children,  Ruth  i.  14:  Esth.  ii.  20:  2 
Tim.  iii.  15.  Masters,  Gen.  xvii.  23:  Josh.  xxiv.  15:  2Sam.  vi.  20: 
Acts  X  2.     Servants,  2  Kings  v.  2 :  Acts  x.  7. 

(vii.)  Liberality;  its  motives,  and  measure,  1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2:  2  Cor. 
viii.  9:  Rom.  xii.  13;  xv.  26,  27:  1  Tim.  vi.  17-19:  1  John  iii.  17-19: 
James  i.  27  ;  ii.  8  :  Heb.  vi.  6:  in  receiving  fellow-Christians,  Rom.  xii. 
13:  Heb.  xiii.  1,  2:.  1  Tim.  v.  10:  Tit.  i.  7,  8:  3  John. 

Hence  it  appears  that  though,  at  first,  the  members  of  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  "sold  their  possessions  and  had  all  things  in  common,"  this 
was  not  intended  as  the  rule;  though  all  are  enjoined  to  give  as  the 
Lord  has  prospered  them. 


CORINTHIANS — VARIOUS   TRUTHS.  665 

t 

(viii.)  That  the  love  and  comfort  which  this  relation  involves  may 

be  secure,  the  church  of  Christ  must  be  kept  free  from  im- 

.  IT]  T3   u    1  X  Its  discipline, 

purity  and   disorder.      Kebui^e,    encouragement,   censure, 

exclusion,  restoration — all  are  to  be  exercised  for  the  good  of  the  body. 

1  Cor.  v.:  2  Cor.  vi.  14-18  ;  iii.  17;  x.  8  ;  xiii.  10:  Gal.  vi.  1:  2  Thess. 

iii.  6-15:  1  Tim.  v.,  vi. :  2  Tim.  iii.  1-5;  iv.  2:  Tit.  i.  10-iii.  10:  Jnde 

22:  Rev.  ii.  14-16,  20-23. 

(ix.)  The  sin  and  cure  of  divisions,  1  Cor.  i.  10;  iv.  21:  2  Cor.  xi.: 
Rom.  xvi.  17,  18:   1  Tim.  i.  3-7;    vi.  3-5,  20.  Tit.  iii.  9-15: 
lleb.  xiii.  8,  9.     See  on  Christian  forbearance.  SvfsioM! 

(x.)  The  duty  of  Christian  forbearance  in  relation  to  mat- 
ters on  which  there  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  among  good  men, 
1  Cor.  viii.-x:  Rom.  xiv.  1-xv.  7:  Matt,  xviii.  10:  Phil.  ii.  1-7 :  James 
iv.  11,  12:  Acts  XV.  8,  9;  xi.  17:  1  Pet.  iii.  8. 

(xi.)  The  right  use  of  miraculous  gifts,  as  prophecy,  etc.,  is  largely 
explained  in  these  Epistles.     These  gifts  were  intended  to 
confirm  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  promote  its  rapid  dissemi-    and  other 
nation,  and  were  essential  to  prove  a  new  revelation.    Noio,    ^'"*'' 
we  are  referred  for  evidence  and  for  spiritual  knowledge  to  the  Scrip- 
tures.    Outward  instruction,  personal  experience,  careful  study,  and  a 
spirit  of  devout  dependence  on  God's  teaching,  in  his  word,  occupy  the 
place  of  miraculous  endowments.     2  Tim.  ii.  1 ;  iii.  3,  15,  16 :  2  Thess. 
ii.  15 :  2  Pet.  i.  15-21 ;  iii.  1-4,  14-17 :  James  i.  5.     In  these  passages, 
however,  we  learn  that  the  church  of  Christ  ought  to  be  edified  by  the 
willing  and  combined  service,  according  to  their  gifts,  of  all  its  mem- 
bers.    1  Cor.  xii.  14:  Rom.  xii.  4-8:  Gal.  iii.  1-5:  Eph.  iv.  7-13:  Heb. 
ii.  1-4. 

(xii.)  Mark  the  nature  and  superlative  excellence  of  Chris- 
tian love.     1  Cor  xiii. :  Col.  iii.  12,  14  :  Gal.  v.  vi. :  1  Tim.       ^Z?^xo^e. 
i.  5:  1  John  iii.  10-24. 

(xiii.)  Mark  the  importance  and  consolation  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  how  it  is  insured  by  the  res- 
urrection of  our  Lord.     1  Cor.  xv.:  Rom.  viii.  11,  19-25:    2?,I.lJnH^; 
1  Thess.  iv.  13-17:  Rev.  xx.  11-13:  John  v.  21,  28. 

(xiv.)  Mark,  also,  with    what   ardor    and    devotedness   the    Lord's 

Supper  is  to  be  observed,  and  mark  that  it  is  not  sacrificial,     ,-,      , 
i  I  '  '     On  nnserv- 

but    only   commemorative.      1    Cor.  xi.  17-34;    x.  15-18:     nnct^  of 
Matt.  xxvi.  26-30  :  Acts  ii.  42-47  ;  xx.  7.  Supper. 

•56* 


666  EPISTLE   TO   ROMANS. 


THE   EPISTLE    OF   PAUL    THE    APOSTLE    TO    THE   ROMANS, 
CORINTH,  A.  L.  58. 

177.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  addressed  to  the  Christians  resi- 
ding in  the  metropolis  of  that  great  empire,  whose  dominion  then  ex- 
tended over  almost  the  whole  known  world. 

The  way  had  been  prepared  by  Divine  Providence  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Gospel  into  Eome,  by  the  extensive  settlement  of  Jews 
there.  That  the  establishment  of  the  Jewish  worship  at  Rome  had 
produced  considerable  effect  on  the  general  community,  is  clear  from 
the  statements  of  heathen  writers.  Ovid  speaks  of  the  synagogues  as 
places  of  general  resort:  and,  still  later,  Juvenal  ridicules  his  country- 
men for  becoming  Jews. 

At  what  time,  or  by  whom,  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  in  the  im- 
perial city,  is  unknown.  That  it  was  at  an  early  period  may  be  inferred 
from  the  circumstance  that,  when  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle,  the  faith  of 
the  Roman  Christians  "was  spoken  of  throughout  the  whole  world," 
chap.  i.  8.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  those  "strangers  of  Rome,  Jews 
and  proselytes,"  who  were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  great  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10),  carried  back  to  that  city  the  knowledge  of  the 
Gospel.  And  it  is  not  improbable,  also,  considering  the  constant  inter- 
course between  Rome  and  the  provinces,  that  some  of  the  numerous 
converts  to  Christianity  in  Judsea,  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  might  soon 
have  found  their  way  to  the  capital.  That  some  of  the  persons  con- 
cerned in  the  establishment  of  the  church  of  Rome  (two  of  whom  Paul 
mentions  as  having  been  converted  earlier  than  himself),  were  Paul's 
particular  friends,  with  whom  he  had  met  while  preaching  in  Asia  and 
in  Greece,  is  evident  from  the  form  of  the  salutations  in  chap.  xvi.  3-16. 

The  traditions  of  some  of  the  ancient  fathers,  that  Peter  was  the 
founder  of  the  church  at  Rome,  appears  plainly  inconsistent  with  the 
evidence  derived  from  this  Epistle,  as  well  as  from  the  book  of  the  Acts, 
which  shows  him  to  have  been  at  Jerusalem  at  the  very  time  when  he 
is  alleged  to  have  been  at  Rome,  In  this  whole  Epistle  there  is  no 
mention  of  Peter  as  ever  having  been  at  Rome.  Now,  if  Peter  had 
not  only  been  there,  but  had  actually  founded  the  church,  and  had 
presided  over  it,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  Paul  could  have  failed 
to  advert  to  that  fact.  And,  further,  had  Peter  been  at  Rome  when 
Paul  wrote  this  Epistle,  he  would  certainly  luive  been  included  in  the 
particular  enumeration  of  persons  to  whom  salutations  are  seat,  in 
chap.  xvi. 

The  date  of  this  Epistle  is  very  precisely  fixed  by  the  following  facts. 


EPISTLE   TO   ROMANS.  667 

Paul  had  not  yet  been  to  Rome,  (i.  11,  13.  15).  He  was  intending  to 
visit  it,  after  first  visiting  Jerusalem  (xv.  23-28),  and  that  was  his  pur- 
pose during  his  three  months'  residence  at  Corinth,  Acts  xix.  21.  He 
was  about  to  carry  a  collection  from  Macedonia  and  Achaia  to  Jeru- 
salem (xv.  26,  31):  and  this  he  did  carry  from  Corinth  to  Jerusalem  at 
the  close  of  his  visit,  Acts  xxiv.  17.  When  he  wrote  the  Epistle,  Tim- 
othy, Sosipater,  Gaius  and  Erastus  were  with  him  (xvi.  21,  23).  Gaius 
was  his  host,  and  resided  at  Corinth,  i.  Cor.  i.  13.  Erastus  was  himself 
a  Corinthian,  and  had  been  sent,  shortly  before,  from  Ephesus,  with  Tim- 
othy, on  their  way  through  Corinth  to  Macedonia,  Acts  xix.  22:  1  Cor. 
xvi.  10,  11 ;  and  the  first  three  are  expressly  mentioned  in  Acts  (xx.  4)  as 
being  with  Paul  at  Corinth.  .Phcebe,  moreover,  the  bearer  of  the  Epistle, 
was  a  member  of  the  church  at  the  Corinthian  port  of  Cenchrea  (xvi.  1). 
As  Paul,  therefore,  was  preparing  to  visit  Jerusalem,  one  of  his  con- 
verts was  also  departing  from  Corinth,  in  an  opposite  direction,  for 
Eome,  and  by  her  this  Epistle  was  taken  to  that  city.  Its  date  is  thus 
fixed,  A.  D.  58. 

The  character  of  the  Roman  church  may  be  gathered  from  the  Epistle 
itself.  It  contained  several  converts  from  Judaism  (iii.  4,  14,  etc.);  but 
the  majority  were  clearly  of  Gentile  origin  (i.  13;  xv.  14,  15).  To  all 
it  was  important  that  they  should  have  a  full  and  inspired  exhibition 
of  Divine  truth  ;  and  this  is  given.  The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
had  been  employed  to  justify  immoral  practices  (iii.  8),  and,  moreover, 
dissensions  had  sprung  up  between  Jewish  converts  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians (xi.  17,  18;  xiv).  The  Jewish  believer  was  unwilling  to  regard 
his  uncircumcised  Gentile  brother  as  his  equal  in  Christ's  kingdom  (iii. 
9;  XV.  7-11);  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  more  enlightened  Gentile 
convert  was  inclined  to  treat  the  lingering  scruples  of  the  Jew  with 
contempt  (xiv.  3).  Here,  therefore,  the  doctrine  of  justification  is  shown 
to  produce  holiness.  To  the  Jewish  Christian,  truth  and  its  claims  are 
revealed ;  to  the  Gentile  Christian,  love  and  its  claims ;  and  both  are 
taught  that  faith  in  Christ  and  subjection  to  him  are  the  only  condi- 
tions of  a  place  in  the  church  and  of  an  interest  in  the  covenant.  In 
the  whole  of  this  discussion  principles  are  laid  down  of  the  greatest 
value  to  the  church  in  every  age. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  as  follows  (see  ^  171,  note). 

i.  1,  8,  13,  16,  18,  24;  ii.  1,  17,  25;  iii.  1,  5,  9,  21,  27,29,31;  iv.  1, 
6,  9,  10,  13,  18,  23;  V.  1,  3,  6,  11,  12;  vi.  1,  12,  15;  vii.  1,  7,  13;  viii. 
1,  12,  18,  26,  28,  31;  ix.  1,  6,  10,  14,  19,  30;  x.  1,  14,  18;  xi.  1,  7,  11, 
16,  22,  25,  33 ;  xii.  1,  3,  6,  9,  14 ;  xiii.  1,  11 ;  xiv.  1,  13 ;  xv.  1,  5,  8,  14; 
xvi.  1,  17,  21,  25. 

178.  As  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  treats  of  the  doctrine  which  has 


668  ROMANS — OUTLINE. 

been  regarded  as  the  teet  of  a  true  church,  and  is,  moreover,  the  most 
full  and  systematic  of  all  the  apostle's  writings,  we  append  an  analysis 
of  the  whole,  showing  the  course  of  argument  and  illustration.  The 
significance  of  particular  passages  depends,  in  a  great  degree,  as  will 
be  readily  seen,  on  their  connection  and  tendency. 

(l.)    INTRODUCTION    (l.    1-17). 

(1.)  The  salutation  (i.  1-7). 

(2.)  Introduction,  and  Paul's  estimate  of  the  Gospel  (8-17). 

(ll.)    DOCTRINAL   EXPOSITION    (l.    18-XI.    36). 

(a.)  Sinftdness  of  the  human  race. 
(1.)  Condition  of  the  heathen, —  . 

In  relation  to  God  (i.  18-23). 
In  relation  to  human  duty  (24-32). 
(2.)  Condition  of  the  Jews, — 

Mere  knowledge  will  not  save  (ii.  1-11). 
It  even  aggravates  guilt  (12-29). 
(3.)  Comparison  of  Jews  and  Gentiles, — 

Value  of  Old  Testament  dispensation  not  lowered  (iii.  1-8). 
Both  guilty,  and  needing  salvation  (9-20). 
(b.)  The  Gospel-plan  of  salvation  explained,  in  itself,  and  in  its 
results. 
(1.)  This  plan  explained,  a  revelation  of  Divine  justice  and  mercy 
excludes — 

All  boasting  (iii.  21,  26-28),  and— 
Saves  all  on  the  same  terms  (29-31). 
(2.)  Holy  men  of  old  justified  by  faith, — 

Illustrated,  Abraham  (iv.  1-5):  David  (6-8). 
Circumcision  the  sign  (9-12),  and  the  theocracy  (13-17)  the 
result  of  the  covenant :  the  result,  therefore,  of  justification, 
rather  than  subservient  to  it. 
(3.)  Abraham's  faith  described.     Its  results  (iv.  18-25). 
(4.)  The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience,  in  imparting  peace, 
joy  and  hope  (v.  1-11). 

(5.)  The  excellence  of  faith  shown  by  a  comparison  between  Adam, 
the  head  of  the  fallen  race,  and  Christ,  the  author  of  spiritual  life,  to 
all  who  are  united  to  him  (v.  12-21). 

(c.)  This  way  of  salvation  (;t"f"'>  i''"'*/6»'i/v»()  favorable  to  holiness. 
(See  iii.  8). 


ROMANS — OUTLINE.  669 

(1.)  We  cannot  go  on  in  sin  that  grace  may  abound ;  for  we  are  one 

■with  Christ  our  Head,  in  his  baptism,  death  and  life  (vi.  1-14) ;  verses 

12-14  illustrating  the  idea  that  Christ  is  our  King,  as  well  as  Head. 

(2.)  Nor  can  we  go  on  in  sin,  because  under  grace,  and  not  under  law. 

For  the  servants  of  another  are  bound  to  obey  their  master, 

and,  moreover — 
Men  are  increasingly  swayed  by  that  authority  which  they 
heartily  acknowledge.     It  becomes  a  yoke,  which,  however, 
if  it  be   righteousness,  is  free,  and   has   a  glorious  issue 
(vi.  15-23). 
(3.)  He  illustrates  the  same  truth  as  in  vi.  2,  by  an  example  founded 
on  law  (vii.  1-7). 

Hence  a  twofold  objection: 
(4.)  Either  the  law  is  sin — 

No ;  for  it  reveals  sin,  and   impresses   it  on   the  conscience 
(vii.  7-12) : 
(5.)  Or  being  itself  good,  it  has  become  death  (vii.  13-25). 

No;  for  we  ("our  inne'r  man")  admit  it  to  be  spiritual,  even 
when  not  obeying  it;  a  fact  admitted  by  the  awakened  and 
regenerate. 
Both  facts  meet  the  objection,  and  show  our  need  of  a  new  system. 
(d.)  The  law  having  failed  to  justify  and  sanctify,  he  repeats 
and  expands  the  truth,  that  Christ  for  us,  and  Christ  in  us, 
is  our  justification  and  holiness.    • 
(1.)  Christians  justified  in  Christ  and  sanctified  in  him,  through  the 
Spirit;  which  sanctification  will  be  complete  (viii.  1-11). 
(2.)  Christian's  duty  and  privilege  (viii.  12-17). 
(3.)  The  connection  between  the  perfection  of  creation,  and  that  of 
the  children  of  God  (viii.  18-25). 

(4.)  Other  blessings  (viii.  26,  27,  28-30,  31-39). 

(c.)  As  chap.  i.  18  ;-ili.  20,  the  apostle  has  explained  the  relation 
of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  law,  so  in  chap.  ix.  1  ;-xi.  36,  he 
explains  the  relation  of  both  to  the  Gospel. 
That  salvation  is  by  Christ,  and  for  all  that  believe,  is  the  conclu- 
sion to  which  the  apostle  has  come;  but  if  so,  the  great  majority  of 
the  Jews  perish,  and  the  Gentiles  have  taken  their  place  :  a  result  ap- 
parently severe,  and  to  the  Jew  particularly  startling.     The  apostle 
meets  this  feeling. 

(1.)  He  afiirms,  that  he  is  himself  greatly  distressed  at  their  state  of 
rejection  (ix.  1-6). 


670  ROMANS — OUTLINE. 

(2.)  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  the  promise  is  unfulfilled,  or 
that  this  difference  of  treatment  is  without  precedent;  for — 

The  promise  did  not  extend  to  all  the  children  of  Abraham,  but  only 
to  the  descendants  of  Sarah ;  nor  to  all  her  descendants,  but  only  to 
Jacob  (7-13),  the  ground  of  the  difference  being,  not  the  actual  merit 
of  the  persons,  but  the  election  of  God. 

Least  of  all  does  it  follow  that  God  is  unjust,  for  all  mercy  on  God's 
part  is  evidence  of  kindness,  and  is  altogether  undeserved. 

That  God  has  a  right  to  make  distinctions  in  his  dealings,  and  does 
make  them,  is  further  shown  in  the  case  of  Pharaoh  (14-18). 

(3.)  But  does  not  this  idea  of  purpose  on  God's  part,  free  us  from 
blame?  To  which  the  apostle  replies  by  affirming,  first,  that  God  has 
a  right  to  do  as  he  will ;  suggesting,  that  in  the  exercise  of  that  right, 
there  can  be  no  wrong;  and  secondly,  that  in  exercising  that  will, 
both  the  justice  and  the  mercy  of  God  will  be  the  more  illustriously 
revealed  (19-24),  saving  all  on  the  same  conditions,  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  (24). 

(4.)  Both  this  call  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  salvation  of  a  remnant 
only  of  the  Jews,  are  foretold,  or  have  their  precedents  in  the  Old 
Testament  (25-29). 

(5.)  The  failure  and  rejection  of  the  Jews,  though  in  one  sense  in 
accordance  with  the  Divine  purpose,  are  really  results  of  unbelief 
(30-33). 

Chap.  X.  This  last  thought  is  expanded  in  chap.  x.  After  again  ex- 
pressing his  distress  at  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews,  he  shows  that  their 
rejection  is  the  result  of  unbelief;  and  all  who  call  on  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  Jews  or  Gentiles,  shall  be  saved  (1-13). 

It  is  then  objected,  that  the  Jews  could  not  call  upon  one  of  whom 
they  had  not  heard  (14-17),  and  the  apostle  answers  by  showing  that 
they  have  heard,  and  that  their  rejection  of  truth  was  not  owing  to 
ignorance,  but  to  disobedient  unbelief;  a  fact  which,  in  all  aspects  of 
it,  their  own  prophets  foretold  (18-21). 

Chap.  xi.  The  apostle  proceeds  to  explain  his  statements. 

(6.)  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Israel,  as  a  whole,  have  been 
rejected. 

It  is  not  Jews,  as  Jews,  but  Jews  as  unbelievers ;  for  "  I  myself," 
says  he,  "am  an  Israelite"  (1),  and,  as  in  Elijah's  days,  there  were 
thousands  who  had  not  bowed  to  Baal,  so  now  there  is  a  remnant 
according  to  the  election  of  grace,  chosen  not  for  their  works,  but 
from  free  favor  ;  while  the  rest  have  missed  the  blessing  through  un- 
belief (2-10). 


ROMANS — OUTLINE.  671 

Nor,  speaking  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  is  this  utter  rejection : 

Their  unbelief  gave  occasion  for  the  proclamation  of  the  truth  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  their  conversion  will  be  connected  with  the  general  diffu- 
sion of  the  truth  (11-15),  of  all  which  the  faith  of  their  fathers  is  a 
kind  of  earnest  (16). 

(7.)  Humility,  faith,  adoring  reverence  of  the  justice  and  mercy  of 
God,  with  hope  in  this  general  issue,  because  all  Gentile  converts  (17-24), 
and — 

(8.)  By-and-by,  Israel  as  a  whole,  shall  be  converted  to  God  (25-32). 

(9.)  The  whole  scheme  of  salvation  an  evidence  of  the  unfathomable 
wisdom  and  love  of  God  (33-30),  to  whose  praise  all  will  ultimately 
redound. 

(ill.)  ETHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TRUTH  XII.-XV.  14). 

(i.)  In  relation  to  general  behavior. 

(1.)  All  previous  doctrine  points  to  consecration  of  the  whole  life 
as  the  appropriate  result,  and  with  this  consecration  all  holiness  begins 
(xii.  1,  2). 

This  founded  in  humility,  i.  e.  in  a  true  and  healthy  view  of  our- 
selves, and  of  our  position  (xii.  3). 

This  consecration  will  include — 

(2.)  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  church  (xii.  4-13),  including  love, 
faith  and  hope ;   and — 

(3.)  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  world  (xii.  14-21). 

(4.)  Chap.  xiii.  Especially  is  this  spirit  of  consecration  seen  in  sub- 
mission to  the  ruling  power,  which  has  the  force  of  a  Divine  law  (1-7) 
Obedience  in  such  cases  is  another  form  of  the  great  law  of  love  (8-101 
which  is  especially  incumbent  under  the  Gospel,  as  is  all  spiritual  holi- 
ness (11-14). 

(ii.)  In  relation  to  our  behavior  in  things  indifferent  (xiv.  1-xv.  7). 

Here  forbearance  is  our  rule.  He  who  regards  things  indifferent  as 
binding  may  be  the  weaker  Christian,  but  God  has  received  him;  he 
does  all  to  Christ,  who  is  his  judge;  and  in  accordance  with  his  own 
conscieiice,  which  is  subordinate!}',  his  law. 

Therefore,  neither  is  he  the  less  welcome,  nor  is  he  to  be  ternjited  by 
ridicule  or  rebuke  to  violate  what  he  himself  believes  (xiv.  2-23). 

The  example  of  Christ,  and  the  ultimate  design  of  the  Scriptures, 
teach  this  duty  on  even  more  comprehensive  grounds — the  common 
good  (xv.  1-7). 

The  lesson  is  repeated,  that  Gentiles  and  Jews  are  one  body,  and 


672  ROMANS — VARIOUS    TRUTHS. 

that  the  salvation  of  each  illustrates  the  faithfulness  and  mercy  of  God 
(xv.  8-13). 

(iV.)    PERSONAL    COMMUNICATIONS, 

(1.)  Explanation  of  the  apostle's  relations  to  the  Gentiles,  and  of  his 
earnestness  in  their  behalf  (xv.  14-21). 

(2.)  Notice  of  his  proposed  journeys  (xv.  22-23). 

(3.)  Salutations  (xvi.  1-23),  with  cautions  in  reference  to  such  as 
caused  divisions  (17-20). 

(4.)  Conclusion  (24-27). 

179.  Mark  in  this  Epistle  the  following  truths,  doctrinal  and  moral. 

(i.)  Man's  extreme  need  of  salvation,  in  consequence  of  his  guilt,  depravity,  and 
\vretchedness  (i.  l8-iii.  20,  compare  vi.  19-21;  viii.  6-8):  Gal.  iii.  10-22:  Eph.  ii.  1-3: 
iv.  IS,  19:  Col.  lii.  5-10:  Heb.  ix.  1-9;  x.  1-11:  1  Pet.  iv.  3:  Tit.  iii.  3:  Psa.  cxxx.  3; 

cxliii.  2. 

(ii.)  The  only  way  of  justification— by  the  free  favor  of  God  through  faith  in  the 
righteousness  of  Christ:  explained  and  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  history  of 
Abraham  and  David  (iii.  21-iv.  25;  v.  16;  viii.  1):  Gal.  iii.  6-29:  Eph.  ii.  8-10:  Phil.  iii. 
7-'0:  Tit.  iii.  4-7:  Heb.  x.  11-18:  Psa.  xxii.  30,  31 :  Isa.  xlii.  21:  Jer.  xxiii.5,  6.  This 
faith  is  sanctifying,  see  James  and  Acts  xxvi.  18. 

(iii)  Peace  and  reconciliation,  hope  and  joy,  the  fruits  of  faith  (v.  1-11;  x.  15; 
xiv.  17):  2  Cor.  v. 18-21:  Eph.  ii.  11-20:  Col.  i.  19-27:  1  Pet.  i.  18-21:  Isa.  xxxii.  71: 
Psa.  Ixxxv.  8-10;  xvi.  9-11. 

(iv.)  As  by  the  disobedience  of  one  all  are  sinners,  so  are  righteousness  and 
eternal  life  through  the  obedience  of  Christ  (v.  12-31):  1  Cor.  xv.  20-2,3,  45-49: 
1  Tim.  i.-xiv:  Gen.  iii.  6;  v.  3:  Isa,  liii.  10-12. 

(v.)  The  evangelic  motives  of  obedience;  deliverance  from  the  dominion  and 
condemnation  of  ancient  law,  living  union  with  Christ,  and  submission  to  his  autho- 
rity, the  constraining  influence  of  his  love,  the  efficacy  of  his  death  and  resurrec- 
tion, the  transforming  power  of  his  example,  the  promised  aid  of  his  Spirit,  and  the 
hope  of  an  eternal  reward;  in  one  word,  all  the  affections  and  desires  of  our  new 
life(vi.l-vii  25):  2  Cor.  v  14-17;  vi.  14-18:  Gal  ii.  19,  20;  v.  24;  vi  14:  Eph  ii.  4-10: 
Col.  ii.  6-17;  iii.  1-3:  Tit.  ii.  10-14 :  1  Pet.  ii.  20-25;  iv.  1,  2:  2  Pet.  i.  4-9:  Phil.  iii.  17, 
18:  Psa.  cxvi.  IG:  Jer.xxxi.  31-34:  Acts  xxvi.  18. 

(vi.)  The  privileges  consequent  on  justification — adoption,  the  inward  presence, 
testiinony  and  help  of  the  Spirit,  the  certainty  ol  complete  salvation  and  a  glorious 
inheritance  (viii.  1-27;  v.  5):  2  Cor.i.  21,  22:  Gal.  iv.  1-7:  Eph.  i.  14;  vi.  18:  1  Pet.  i. 
3-9:  1  John  iii.  1-3,19-21 

(vii.)  The  source  of  redemption — God's  sovereign  love  and  eternal  purpose 
(viii.28-.''.0):  Eph  i.  3-10:  2  Thess.  ii.  13-17:  1  Pet  i.  2-5;  ii.  7-10:  2  Tim.  i.  9-12: 
John  xvii.  9-24. 

(viii.)  The  principal  duty  of  Christians,  individually,  socially,  as  members  of  the 
church  of  Christ,  and  as  subjects  of  civil  government  (xii.  1-xv.  7).  Christian 
morality  requires  universal  and  permanent  rectitude,^  must  proceed  from  a  renewed 
heart, ii  lie  based  on  religion,  t.  e  on  the  consecration  of  man  in  all  his  powers  and 
affections  unto  God,e  needs  the  sanctifying  influence  of  tlie  Spiritd  and  can  be 


ROMANS — VARIOUS  TRUTHS.  673 

offered  with  aeeeptanoe  only  through  the  meciiation  of  Christ.e  This  morality  is  the 
believer's  chief  foncern;  for  his  justification  is  complete,  while  his  sanotitication 
is  not;  and  the  attainment  of  it  is  the  business  of  tlie  Christian's  life,  as  it  was  one 
end  of  the  coming  of  our  Lord.f 

a  Compare  the  following  passages,  which  all  treat  of  morality,  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  no  sin  is  excused,  nor  is  any  branch  of  righteousness  excepted  in  the  Christian 
code.  Rom.  xii.  1-xv.  7:  1  Cor.  vi.;  xi.  1-16:  2  Cor.  4;  vi.  14-18:  Gal.  v.;  vi. :  Eph. 
iv.-vi.:  Phil.  i.  2T-ii.  16;  iii.  IS  :  Col.  iii.  1-iv.  6:  1  Thess.  iv.:  2  Thess.  iii.  6-15: 1  Tim. 
ii.9-15;  vi.:  2  Tim.  iii.  1-9 :  Tit.  i.  12-iii.  8:  Philem.:  Heb.xiii.:  James  all  (see  ii.  10); 
1  Pet.i.  22-ii.  3;  ii.  11-iii  17;  iv.  8-11;  v.  1-7;  2  Pet.  ii.;  iii.  11-14:  1  John  ii.  8-U,  15- 
17,29;  iii.  3-18,  24:  Jude. 

b  Eph.iv.  22-24:  Col.  i.  22,  23:  Phil.  ii.  3-5:  Rom.  xii.  2.  All  the  passages  which 
speak  of  motives  to  obedience,  and  the  very  structure  of  the  Epistie.s,  addressed  as 
they  are  to  Christians,  and  basing  precepts  on  doctrines,  obedience  on  faith,  Psa. 
li.lO:  Bzek  xxxvi.  25,  27. 

c  Rom.  xii.  1:  ICor.  vi.  20:  2  Cor.  v.  15;  vi.  14-18;  vii.  1;  viii.  5:  Phil.  1.  20:  1  Pet. 
ii.  24;  iv.2:  Eph.  v.  25-27:  1  Thess.  v.  2.3.  24:  1  John  iii.  3. 

dRom.  XV.  16:  Phil.  iv.  13:  Heb.  ix  14:  1  Pet.  i  22. 

e  Eph.  i.  6 :  Phil.  i.  9-11 :  1  Pet.  ii.  5  :  1  John  iii.  6-10 :  Col.  iii.  17. 

fEph.iv.  11-13;  v.25-27:  Phil.  ii.  12;  iii.  13  :  Tit.  ii.  11-14. 

The  various  duties  of  morality  are  easily  arranged.    They  refer  to  God — to  our- 
selves— to  others.    All,  indeed,  are  enjoined  by  a  Divine  law,  and  must 
be  performed  fi'om  religious  motives.   Yet  is  the  distinction  convenient       Duties 
and  Scriptural.    We  find  it  recognized  in  the  12th  of  Romans,  and  else-  ^ 

where.  Living  devotedness  to  God  is  first  enjoined,  ver.  1.2;  then  the  personal 
virtue  of  humility,  ver.  3.  and  lastly,  the  duties  we  owe  to  the  church  of  Christ,  and 
to  the  world. 

(ix.)  In  relation  to  God,  it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  ascert.iin  his  character  and 
will,  especially  as  revealed  in  his  Son;?  to  exercise  appropriate  faith 
and  love,  submission,  and  reverence  ;h  to  imitate  his  moral  perfections,    j^  relation 
to  obey  his  commands  i  and  to  express  our  feelings  in  acts  of  accepta- 
ble worship.}    The  sum  of  our  affection  is  reverential  love,  and  of  our  service,  living 
consecration  k 

g  2  Cor.  iv.  6:  2  Pet.  i.  2,  3:  1  John  v.  20:  .Tohn  xvii.  3:  Psa.  ix.  10. 

hi  John  V.  10-12:  lCor.viii.3:  ljohniv.9:  Hcb.xii.O:  1  Pet.  i.  10-21 ;  v.6:  Jas. 
iv.  7, 10:  2  Cor.  vii.  1 :  Eph.  v.  21  :  Heb.  xii.  28:  Examples,  Heb.  xi  :  Matt.  viii.  10: 
Psa.  xviii.  1 :  John  xxi.:  Job  ii.  10:  2  Sam.  xv.  26. 

i  2  Cor.  iii.  18:  Eph.  iv.  32;  v.  1:  Col.  iii.  13:  Matt.  v.  44,  45,48:  1  John  iv.  11: 
1  John  ii.  ."-5:  John  xiv.  23:  Rom.  xvi.  19:  Examples,  our  Lord,  Eph.  v.  2:  1  Pet. 
ii.21:  Abraham,  xii.  1—1. 

j  Rom.  x.  0, 10  :  Heb.  x.  25  ;  Phil.  iv.  6:  .Lnmes  i.  5,  6:  1  John  iii.  22:  John   xiv.  13 
Eph.v.  19,  20:  Col.  iii.  16,  17:  IMark  xiv.  26 :  E.X..  Acts  i.l4;  ii.  1,  2;  iv.  24-31;  Luko 
iv.  15.  16:  .-\cts  xviii.  4. 

kl  Jolni  V.  2-5:  Mark  xii.  29,  30:  Deut.vi.  5;  x.  12;  xxx.  6:  Rom.  xii.  1 :  1  Cor.  vi. 
20:  2  Chron.  xxx.  8. 

(x.)  In  relation  to  ourselves,  it  becomes  us  to  be  humble,  never  thinking  more 
hialily  of  our  gifts  than  we  ought,  and  ever  remembering  that  they  .are    j^,  relation 
giftfA  in'>i'U-.  restraining  within  proper  bounds  all  irascible  paKsions.b  toourselves. 

57 


674  ROMANS — CHRISTIAN    DUTIES. 

contented  with  our  lot,c  lemperate,d  self-denying,e  carefully  in  preserving  for  God's 
service,  our  health  and  life.f  diligent,K  and  pure.h 

a  Rom.  xii.  3:  1  Cor.  iv.  7;  2  Cor.  xii.  7:  Gal.  vi.  3:  Phil.  ii.  3,  4:  Eph.  iv.  2  :  Col. 
iii.  12:  James  iv.  6:  1  Pet.  v.  S,  6.  Ex.,  Gen.  xviii.  27;  xxxii.  10;  xviii.l3:  1  Cor.  xv. 
9:  Phil.  ii.  5-8.  False  himiility  condemned,  Col.  ii.  18-23:  2  Chron.  xii.  6:  1  Kings 
xxi.  29. 

bEph.iv.2:  Col.iii.K:  Tit.iii.2:  Gal.  v.  23:  James  iii.  13, 17 :  1  Pet.  iii.  4-15:  Ex, 
Numb.  xii.  2:  Psa.  cxxxi.l:  IThess.  ii.  7:  Christ,  2  Cor.  x.  1 :  Matt.  xi.  29. 

c  Heb.  xiii.  5:  Phil.  iv.  6:  1  Tim.  vi.  6-8:  Matt.  vi.  25:  Ex.,  Paul,  Phil.  iv.  11, 12. 

d  Rom.  xiii.  11-13:  Gal.  v.  23:  1  Cor.  vii.  30;  ix.  25-27  :  Tit.  ii.  2,  11, 12:  2  Pet.  i.  6: 
Lnke  xxi.  34. 

e  Rom.  xiv.  20;  xv.  1;  viii.  13:  2  Cor  viii.  9;  vi.  4,  .5-10:  1  Cor.  viii.  13:  Col.  iii.5: 
Phil.  ii.  4:  1  Pet.iv.  1,  2:  2  Tim.  ii.  4,  15:  Ex.,  Acts  ii.  45:  1  Cor.  viii.  13:  Heb.  xi. 
24,  25. 

f  Eph.v.29:  lTim.v.2:  Acts  xvi.  27, 28;  xxvii.34:  Matt.  x.  23:  Acts  xiv. 6,  7. 

gRom.  xii.  11:  Eph.  iv.  28:  1  Thess.  iv.  11, 12:  2  Thess.  iii.  11,  12:  Col.  iv.  12,13, 
see  Prov.  vi.  6-8;  xxii.  13.  Diligence  in  seeking  our  Scriptural  improvement  is  an 
urgent  duty,  Phil.  ii.  12;  iii.  14:  Heb.  vi.  3.  4:  2  Pet.  i.5, 10:  John  vi.  10:  2  Cor.  viii. 
7:  Heb.  vi.  12:  Gal.  vi.  9.  An  earriesi  character  is  clearly  to  be  the  aim  of  each 
Christian. 

h  Rom.  xiii.  13;  xvi.  8:  ICor.  v.  11;  vi.  9,  13-18:  2Cor.  vii.  2:  Gal.  v.  19-21:  Eph. 
iv.l9;  V.  3,  5:  Phil.  iii.  19:  Col.  iii.  5-8:  1  Thess.  iv  3:  Heb.  xiii.  4:  2  Pet.  ii.  13,  14 : 
Tit.  iii.  12. 

(XI.)  In  relation  to  others  we  owe  justice  and  veracity — the  virtues  of  reciprocity 
Tn  relation  ^^  they  are  called — peace  and  love,  the  virtues  of  benevolence  or  gooa- 
to  others.       will. 

1.  We  owe  them  justice,  i.  e.,  the  righteous  fulfilment  of  righteous  expectation.! 

We  must  respect  their  liberty,  and  neither  oppress  nor  unnecessarily 
Duties  of  condemn  them; j  their  property,  nor  neither  steal  nor  covet,  nor  de- 
viz  1  Jus-  fraud ;k  their  character,  and  neither  slander  nor  misrepresent  them;' 
tice.  their  happiness,  and  not  envy  their  worth  orrank:ra  their  lives,  and 

neither  quarrel  with  nor  hate  them;n  their  virtues,  and  withhold 
neither  the  gratitude,  the  admiration,  nor  the  love  which  they  may  justly  claim. 

iRom.  xiii.  7:  James  ii.  6;  v.  4:  Mai.  iii.5:  Zech  vii.  7-10:  and  frequently  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Ex.,  Job  xxix.  14:  Jar.  xxiii.  25  (Josiah):  Luke  xxiii.  51  (Joseph): 
our  Lord  especially,  Psa.  xcviii.  9:  Isa.  xi.  4.  Injustice,  a  characteristic  of  the 
ungodly  and  of  hypocrites,  1  Cor.  vi.  1 :  JIatt.  xxiii.  23. 

j  Rom.  xiv.  4:  2  Cor.  i.  24:  Gal.  ii.  4,  5:  Col.ii.  16,  17,20:  James  iii.  1;  iv.  11, 12: 
1  Pet.  V.  3. 

i!  Eph.  i V.  28;  v.  3-5 :  1  Cor.  vi.  10 :  1  Pet.  i v.  15 :  Col.  iii.  5 :  Psa.  x.  3. 

iRom.  i.  29:  2  Cor.  xii.  20:  1  Tim  iii.  11;  v.  13:  Tit.  iii.  2.  Ex.  The  devil  Job  i.: 
Rev.  xii.  10:  Psa.  iv.  20. 

mRom.xiii.7:  Eph.vi.5:  1  Pet.  li.  17,  18:  Matt.  xxii.  21 :  Phil.ii.3:  lCor.xii.21: 
1  Pet.  V.  5. 

n  Rom.  xii.  19:  Gal.  v.  20:  Col.  iii.  21:  Eph.  iv.  31 :  I  John  iii.  15-17 :  Lev.  xi.x.  17, 18. 

The  relative  value  of  piety  and  rank  is  defined.  Piety  is  not  to  be  despised  be- 
cause of  poverty,  nor  is  wickedness  to  be  respected  because  of  wealth,  James  ii.  1-9: 
Jude  xvi. 

2.  To  others  we  owe  veracity  or  truthfulness.    This  is  the  basis  of  all  confiden- 


ROMANS — CHRISTIAN    DUTIES.  675 

tial  intercourse  between  intelligent  beings,  and  is  essential  to  virtue.    2.  Veracity. 
Its  opposites,  hypocrisy,  flattery,  slander,  lying,  are  either  the  parents, 
or  the  otfspring  of  many  vices. 

Eph.  iv.  25;  v.  4:  Col.  iii.  9.    See  Psa.  li.  6  :  Prov.  xii.  19,  22. 

Mark  the  origin  of  lies,  Gen.  iii.  4:  John  viii.  44  :  Acts  v.  3:  and  their  end,  Rev. 
xxi.8,  27;  xxii.  15.  Natural  to  man,  Psa.  lviii.3:  Isa.  Ivli.  4:  hateful  to  God,  Prov. 
vi.  16-19:  Isa.  lix.  2, 4.  Lies  form  one  of  the  marks  of  the  great  apostaoy,2  Thess. 
ii.  9  :  1  Tim.  iv.2:  1  John  ii.  22. 

3.  To  others  in  special  relations,  there  are  owing  various  duties,  which  we  are 
bound  in  justice  to  discharge,  see  Cor.  and  Titus. 

And  here,  perhaps,  heathen  morality  would  end.    The  Gospel,  however,  has  pre- 
cepts of  even  a  nobler  kind.    In  addition  to  duties  that  spring  out  of  ., 
what  is  due  to  man  it  enjoins  others,  ihe  duties  of  peace  and  love,  or  nevolence; 
of  benevolence  to  all,   irrespective  of  character  or  desert.    Natural  Peace  and 
affection  is  a  feeling  which  is  due  between  those  who  sustain  mutual  love, 
relations.     Gratitude  is  the  least  return  which  the  recipient  of  kindness  can  pay  to 
his  benefactor.     Admiration  is  the  homage  which  is  paid  to  virtue.     But  over  and 
above  these  feelings  the  Gospel  inculcates  universal  good-will,  in  spite  even  of  vice 
and  hostility. 

Upon  all  it  urges  the  exercise  of  a  peaceful  disposition,  a  calm,  patient,  friendly 
temper  in  ourselves,  and  all  proper  effort  to  promote  a  kindred  feeling 
in  others.  No  dut.y  is  more  solemnly  enjoined,  and  from  the  descrip- 
tions as  well  as  from  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  it  may  be  gathered  that  peace  iu 
our  homes,  in  our  churches,  in  nations,  and  throughout  the  world  is  the  thing  most 
needed  to  secure  individual  and  social  happiness,  and  that  such  peace  is  the  fruit 
of  the  Gospel. 

Rom.  xii.  18;  xiv.  19:  2  Cor.  xiii.  11:  Gal.  v.  22:  Eph.  iv.  3:  1  Thess.  v.  13,  14: 
Beb.  xii.  14 :  James  iii.  16-18 :  1  Pet.  iii.  11 :  2  Tim.  ii.  22. 

Peace,  like  truth,  is  one  of  the  attributes  of  God,  Phil.  iv.  9:  Col.  iii.  15:  1  Thess. 
V.  23:  2  Thess.  iii.  16:  and  of  the  Gospel,  Eph.  vi.  15.  In  value,  it  is  second  only  to 
truth  and  principle.  Gal.  ii.  11-16 :  James  iii.  17, 18. 

To  preserve  it.  cultivate  the  tempers  favorable  to  it,  Eph.  vi.  10-18:  Gal.  v.  16-26: 
Phil,  ii.2:  James  iv.  1-11:  1  Pet.  iii.  4:  1  Tim.  i>.  2.  Avoid  all  bitter  contentious 
language,  1  Cor.  x.  32:  Eph.  iv.  31 :  and  seek  it  of  the  God  of  peace,  1  Tim.  ii.2: 
P.sa.  cxxii.  6-8.  If  lost,  copy  Abraham,  Gen.  xiii.  8:  or  Abimelech,  xxi.  25-32:  or 
the  Isrwelites,  Josh.  xxii. 

Further,  as  religion  begins  in  love  to  God,  so  it  ends  in  love  to  man,  universal 
good-will.     Its  principle  is,  a  desire  for  the   good  of  others;    in  its  _ 

operation  it  teaches  us  to  avoid  insincerity  (which  is  to  love  what 
hypocrisy  is  to  truth),  flattery,  censoriousness,  to  practice  liberality,  a  spirit  of 
forbearance  and  forgiveness,  and  secures  when    perfect  the  consecration  of  life 
itself  to  the  welfare  of  our  race. 

The  neglect  of  this  second  class  of  duties  has  done  irreparable  mischief  in  tho 
world.  Men  have  everywhere  forgotten  that  bare  justice  is  not  the  Scriptural  rule. 
Love  is  always  just,  but  justice  is  not  always  loving,  and  Christian  morality  requires 
them  both.  The  recollection  of  this  truth  might  serve  to  humble  us ;  and  it  would 
certainly  serve  to  illustrate  the  perfections  of  God,  of  which  our  good-will  is  a  faint 
type,  and  commend  the  Gospel  to  the  admiration  of  our  race. 

Rom  xii.  10,19.  20:  1  Cor.  iv.  12.  13;  xiii.  1-13:  Gal.  v.  14;  vi.  10:  1  Thess  hi.  12: 
.Tames  ii.  8:  1  Pet  iii.  9:  Luke  vi.  30-36,  etc. 

(xii.1  We  have  lastly  in  this  Epistle  a  revelation  of  God's  design  in  relation  to 
the  Jews,  and  propagation  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Gentiles,  and  the  general 


676  •  ROMANS — LESSONS. 

conversion  of  both  in  the  laftdays.  Chaps,  ix.  to  xi.:  read  the  three  tonether.  nnrt 
chap.  XV.  8-12.  Compare  Eph.  iii.  1-12:  Jer.  xxxi.-xxxiii.:  Ezek.  xxxvi.-xxxix.: 
Zeeh.  xii.-xiv. 

180.  Rich  as  this  Epistle  is  in  passages  formally  discussing  Christian 
truth,  it  is  not  less  rich  in  incidental  expressions  abounding  in  spiritual 
significance. 

(i.  1).  The  Gospel  is  called  with  nearly  equal  frequency  the  Gospel 
of  Ood,  and  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It  is  God's,  for  it  originates  in  his 
counsel  and  love,  illustrates  his  righteousness,  and  is  revealed  by  his 
Spirit.  It  is  Christ's,  for  he  is  its  theme ;  it  is  preached  by  his  servants, 
and  in  his  name.     See  1  Cor.  i.  24 :  Phil.  ii.  11. 

(i.  3).  Christ's  resurrection  is  the  evidence  and  effect  of  the  complete- 
ness of  his  work;  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  and  the  earnest  of 
our  resurrection.  Acts  ii.  24;  xvii.  31:  Eph.  i.  20:  Heb.  ii.  14:  Rom, 
iv.  25.  Here  the  fact  is  made  an  evidence  of  his  Divine  nature.  As 
man  Christ  could  die  ;  as  the  Living  God,  the  Quickening  Spirit,  it  was 
not  possible  that  Death  should  hold  him,  Acts  ii.  24 :  John  xx.  9. 

(i.  13-15).  To  Paul's  thwarted  desire  to  visit  Rome,  we  owe  subordi- 
nately  this  Epistle,  which  is  a  blessing  for  all  time.  It  prepared  the 
way,  moreover,  for  those  cordial  greetings  with  which  Paul  was  after- 
wards welcomed  to  the  imperial  city.  Acts  xxviii.  14,  15.  "  Still  out 
of  seeming  ill,  educing  good." 

(i.  17).  Christ  died  to  justify  God  in  exercising  mercy.  He  lived  to 
exhibit  the  Divine  holiness,  and  honor  the  Divine  law.  He  obeyed 
unto  death,  that  he  might  lay  the  foundation  of  our  acceptance,  i.  e., 
of  pardon  and  holiness.  Hence  the  plan  of  justification  is  called  the 
"  righteousness  of  God."  It  vindicates  God's  holinesss  while  illustrating 
his  grace;  and  it  gives  to  the  sinner  who  believes  the  perfect  title  of 
our  righteous  Redeemer. 

(i.  19-21).  Ignorance  is  clearly  not  the  primary  cause  of  man's  hos- 
tility to  God.  His  hostility  is  rather  the  cause  of  his  ignorance. 
Atheism,  practical  or  avowed,  has  its  origin  in  the  heart,  Psa.  liii. 

(i.  25).  The  same  heart  that  is  averse  to  holiness  is  prone  to  religious 
observance.  Nature  pointing  to  a  Great  First  Cause ;  conscience,  im- 
plying a  Supreme  Law-giver;  taste,  and  sentiment  even,  suggesting 
the  idea  of  One,  who  is  infinitely  fair  and  good,  combine  to  make  a 
God  a  natural  necessity.  .  .  .  The  progress  of  error  we  may  mark,  is 
ever  downward  (v.  23).  Men  first  worshipped  an  image  made  like  to 
corruptible  man — and  at  last  creeping  things  ! 

(i.  22).  So  little  did  man  feel  his  condition,  that  while  his  folly  most 
clearly  appeared,  he  was  boasting  of  his  wisdom. 


JAMES — DATE — CONTENTS.  677 

(i.  26).  Man's  depravity  begins  in  Godlessness,  and  ends  in  moral 
corruption.  The  reason  for  each  is  given  in  verses  25  and  32.  These 
verses  describe,  not  the  Romans,  but  man. 

Nearly  every  word,  sentence,  and  verse,  is  thus  suggestive,  either  in 
itself,  or  when  compared  with  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  If  in  some 
respects,  our  study  of  Scripture  cannot  be  too  comprehensive,  in  others, 
it  cannot  be  too  minute. 

THE   GENERAL    EPISTLE   OF    JAMES — JERUSALEM,    A.    D.    61. 

181.  There  were  two  apostles  named  James  or  Jacob ;  one  of  whom 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  the  brother  of  John,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Herod,  as  related  m  Acts  xii.  2 ;  and  the  other  called  James  the 
Less,  or  the  Little  (Mark  xv.  40),  probably  in  allusion  to  his  stature, 
was  the  son  of  Alphteus  or  Cleopas  (see  Matt.  x.  3:  Mark  iii.  18:  Acts 
i.  13  :  Luke  xxiv.  18) ;  and  being  a  near  kinsman  of  the  Lord,  is  called 
his  brother.  Gal.  i.  19,  etc.  The  latter  of  these  is  commonly  supposed 
to  have  been  the  writer  of  this  Epistle.* 

After  most  of  the  apostles  had  gone  to  other  countries,  James  appears 
to  have  resided  permanently  in  Jerusalem,  superintending  the  affairs 
of  the  church  in  that  city  and  neighborhood  (see  Acts  xii.  17;  xv. 
13-29;  xxi.  18-24:  Gal  i.  IS,  19;  u.  9,  12);  and  maintaining  such 
reputation  for  eminent  sanctity  as  to  acquire,  even  among  his  unbe- 
lieving countrymen,  the  honorable  appellation  of  "  the  Just."  It  was, 
therefore,  most  appropriate  that  James  should  be  directed  to  address 
this  letter  to  his  own  people,  exhibiting  to  them,  not  so  much  the 
peculiar  doctrines,  as  the  elevating  and  sanctifying  influence  of  the 
Gospel.  For  he  knew  well  that  they  had  become  too  much  accustomed 
to  a  professed  belief  in  God's  word,  whether  spoken  by  Moses  or  by 
Christ,  without  allowing  it  to  affect  their  hearts  or  conduct.  Hence 
the  apparent  (though  not  real)  discrepancy  between  him  and  Paul  on 
the  subject  of  justification  by  faith.     (See  Part  i.  ^|  285,  297,  511  c.) 

It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  adaptedness  of  the  Gospel  to  our  condi- 
tion, and  of  our  tendency  to  abuse  it,  that  when  the  Gospel  was  first 
introduced  men  were  unwilling  to  be  justified  by  grace  alone:  hence 
the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  to  the  Galatians.  Now  that  the  Gospel 
lias  been  established,  men  pervert  it  by  overlooking  the  importance  of 
works  as  an  evidence  and  necessary  result  of  saving  faith.  The 
Gospel,  however,  has  an  appropriate  message  for  both. 

This  Epistle  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  after  the  Epistle  to  the 

»  See,  however,  Kitto's  Cyc.  Art.,  James, 
57* 


678  JAMES — DATE — CONTENTS. 

Komans,  i.  e.,  not  before  A.  D.  58,  and  probably  in  61,  the  year  before 
the  apostle's  martyrdom.  Neander,  Davidson,  and  others,  gave  an 
earlier  date,  about  A.  D.  45.  The  whole  strain  of  the  Epistle,  however, 
indicates  a  state  of  degeneracy  both  degrading  and  extensive,  such  as 
could  hardly  have  existed  at  the  commencement  of  the  Gospel. 

As  those  to  whom  the  apostle  addressed  were  in  trying  circum- 
stances, he  begins  with  encouragements  and  counsels  specially  suited 
to  their  condition  (i.  1-15).  He  then  describes  the  nature  of  true  re- 
ligion, in  its  origin,  and  in  its  effects  upon  the  heart  and  the  conduct 
(i.  16-27);  enjoins  sincere  and  impartial  love,  without  reference  to 
outward  condition  and  circumstances  (ii.  1-13);  and  exposes  the 
hypocrisy  of  the  man  who  pretends  to  have  faith,  while  his  works  do 
not  answer  to  his  words ;  quoting  Scripture  examples  to  show  that  the 
faith  which  God  had  approved  had  been  always  evidenced  by  works 
(ii.  14—27).  Then  to  check  some  prevailing  evils  arising  from  a  fond- 
ness for  becoming  teachers  and  censors,  he  gives  cautions  and  rebukes 
on  those  subjects.  He  exhibits,  in  a  series  of  striking  metaphors,  the 
evils  of  an  unbridled  tongue  ;  and  contrasts  the  disputatious,  envious, 
and  angry  spirits  of  the  schools  of  earthly  wisdom  with  the  pure, 
peaceful,  gentle,  and  beneficent  character  of  that  which  is  of  heavenly 
origin  (3).  He  exposes  the  effects  of  the  spirit  of  the  world,  as  ex- 
hibited in  the  conduct  of  those  who  are  under  its  influence ;  and  exhorts 
to  submission  to  God  and  resistance  to  the  devil.  He  calls  sinners  and 
hypocrites  to  repent,  and  to  humble  themselves  before  God ;  and  warns 
Christians  against  speaking  evil,  censuring,  or  sitting  in  judgment 
upon  each  other  (iv.  1-12).  He  reproves  the  presumption  of  those 
who  formed  their  worldly  projects  without  any  sense  of  their  depend- 
ence upon  God;  and  the  covetousness  and  oppression  of  the  rich 
(iv.  13-17;  V.  1-6).  Then,  returning  ta  the  suffering  Christians  he  en- 
courages them  to  patience  by  the  prospect  of  the  Lord's  coming; 
cautions  them  against  swearing;  recommends  prayer  as  the  best  re- 
source in  sorrow,  and  praise  as  the  best  expresssion  of  joy ;  gives 
special  directions  to  the  sick;  enjoins  mutual  confessions  of  faults  and 
intercessions  for  each  other ;  the  efficacy  of  which  he  illustrates  in  the 
case  of  Elijah;  and,  finally,  urges  the  duties  of  seeking  to  save  an 
erring  brother ;  and  shows  the  blessed  consequences  of  such  an  effort 
where  successful  (v.  7-20). 

How  instructive  are  Scripture  examples.  The  history  of  Abrahara, 
is  quoted  to  prove  that  true  faith  produces  holy  practice.  The  history 
tells  us,  moreover,  that  more  than  twenty  years  after  Abraham  had 
been  brought  into  a  state  of  justification,  he  was  called  upon  to  exhibit 
the  influence  of  his  principles,  by  his  readiness  to  offer  up  even  his 


PAUL — EPHESIAKS.  •  0 1 9 

only  son,  Gen.  xv.  6:  xxii.  9-12.  This  fact  again  is  a  lesson  to  ns,  nu<\ 
is  decisive  proof  that  justifying  faith,  once  exercised,  is  to  be  habitual. 
It  is  not  so  much  an  act  as  a  state. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows:—!.  1,  2,  5,  9,  12,  16,  19,  22,  26;  ii.  1, 
12  ;  xiv.  21,  25  ;  iii.  1,  13  ;  iv.  1,  4,  9,  11,  13  :  v,  1 ;  vii,  9, 12, 13,  19. 

THE    EPISTLE    OF    PAUL    THE    APOSTLE    TO    THE    EPHESIANS, 

ROME,    A.    D.    62. 

182.  That  this  Epistle  was  written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  there  is 
abundant  evidence,  both  external  and  internal.  But  as  the  name 
Ej^hesus  is  wanting  in  chap.  i.  1,  in  a  few  ancient  manuscripts,  it  has 
been  doubted  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  Some  have  supposed  it  to  be 
the  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans,  referred  to  in  Col.  iv.  16.  Others  have 
conjectured  from  the  general  character  of  its  contents,  and  the  absence 
of  local  and  personal  allusions,  that  it  was  a  circular  letter  to  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor.  "But  it  is  most  probable  that  the  received 
reading  in  chapter  i.  1,  is  correct;  and  that  the  Epistle  was  written  to 
the  Ephesian  Christians ;  although  probably  the  other  churches  in  that 
district,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  centre,  were  included  in  the  apos- 
tle's intention  and  object. 

Such  is  the  view  taken  by  Usher,  Hug,  Micbaelis,  and  others. 
Paley,  Wetstein,  and  Greswell  suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  that  this 
Epistle  was  addressed  to  Laodicea.  Its  circular  character  is  sustained 
by  most  evidence. 

Ephesus  was  a  large  city  in  Ionia,  the  capital  of  the  Koman  province 
of  Asia.  It  was  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Diana,  which  was 
of  exteme  magnificence,  enriched  with  immense  treasures,  and  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Its  inhabitants  were 
noted  for  luxury  and  voluptuousness,  and  for  the  practice  of  magical 
arts. 

The  book  of  Acts  (xviii.  18-26;  xix  )  mentions  two  visits  of  Paul  to 
Ephesus.  The  first  time,  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  he  preached  on  one 
Sabbath  in  the  synagogue,  leaving  behind  him  Priscilla  and  Aquila, 
who  were  shortly  afterwards  joined  by  Apollos.  On  his  second  visit, 
Paul  remained  there  more  than  two  years  ;  probably  on  account  of  the 
importance  of  the  place,  as  a  principal  seat  of  idolatry,  and  a  great 
centre  of  influence,  and  his  labors  were  crowned  with  signal  succes.s, 
both  among  the  citizens  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. About  a  year  subsequently,  when  he  was  on  his  way  from  Mace- 
donia to  Jerusalem,  he  had  an  interview  with  the  elders  of  the  Ephe- 
sian church  at  the  neighboring  sea-port  of  Miletus. 


680  EPIIESIANS. 

This  Epistle  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  those  written  by 
Paul  while  he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  about  five  years,  therefore, 
after  his  third  interview  with  them  ;  and  like  the  two  which  follow 
it,  is  remarkable  for  a  peculiar  pathos  and  elevation  of  thought  and 
feeling.  His  whole  mind  seems  to  have  been  filled  with  the  transcen- 
dent excellencj'-  of  the  privileges  and  hopes  of  believers  in  Christ,  the 
all-cornprehensive  character  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  and  its  cer- 
tain triumphs  and  glorious  results 

Anxious  for  the  welfare  of  his  Ephesian  converts,  the  apostle  was 
about  to  send  Tychicus  to  them;  and  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  one  object 
of  which  was  to  remove  any  feelings  of  distrust  or  discouragement 
which  the  intelligence  of  his  imprisonment  might  have  produced  in 
their  minds;  and  to  prevent  that  circumstance  being  taken  advantage 
of  by  Jewish  zealots  to  lower  his  apostolic  authorit}^,  or  oppose  the 
great  truth  in  which  he  gloried — the  unity  and  universality  of  the 
church  as  the  body  of  Christ. 

This  Epistle  maybe  divided  into  two  parts: — i.  Doctrinal  (i. -3) ,  and 
ii.  Practical  (iv.-6). 

i.  After  the  opening  salutation,  Paul  breaks  forth  into  expressions 
of  praise^  to  God  for  the  blessings  of  redemption,  and  especially  for  the 
extension  of  them  to  the  Gentiles,  of  which  they  had  an  earnest  in  the 
baptism  of  the  Spirit;  dwells  on  the  two  wonderful  displays  of  omnipo- 
tent grace,  fir^it  in  the  glorification  of  Christ,  and  then  in  that  of  his  re- 
generated people  (i.  ;  ii.  1-10),  and  reminds  the  Ephesians  of  their 
former  heathen  state  of  spiritual  death  and  distance  from  God,  and  of 
the  great  change  in  their  condition  by  being  now,  through  his  sovereign 
mercy,  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of  saints  (ii.  11-22^)  Then,  describ- 
ing himself  as  a  prisoner  in  the  cause  of  Christ  for  the  sake  of 
the  Gentiles,  he  speaks  of  the  special  revelation  and  commission, 
granted  to  him  in  reference  to  them;  grounds  upon  it  an  exhortation 
not  to  be  discouraged  at  his  sufferings;  and  assures  them  of  his  prayers 
that  they  might  be  increasingly  enlightened  and  strengthened,  and 
have  a  full  enjoyment  of  the  benefits  of  Christ's  redeeming  love  (3). 

ii.  In  the  remaining  chapters  of  the  Epistle,  which  are  chiefly  prac- 
tical,  the  apostle  beseeches  them  to  maintain  a  conduct  and  spirit 

»  Mark  how  prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  offered  under  the  Gospel, 
through  the  Spirit,  and  by  the  Son,  Rom.  viii.  26;  i.  13-23;  iii.  14-21; 
vi.  18  :   1  John  v.:  Jas.  i. :  Jude  xx. :   I'hil.  i.  3-11 :  Col.  i.  9-12. 

''On  the  favor  manifested  towards  heathen  convertji,  see  Rom.  v. : 
Col.  li.  9-14:   1  Pet.  I.  18-11.  10. 


EPHESIAKS — COLOSSIANS.  681 

worthy  of  the  exalted  privileges  to  which  they  had  been  called ;  re- 
minds them  of  the  great  ends  which  the  spiritual  gifts  bestowed  upon 
them  were  designed  to  promote;  enjoins  upon  them  a  course  of  con- 
duct in  direct  contrast  to  that  of  the  heathen  around  them  and  to  their 
own  former  lives  ;*  exhorts  them  particularly  to  unity,  truthfulness, 
meekness,  honesty,  and  industry;  to  purity  of  speech  ;  to  kindness  and 
generosity,  after  the  example  of  Christ;  and  to  universal  uprightness 
and  holiness  of  conduct  (iv. ;  V.  1-20).  He  then  enforces,  by  motives 
peculiar  to  the  Gospel,  an  exemplary  discharge  of  all  relative  duties 
(v.  21 ;  vi.  9) ;  concluding  with  animated  exhortations  to  fortitude, 
watchfulness  and  prayer ;  followed  by  a  commendation  of  Tychicus, 
the  bearer  of  the  Epistle,  and  by  his  apostolic  benedictions  (vi.  10-24).'' 

In  the  circumstances  in  which  this  Epistle  was  written,  and  in  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  Ephesian  church,  there  is  much  that  is  in- 
structive. The  Epistle  which  dwells  most  on  the  unsearchable 
riches  of  God's  wisdom  and  love,  was  written  when  its  author  was  in 
bonds.  A  heart  filled  with  thoughts  most  spiritual  and  heavenly 
devotes  attention  to  relative  and  moral  duties  (iv.  28 ;  v. ;  vi.  1-9) 
and  Holy  Spirit  (iv.  32;  v.  2-25;  vi.  5;  iv.  30).  The  churches  to 
which  the  Epistle  was  addressed,  are  not  much  censured  here,  but  a 
few  years  later  they  were  in  a  very  different  state,  Rev.  ii.  1-7 ;  iii. 
14-19.     Their  history  is  a  solemn  warning  to  Christians  in  every  age. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows: — i.  1,  3,  15;  ii.  1,  11,  19;  iii.  1,  14; 
20;  iv.  1-7;  xvii.  25,  26,  28,  29,  31;  v.  3,  15,  25;  vi.  1,  4,  5,  10; 
xxi.  23. 

THE-  EPISTLE    TO    THE   COLOSSIANS,    ROME,  A.    D.    62. 

183.  Colosse  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Phrygia,  which,  at  the 
date  of  this  Epistle,  was  a  very  rich  and  fertile  country,  though  now 
under  the  Moslem  yoke;  and  is  in  a  great  measure  uncultivated. 
Phrygia  was  twice  visited  by  Paul,  Acts  xvi.  8 ;  xviii.  23,  but  whether 
he  reached  Colosse  is  doubted.  The  tenor  of  the  Epistle  favors  the 
conclusion  that  he  did  not  (see  especially  ii.  1);  but  it  is  certain  that 
he  knew  several  of  the  Colossian  Christians,  of  whom  Archippus,  their 
minister,  and  Philemon  are  expressly  named.  The  Colossians,  having 
heard  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  sent  to  him  Epaphras,  their  minister,  to 

»  See  Col.  iii.  1-13. 

'  On  the  warfare  and  armor  of  the  Christian,  see  vi.  10-18;  1  Thes. 
V.  6-10:  1   Pet.  V.  7,  8:  Heb.  iv.  12:  2  Cor.  vi.  7. 


682  COLOSSIANS. 

comfort  the  apostle,  and  imform  him  of  their  state.  Epaphras,  shortly 
after  reaching  Rome,  was  also  imprisoned,  Philem.  xxiv. 

This  Epistle  was  written  during  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome 
(i.  24;  iv.  18);  and  prohably  at  an  early  period  of  it,  about  the  same 
time  as  those  to  the  Ephesians  and  to  Philemon ;  as  they  appear  to 
have  been  all  sent  by  the  messengers,  Tychicus  and  Onesimus,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  returning  to  his  master,  Philemon,  at  Colosse. 
The  account  given  of  the  church  by  Epaphraa  was  on  the  whole  satisfac- 
tory. There  appears,  however,  to  have  been  some  danger  from  false 
teachers,  who  aimed  to  combine  with  Christianity  the  speculations  of 
the  philosophers  (ii.  4-8),  and  superstitious  observances  (ii.  16). 

The  striking  resemblance  between  this  Epistle  and  that  to  the 
Ephesians,  indicates  some  similarity  in  the  tendencies  of  the  two 
churches. 

The  two  Epistles  must,  in  fact,  be  read  together.  "  The  one  is,"  as 
Michaelis  observes,  "  a  commentaiy  on  the  other."  Both,  moreover, 
are  exceedingly  rich  in  exhibitions  of  the  glory  of  the  Gospel. 

This  Epistle  was  to  be  sent  to  Laodicea,  and  the  Colossians  were  to 
receive  from  Laodicea  the  Epistle  he  had  directed  to  be  sent  on  to 
them,  probably  the  present  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  parts — doctrinal  and  practical. 

i.  After  the  usual  salutation,  the  apostle  expresses  his  thaukfulness 
for  the  effects  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Colossians,  and  his  prayerful 
anxiety  that  they  might  continue  to  advance  in  spiritual  knowledge 
and  in  Christian  virtues  (i.  1-14);  he  sets  forth  the  divine  and  the 
mediatorial  glories  of  the  Redeemer,  and  gives  a  sublime  view  of  the 
whole  doctrine  of  reconciliation  by  Christ,  both  in  its  amplitude,  as 
affecting  all  created  beings,  and  in  its  individual  application  to  believers 
in  their  personal  conversion  to  God  (i.  14r-21).  He  then  speaks  of  his 
own  labors  and  sufferings  as  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  and  expresses 
his  intense  solicitude  for  their  stability  and  perseverance  (i.  21  ;  ii.  5). 

He  cautions  them  against  particular  errors  ;  showing  that  no  philoso- 
phical speculations,  no  human  ordinances  or  traditions,  no  ascetic 
austerities,  could  raise  the  soul  above  gross  pursuits,  or  enable  it  to 
realize  unseen  and  eternal  objects.  But  that,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
Christ  is  perfect  salvation ;  faith  in  him  not  only  reconciling  us  to 
God,  but,  by  connecting  us  with  an  ascended  Redeemer,  leading  our 
thoughts  and  desires  to  things  above  (ii.  6;  iii.  4). 

ii.  He  then  expands  the  application  of  the.  foregoing  doctrine,  points 
out  the  operation  of  this  vitalizing  faith,  in  subduing  the  propensities 
of  the  old  sinful  nature,  and  producing  and  sustaining  the  varied  holi- 
ness of  the  new  man;  and,  above  all,  brotherly  love,  which  is  to  be 


COLOSSIANS — PHILEMON.  683 

exercised  in  social  worship  and  mutual  edification  (iii.  4-16).  He  gives 
brief  directions  for  the  fulfilment  of  domestic  duties  (iii.  18-25;  iv.  1); 
exhorts  the  Colossians  to  con.stancy  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  and 
to  consistent  conduct  before  the  world  (iv.  1-6);  and  in  conclusion, 
mentions  Tychicus  and  Onesimus,  who  would  give  them  full  informa- 
tion of  all  his  circumstances ;  and  sends  salutations  from  his  fellow 
laborers  and  from  himself,  among  others,  to  their  minister :  adding  a 
touching  injunction,  at  the  moment  of  signing  the  letter,  to  remember 
his  bonds  (iv.  6-18). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows:—!.  1,  3,  9,  19,  21,  24;  ii.  1,  6,  8,  16, 
20;  iii.  1,  5.  12,  16,  18,  20,  22;  iv.  1,  2,  5,  7,  10,  15,  18. 

THE    EPISTLE    OF    PAUL    TO    PHILEMON,    ROME,    A.    D.    62. 

184.  This  inspired  model  of  private  Christian  correspondence  was 
addressed  by  the  apostle  Paul  to  Philemon,  one  of  his  converts  residing 
at  Colosse  (compare  ver.  2,  10,  19,  with  Col.  iv.  9, 17),  of  whom  nothing 
more  is  known  than  may  be  gathered  from  the  letter.  From  this  it 
has  been  supposed  that  Philemon  was  an  elder  or  deacon  in  the  church, 
and  that  Appia  was  his  wife.  Archippus  seems  to  have  been  pastor  at 
Colosse,  Col.  iv.  17. 

This  Epistle  was  evidently  written  (see  ver.  1,  10,  23),  and  sent  at 
the  same  time  as  that  to  the  Colossians  (see  Col.  iv.  8 :  compare  also 
ver.  23,  24,  with  Col.  iv.  10-14).  Onesimus,  the  subject  of  this  Epistle 
and  the  bearer  of  both,  was  a  slave  (probably  a  domestic  servant)  of 
Philemon,  who,  having  fled  from  his  master,  had  found  his  way  to 
Rome;  and,  while  there,  had  been  converted  by  the  instrumentality 
of  Paul,  ver.  10.  After  a  time,  Paul,  thinking  it  right  that  he  should 
return  to  his  master,  wrote  this  elegant  and  persuasive  letter  in  order 
to  secure  for  him  a  kind  reception. 

After  an  affectionate  salutation  from  himself  and  Timothy,  the 
ipostle  expresses  his  thankfulness  at  hearing  of  the  good  reputation 
which  Philemon  as  a  Christian  enjoyed:  and  then  gracefully  intro- 
duces the  main  subject  of  his  letter:  requesting  as  "Paul  the  aged," 
now  a  prisoner  for  their  common  faith,  what  he  might  as  an  apostlo 
iiave  commanded.  Acknowledging  the  fault  of  Onesimus,  he  mentions 
the  happy  change  which  had  taken  place  in  him:  and  hints  that  his 
Hight  had  been  overruled  for  his  master's  benefit  as  well  as  his  own  ; 
and  entreats  that  he  may  be  received  back,  no  longer  as  a  slave,  but 
as  a  beloved  Christian  brother.  He  then  delicately  proposes  to  make 
CTood  any  loss  Philemon  might  have  sustained;  whilst  he  intimates 
how  great  were  his  friend's  obligations  to  himself. 

This  short  letter  is  invaluable,  as  offering  an  example  of  humility, 


684  PHILIPPIANS. 

courteonsness,  and  freedom,  in  the  intercourse  of  Christian  friendship: 
and  we  cannot  but  suppose  that  the  gentleness  and  address  of  the 
apostle's  pleading  were  effectual. 

Connect  and  read,  i.  1,  4,  8,  21,  23,  25.  Compare  on  the  whole 
spirit  of  this  Epistle,  1  Tim.  vi.  1,  2:  James  i.  9-11 :  Philip,  ii.  3-8. 

THE    EPISTLE    OF   PAUL    THE    APOSTLE    TO   THE    PHILIPPIANS. 

ROME,    A.    D.    63. 

185.  Philippi  was  a  city  of  Macedonia,  enlarged  by  Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  and  afterwards  colonized  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  gave  the  people  the 
privileges  of  a  Pi.oman  city;  and  it  is  distinguished  as  having  been  the 
first  place  in  Europe  which  received  the  Gospel,  Paul  having  been 
specially  directed  thitlier  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  opposition  to  his  pre- 
vious plans,  Acts  xvi.  On  arriving  at  Philippi,  Paul  followed  his 
usual  custom  of  addressing  himself  first  to  the  Jews ;  who  appear, 
however,  to  have  been  few  in  number.  Those  who  met  for  worship  at 
a  place  of  prayer  outside  the  city  were  chiefly  women ;  one  of  whom, 
a  pious  stranger  from  Asia,  was  the  first  convert  to  Christianity.  The 
successful  labors  of  Paul  and  Silas,  and  the  persecution  raised 
against  them,  which  led  to  their  sudden  departure  from  it,  are  related 
in  Acts,  chap.  xvi.  That  Paul  visited  Philippi  again,  before  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome,  is  plain  from  Acts  xx.  1,  2,  6.  On  his  first 
visit  he  seems  to  have  left  Luke  behind  him  (xvi.  12 ;  xvii.  1).  Luke, 
also,  who  was  with  him  at  the  earlier  part  of  his  imprisonment  (Acts 
xxvii. :  Col.  iv.  14),  seems  now  to  have  left  him  (ii.  20,  21) 

This  Epistle  was  manifestly  written  at  Pv,ome  (see  chap.  i.  12-14 ; 
iv.  22),  and,  probably,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  apostle's  first  cap- 
tivity in  that  citj'.  For  Paul,  at  the  time  of  writing  it,  anticipated  a 
speedy  decision  in  his  case,  and  hoped  to  obtain  his  release,  (i.  25,  27 ; 
ii.  23,  24).  It  appears  to  have  been  written  on  the  occasion  of  the 
return  of  Epaphroditus,  whom  the  Philippian  church  had  sent  to  Rome 
with  a  pecuniary  contribution  for  the  apostle's  relief  during  his  im- 
prisonment, and  wlio,  while  zealou.sly  performing  this  service,  had 
fallen  dangerously  ill :  the  tiding  of  which  so  afflicted  the  Philippians, 
that  the  apostle  was  induced,  upon  his  recovery,  to  send  him  back 
sooner  than  he  had  intended  (ii.  24-30). 

The  church  at  Philippi  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  pure 
and  generous  of  that  age  Its  members  showed  the  tenderest  regard 
for  Paul.  Twice  while  he  was  at  Thessalonica,  and  once  when  at 
Corinth,  they  had  generousl}'  sent  him  contributions  for  his  support, 
which  he  accepted,  to  prevent  the  Gospel  being  burdensome  to  more 


PHILIPPIANS.  685 

recent  converts  (iv.  15,  16 :  2  Cor.  xi.  9).  They  had  also  cheerfully 
borne  many  sufferings  for  their  adherence  to  the  Saviour  (i.  28-30). 
Their  conduct  had  been  uniformlj'  so  exemplary  that  he  had  only  to 
rejoice  over  them.  Accordingly,  in  this  Epistle,  he  pours  forth  his 
heart  in  expressions  of  devout  thankfulness  and  hearty  commendations, 
not  unmingled,  however,  with  exiiortations  and  counsel. 

This  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  three  parts: — 

i.  After  an  affectionate  introduction,  Paul  expresses  his  gratitude  to 
God  for  the  Philippians,  and  his  earnest  desire  for  the  increase  of  their 
knowledge  and  holiness  (i.  1-11).  That  they  might  not  be  dejected  on 
his  account  he  assures  them  that  his  imprisonment  had  not  hindered 
but  promoted  the  Gospel;  some  gathering  boldness  from  his  bonds,  and 
others  preaching  Christ  of  contention.  If  Christ  be  but  preached  and 
magnified,  whether  it  be  by  Paul's  labors  or  by  his  martyrdom,  he 
himself  is  more  than  content.  The  former  he  thinks  most  probable  ; 
and  exhorts  the  Philippians  at  all  events  to  maintain  a  conduct  worthy 
of  the  Gospel ;  to  be  steadfast  and  courageous,  united,  generous,  and 
humble,  copying  the  example  of  their  blessed  Lord,  and  reminds  them 
that  their  consistency  and  usefulness  are  his  own  highest  rewards. 
He  promises  to  send  Timothy  to  them,  gives  his  reason  for  sending 
Epaphroditus,  and  adds  the  character  of  each  (i.  12;  ii).^ 

ii.  He  exhorts  them  to  rejoice  in  their  Christian  privileges;  and  to 
be  on  their  guard  against  Judaizing  teachers,  who  prided  themselves 
upon  distinctions  in  which  he  himself  could  more  than  compete  with 
them  ;  but  which,  however  he  once  valued,  he  now  regarded  as  utterly 
worthless,  in  comparison  with  the  surpassing  excellency  of  the  know- 
ledge of  Christ ;  and  then  referring  to  his  own  holy  ambition  to  strive 
after  perfection,  urges  upon  the  Philippians  a  similar  spirit ;  contrast- 
ing with  this  the  conduct  of  some  false  professors,  against  whom  he 
had  previously  warned  them  (iii.-iv.  1). 

iii.  Admonitions  are  addressed  to  individual  members  of  the  church ; 
followed  by  exhortations  to  holy  joy,  moderation,  prayer,  and  thanks- 
giving; and  to  the  study  and  practice  of  all  that  is  true,  just,  pure, 
amiable,  and  praiseworthy  (iv.  2-9).  The  Epistle  concludes  with 
grateful  acknowledgements  of  the  repeated  proofs  of  affection,  care, 
and  sympathy,  which  he  had  received  from  the  Philippians,  in  which 
he  rejoiced  for  their  sakes  ;  intimating,  however,  with  noble  delicacy, 

*  Persecution  endured  with  steadfastness  conforms  us  to  Christ,  an<l 
is  a  token  of  coming  judgment,  i.  27 :  2  Thess.  i.  5,  6:  1  Pet.  i.  6-10 ; 
iii.  14;  iv.  7,  12-18:  1  John  iii.  13. 

58 


686  HEBREWS — AUTHORSHIP. 

his  contentment  with  either  poverty  or  abundance,   and  closes  with 
salutations  and  a  benediction  (iv.  10-23). 

Connect  and  read  as  folFows :— i.  1,  12,  15,  21,  27:  ii.  1,  5,  12,  17,  19, 
25;  iii.  1,  2,  12,  15;  iv.  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  15,  20,  21,  23. 

THE     EPISTLE     OF     PAUL     THE     APOSTLE     TO     THE    HEBREWS, 

ROME,    A.    D.    63. 

186.  As  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  direct  the  author  of  this  Epistle  to 
insert  his  own  name,  or  to  specify  the  persons  to  whom  it  was  ad- 
dressed, the  determination  of  these  questions  cannot  be  essential  to  its 
right  use:  nor  is  it  surprising  that  there  should  have  been  much  dif- 
ference of  opinion  upon  them.  Whilst,  however,  many  both  in  former 
and  in  later  times  have  thought  otherwise,  it  has  always  been  the  pre- 
vailing belief  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  its  author.  The  following 
remarks  will  show  how  strong  is  the  evidence  in  favor  of  this  decision. 

(1.)  Those  to  whom  the  Epistle  was  sent  must  have  known  the  writer 
(see  chap.  x.  34;  xiii.  18,  19,  23):  and  in  preserving  and  circulating  it 
could  hardly  fail  to  communicate  their  knowledge.  Now  the  early 
fathers  of  the  Eastern  and  Alexandrian  churches,  in  the  second  arid 
third  centuries,  tell  us  that  the  "  ancients"  (who  must  have  been  con- 
temporary with,  if  not  the  same  persons  as  those  who  received  the 
original)  had  handed  it  down  to  them  as  a  writing  of  Paul's.  And  the 
most  learned  among  them,  Clement  and  Alexandria,  Origen,  and 
Eusebius,  though  sensible  of  some  difficulties  and  doubts  on  the  point, 
regarded  this  testimony  as  conclusive. — (2.)  This  is  corroborated  by  the 
author's  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  system — so  worthy  of 
the  disciple  of  _Gamaliel ;  and  his  sympathizing  interest  in  the  salva- 
tion of  the  Jewish  people — so  like  that  which  is  expressed  in  Rom. 
ix.  x.  xi.,  and  in  Phil  iii.— (3.)  The  few  personal  allusions  found  in  the 
Epistle,  are  all  perfectly  compatible  with  what  we  know  of  the  history 
of  Paul. — (4.)  Nor  is  there  anything  in  the  peculiarities  of  style  and 
treatment  of  the  subject  that  cannot  be  satisfactorily  reconciled  with 
Paul's  other  Epistles.  If  it  differ  from  them  in  the  rhetorical  length 
of  words  and  finish  of  sentences,  it  is  only  the  more  like  his  speeches 
recorded  by  Luke.  So  regular  a  composition  would  naturally  vary  in 
manner  from  letters  of  a  different  character,  written  under  different 
circumstances.  Yet  the  careful  reader  may  sometimes  find  the  concise 
expressions,  abrupt  transition,  reasonings  addressed  to  the  latent 
thoughts  and  objections  of  the  readers,  and  the  occasional  involutions 
and  long  parentheses  resulting  from  the  kindling  of  soul  and  exuber- 
ance of  feeling,  which  characterize  the  apostle's  other  writings.     So 


HEBREWS — CONTENTS.  687 

that  the  internal  as  well  as  external  evidence  appears  to  support  the 
opinion  of  the  early  fathers,  that  the  Epistle  is  substantially  Paul's ; 
though  he  may  have  adopted  occasionally,  as  some  critics  suppose,  the 
phraseology  of  his  companion  Luke. 

Why  this  Epistle,  like  the  First  of  John,  was  anonymous,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say.  Perhaps  the  apostle  wished  that  its  first  hearers  or 
readers  should  feel  the  force  of  its  contents  before  knowing  from 
whom  it  came,  as  the  Jews  generally  were  greatly  prejudiced  against 
him. 

The  Epistle  was  clearly  addressed  to  Hebrew  Christians:  who  appear 
to  have  been  inhabitants  of  some  particular  city  or  region  (see  chap. 
xiii.  23) :  and  to  have  formed  an  organized  society  or  church  which 
had  existed  some  time ;  having  had  pastors  who  had  been  removed  by 
death  (xiii.  7):  and  having  now  teachers,  whom  they  are  exhorted  to 
obey  (xiii.  17).  It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  they  were  resident 
in  Palestine,  either  at  Jerusalem  or  Csesarea. 

To  this  class  the  Epistle  is  peculiarly  adapted :  exposed  as  they  were 
to  the  danger  of  falling  back  into  Judaism,  or  of  attaching  too  much 
importance  to  the  ancient  law.  The  writer  sets  before  them  the 
supreme  authority,  the  peculiar  sanctions,  and  the  transcendent  glory 
of  the  Christian  dispensation,  as  concurring  to  render  unbelief  the 
more  inexcusable,  and  apostasy  the  more  criminal  and  fatal. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how  the  whole  reasoning  was  fitted  to  those 
for  whom  the  Epistle  was  written.  Addressing  Jews,  the  writer 
exhibits  with  due  prominence  all  that  they  justly  venerated ;  and 
draws  all  his  illustrations  (xii.  16,  18;  xiii.  2,  10, 12,  14):  and  examples 
of  what  is  noble  and  excellent  (xi.)from  their  own  records  and  history. 
When  about  to  make  a  statement  at  variance  with  Jewish  views  and 
feelings,  he  cautiously  prepares  their  minds  for  it  (v.  11) ;  and  he  con- 
stantly reasons  upon  their  own  principles.  The  Jews  had  looked  upon 
themselves  as  especially  favored,  in  possessing  a  Divine  revelation 
which  appointed  Moses  as  the  lawgiver,  Aaron  and  his  race  as  the 
pflests,  and  all  the  temple  rites  as  the  worship  of  God.  The  apostle 
does  not  overlook  this  peculiarity,  but,  accommodating  it  to  his  line  of 
proof,  shows  that  the  Christian  faith  is  but  the  completion  of  their  own. 

This  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts  :  the  first,  in- 
tended to  explain  the  meaning,  and  prove  the  inferiority  of  the  Jewish 
dispensation:  the  second,  to  confirm  and  comfort  Jewish  believers  in 
their  religious  profession. 

i.  Having  noticed  that  the  Mosaic  and  Christian  dispensation  both 
proceed  from  the  same  Divine  author,  the  sacred  writer  shows  the  sur- 
passing excellency  of  the  latter,  as  being  introduced  by  the  Messiah. — -1. 


688  HEBREWS — CONTENTS. 

Greater  than  p7-ophets,  and  even  angels;  notwithstanding  his  humilia- 
tion unto  death,  which,  so  far  from  diminishing  his  glory,  was  the  very 
means  of  accomplishing  his  great  work  of  redemption,  (i.  2  ) — 2.  Su- 
perior to  Moses,  their  venerated  law-giver,  who  nevertheless  was  hut 
a  servant.  Here  the  apostle  solemnly  warns  the  Hebrew  Christians, 
lest  they  should  lose  through  unbelief  that  present  rest  and  final  glory, 
of  which  the  Canaan  into  which  Joshua  had  led  their  forefathers  was 
but  a  type.  (iii. ;  iv.  1-13.) — 3.  Then,  as  the  Jews  rightly  attached  the 
highest  importance  to  their  priesthood  and  sacrifices,  he  expatiates  at 
length  upon  the  superior  excellence  and  efficacy  of  the  priesthood  and 
sacrifice  of  Christ;  shows  that  the  necessary  qualifications  of  a  high 
priest,  namely,  that  he  should  be  appointed  by  God  and  able  to  sympa- 
thize with  men,  were  found  in  the  Lord  Jesus  (iv.  16 ;  v.  10) :  and 
having  cited  from  the  prophetic  Scriptures  a  declaration  concerning 
the  supreme  and  eternal  priesthood  of  the  Messiah  as  typified  by  Mel- 
chisedec,  he  interrupts  his  argument  with  a  reproof  to  those  whom  he 
addressed  for  their  small  proficiency  in  Christian  knowledge;  adding 
warnings  and  encouragements,  (v.  11-vi.)  Then,  returning  from  this 
digression,  he  compares  the  priesthood  of  Christ  with  that  of  the  Jewish 
high  priests  in  several  particulars,  (vii. ;  viii.)  He  next  illustrates  the 
emblematical  and  temporary  nature  of  the  Levitical  services,  which  are 
realized  in  Christ;  compares  the  ministrations  of  the  high  priest  in  the 
worldly  sanctuary  with  the  intercession  of  Christ  in  the  presence  of 
God  above ;  and  contrasts  the  merely  typical  virtue  of  the  oft-repeated 
Jewish  sacrifices  with  the  intrinsic  and  perpetual  efficacy  of  the  one 
perfect  and  all-sufficient  propitiation,  (ix. ;  x.  1-lS.) 

ii.  Upon  this  reasoning  the  apostle  grounds  his  practical  application. 
After  a  general  exhortation  to  steadfastness  in  faith,  hope,  and  mutual 
encouragement,  he  points  out  the  aggravated  guilt  and  awful  issue  of 
apostasy.  Then,  having  reminded  the  Hebrew  believers  of  their  forti- 
tude and  faithful  adherence  under  former  trials,  he  points  out  the  in- 
dispensable necessity,  in  order  to  their  perseverance  and  salvation,  of 
maintaining  the  life  of  faith,  (x.  19-25.)  After  describing  the  natOTe 
of  faith,  he  shows  it  to  have  been  the  main  principle  of  religion  in 
every  age;  and  illustrates  its  powerful  operation  and  triumphant  effi- 
cacy in  a  long  line  of  heroes,  martyrs,  and  confessors,  from  Abel  to  the 
close  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  ;  and  above  all  in  Jesus  Christ 
himself,  whose  temptations  and  sufferings  were  far  beyond  theirs,  (xi. ; 
xii.  1-3.)  He  further  encourages  them  by  reminding  them  tliat  their 
afflictions  were  but  the  discipline  of  a  Father's  hand,  and  designed  for 
their  ultimate  good  (xii.  4-11);  enjoins  upon  them  tender  mutual  con- 
sideration and  watchfulness ;  warns  them  against  bartering,  like  Esau, 


HEBREWS — VARIOUS   TRUTHS.  689 

spiritual  privileges  for  present  gratifications  (xii.  12-17);  stimulates 
them,  by  contrasting  the  terrific  material  splendors  of  the  Mo?aic  law 
with  the  solumn  but  cheering  spiritual  glories  of  the  gospel ;  and  infers 
that,  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  their  privileges,  would  be  the 
danger  of  neglecting  them  (xii.  18-29). 

In  conclusion,  he  gives  specific  precepts  on  various  practical  duties, 
and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (xiii.  1-25). 

187.  Mark  in  this  Epistle  the  following  lessons : — 

The  dignity  of  Christ,  as  the  express  image  of  the  Father,  the  Creator 
of  all  things,  the  restorer  of  fallen  man,  the  righteous  King,  the  object 
of  angelic  worship : 

1.  i.-ii.  9:  Col.  i.  13-19;  ii.  10:  2  Cor.  iv.  6:  1  Pet.  iii.  22:  1  John 
i.  1,2:  Rev.  iv.  11;  v.  6-13 ;  xix.  11-21:  John  i.  1-18 ;  iii.  13-21; 
xxxi.  36:  Zech   ix.  9:  Psa.  ii.:  Isa.  xii.  2:  Acts  x.  40-42. 

His  incarnation  and  its  objects:  He  gives  a  complete  revelation, 
suffers,  sympathizes,  aids ;  and  as  Captain  of  our  salvation  conducts  to 
glory.  The  plea  that  men  need  saintly  intercession  is  more  than  met 
by  the  humanity  and  sympathy  of  our  Lord : 

2.  x.-xviii;  iv.  15;  v.:  2  Cor.  v.  18-21:  Phil.  i.  5-11;  ii.  7,  8:  Gal. 
iv.  4-7:   Rom.  viii.  3:  Gen.  iii.  15:  Isa.  vii.  14:  John  i.  14. 

His  superiority  over  Moses,  Joshua,  and  Aaron;  and  the  consequent 
duty  of  hearkening  to  his  voice,  with  the  fearful  sin  of  unbelief  and 
apostasy. 

3.  i.-iv.  13:  see  Numb.  xii.  1-10 :  Josh.  xi.  15-23 :  Rev.  vii.  9-17: 
Isa.  ix.  6,  7:  John  vi.  32-58. 

4.  xiv.-vi.  20;  ii.  17,  18;  x.  19-23 :  Eph.  ii.  18;  iii.  12:  Exod. 
xxviii.  xxix. :  Psa.  ex      Compare  2  Pet.  ii.  15-22. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  Christ's  priesthood,*  of  the  new  covenant, 
and  of  Christ  as  Mediator,''  and  of  the  sacrifice  offered  by  our  Lord.o 
with  the  sentiments  and  responsibilities  appropriate  to  each.'' 

The  apostle  gives  the  significance  of  the  ancient  economy  and  its 
various  ordinances.  The  whole  was  a  shadow  or  type  of  good  things 
to  come  (x.  1):  but  the  significance  of  particular  parts  only  is  here  ex- 
plained. 

=■  vii.  1-viii.  6:  Rev.  v.  6-13;  i.  5,  6:  Eph.i.7:  Col.  i.  14:  1  John  ii. 
2:  Matt.  XX.  28. 

i- viii.  7;  ix.  1-22:  2  Cor.  iii. :  1  Cor.  xi.  25:  Rom.  iii.  19,  31 ;  v.  2; 
vi :  John  xiv.  6:  Exod.  xxxiv.  28;  xx.  1-17. 

MX.  23-x.  18:  Eph.  v.  2:  Til.  ii.  14. 

•>  X.   19-37:  ii.   1-18;  iv.   16:   Rom.   viii.   28-39;    15-17:    1   Cor.  x. 
1-12:   Rev.  iii.  1-4:  Rom.  xi.  21. 
58* 


690  HEBEEWS — VARIOUS    TRUTHS. 

The  holy  of  holies,  as  entered  by  the  high  priest,  may  represent 
heaven  into  which  Christ  enters,  ix.  1-14,  21 :  Lev.  xvi.  The  sanctu- 
ary, as  dwelt  in  by  God,  may  represent  our  Lord  (John  ii.  21 :  Col.  ii. 
9),  or  the  church,  Eph.  ii.  19-22 :  1  Pet.  ii.  5,  9 ;  the  golden  candlestick, 
the  church  as  enlightened  by  the  word  and  Spirit  of  God,  Rev.  i.  20 ; 
iv.  5 ;  Phil.  ii.  15,  16 :  Matt.  v.  14-16 ;  the  incense,  the  prayers  and 
praises  of  saints,  Pleb.  xiii.  15:  Rev.  viii.  3,  4:  Exod.  xxx.  1-8,  34-36; 
the  second  vail,  Christ's  flesh,  rent  to  allow  access  unto  God,  x.  19,  20 : 
Mark  xv.  37,  38 :  Exod.  xxvi.  31-33 :  the  pot  of  manna,  the  true  bread, 
Rev.  ii.  17 :  John  vi.  48-51 :  Exod.  xvi.  32-34  ;  and  the  mercy-seat,  the 
throne  of  grace,  to  which  the  penitents  have  free  access  by  the  blood 
of  Christ,  who  is  the  propitiation  for  sin,  ix.  5,  compared  with  iv.  16: 
Col.  ii.  10-17:  Rom.  iii.  25:  Psa.  xl.  6-8:   Exod.  xxv.  10-22. 

The  inferiority  of  this  ancient  dispensation  is  repeatedly  announced, 
Heb.  vii.  22;  ix.  9:  Gal.  iii.  1-5;  iv.  9,  10:  2  Cor.  lii.  :  John  i. 

As  faith  is  the  grand  duty  of  the  Gospel,  enforced  by  the  facts  already 
examined,  so  here  the  apostle  illustrates  it  by  Old  Testament  examples. 
In  spite  of  mystery,  difSculties,  trials,  and  delay,  ancient  saints  con- 
fided in  the  Divine  word,  and  acted  in  accordance  not  with  what  they 
"saw,  but  with  what  they  believed.  So  must  we.  Faith  is  the  principle 
both  of  our  pardon  and  of  our  steadfastness. 

xi,  1-xii.  13:  Rom.  iv.  13-25;  v.  1,  2;  viii.  24:  2  Cor.  iv.  13-v.  8: 
1  Peter  i.  8. 

The  practical  lessons  of  this  Epistle  are  remarkable  for  the  peculiarly 
appropriate  motives  to  which  the  inspired  writer  appeals. 

Be  thankful,  steadfast,  and  obedient,  for  the  darkness  and  terror  of 
the  ancient  law  have  ceased,  and  a  kingdom  that  cannot  be  moved  ia 
revealed,  xii.  18-29 :  1  Pet.  ii.  4-10. 

Be  content,  though  no  earthly  inheritance  is  set  before  you.  There 
still  remain  Joshua's  promise  and  the  care  of  Joshua's  God,  xiii.  5,  6. 
Note  the  beauty,  to  a  Jew  especially,  of  the  reason  given  for  exercising 
hospitality,  xiii.  1. 

Follow  faithful  teachers,  hold  fast  the  unchangeable  doctrine  of 
Christ,  discountenance  vain  traditions  and  ritual  observance,  joining 
Christ  witliout  the  camp,  and  look  for  the  New  Jerusalem,  in  return 
for  what  is  lost,  xiii.  7-14. 

The  closing  benediction  (ver.  20,  21)  is  beautifully  comprehensive 
and  rich  in  allusions  to  the  chief  doctrine  of  the  Epistle,  the  New  Cove- 
nant, and  the  dignity  and  grace  of  the  Mediator. 


1    PETER.  691 


^     THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  GENERAL  OF  PETER.       BABYLON,  A.  D.  63. 

188.  Peter,  whose  original  name  was  Simeon  or  Simon,  was  a  native 
of  Betlisaida,  on  the  sea  of  Gallilee ;  and  the  son  of  Jonas  (whence  he 
is  called  Bar-jona,  Matt.  xvi.  17).  At  the  time  of  his  first  appearance 
in  the  gospel  history  he  was  married,  and  living  at  Capernaum,  Mark 
i.  29,  30;  and,  like  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  followed  the  occupation  of  a 
fisherman.  He  was  brought  to  Jesus  by  his  brother  Andrew,  who  had 
been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  but  was  led  by  his  master's  testi- 
mony to  attach  himself  to  the  Divine  Teacher.  For  some  time  after 
this,  the  two  brothers  continued  to  follow  their  business,  until  they 
were  summoned  by  our  Lord  to  be  in  constant  attendance  upon  him, 
Matt.  iv.  18-20;  after  which  they  were  his  devoted  followers. 

The  numerous  facts  related  of  Peter,  during  his  attendance  upon  our 
Saviour,  throw  much  light  upon  his  character  at  that  period.  His 
sincere  piety,  ardent  attachment  to  his  Master,  and  zeal  for  his  honor, 
seem  to  have  been  blended  with  some  measure  of  rashness  and  incon- 
stancy;  but,  after  his  fall  and  restoration,  and  when  "endued  with 
power  from  on  high,"  a  great  change  is  observable  in  him.  So  that  he 
fully  justifies  the  appellation  which  our  Lord  had  prophetically  be- 
stowed on  him,  calling  him  Cephas  or  Petros ;  the  former  a  Syriac,  the 
latter  a  Greek  word,  both  signifying  a  stone  or  rock.  Immediately 
after  the  out-pouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Peter  was  honored  by  being 
commissioned  to  open  the  gates  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  first  to  the 
Jews,  and  afterwards,  in  the  case  of  Cornelius  and  his  family,  to  the 
Gentiles. 

These  facts  do  not  imply  that  he  had  any  supreme  dignity;  while 
Matt,  xxiii.  8 :  Gal.  ii.  2,  plainly  prove  that  he  had  not — a  conclusion 
which  the  testimony  of  antiquity  confirms. 

Of  the  latter  part  of  Peter's  life  nothing  is  known  with  certainty ; 
but  it  is  supposed  that,  after  his  visit  to  Antioch,  mentioned  in  Gal.  ii. 
11,  he  remained  at  Jerusalem  for  some  years,  and  then  visited  Syria 
and  the  countries  mentioned  in  the  inscriptioir  of  this  Epistle,  which 
he  wrote  when  he  had  gone  into  the  Parthian  empire.  It  is  said  by 
some  that  he  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  and  was  tliere  put  to  death  by 
crucifixion,  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  our  Lord  respecting  him, 
John  xxi.  18,  19.     Others  maintain  that  he  died  in  Babylonia.'     Both 

'  See  on  the  one  side,  Gieseler's  Eccl.  History,  i.  §  27,  Philadelphia; 
and  on  the  other,  Simon's  Mission  and  Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter,  Lond  , 
1852. 


692  1    PETER — CONTENTS. 

parties,  however,  agree  that  he  was  put  to  death  early  in  Nero's  reign, 
probably  A.  D.  64  or  65,  and  in  the  persecutions  excited  by  that  Em- 
peror. The  alleged  visit  of  Peter  to  Rome,  in  the  days  of  Claudius,  is 
altogether  without  satisfactory  foundation  (see  Introduction  to  Ro- 
mans). 

This  Epistle  is  generally  assigned  to  A.  D.  63,  though  some  give  it 
an  earlier  date.  It  is  certain  that  Mark,  who  was  now  with  Peter 
(v.  13),  was  thinking  of  leaving  Paul  in  62  A.  D.,  when  the  Epistle  to 
the  Collossians  was  written.  Col.  iv.  10,  and  was  absent  from  him  in 
64  A.  D.,  2  Tim.  iv.  11.     These  facts  favor  the  later  date. 

This  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  scattered  through- 
out the  different  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  ;  yet  not  altogether  without 
reference  to  the  numerous  Gentile  converts  which  those  churches  con- 
tained (i.  14 ;  iv.  3).  It  appears  to  have  been  written  from  Babylon 
(v.  13),  which  some  have  supposed  to  be  a  mystical  name  for  Rome. 
This  notion  has  been  favored  by  writers  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  in 
order  to  prove  the  contested  point  of  Peter's  residence  in  the  imperial 
city.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that,  at  that  early  period,  the  name 
Babylon  was  ever  given  to  Rome ;  nor  can  any  reason  be  assigned 
why  such  a  name  should  at  that  time  be  applied  to  it ;  or  why  Peter 
should  choose  a  figurative  name,  which,  though  adapted  to  a  symbolical 
style,  is  plainly  unsuited  to  epistolary  writing.  It  appears,  therefore, 
most  reasonable  to  take  the  name  in  its  obvious  and  natural  significa- 
tion, like  all  the  other  names  mentioned  in  the  apostolic  Epistles,  and 
to  refer  it  either  to  the  region  of  Babylonia,  to  Babylon,  or  to  Seleucia, 
which  had  been  built  out  ^^f  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  and  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood.  The  Jews  were  very  ntimerous  in  that  dis- 
trict, and  were  not  likely  to  be  overlooked  by  the  "  apostle  of  the 
circumcision;"  and  among  them  it  is  probable  that  a  Christian  church 
had  been  planted. 

It  is  well  described  by  Leighton,  as  "  a  brief  and  j'et  very  clear 
summary,  both  of  the  consolations  and  instructions  needful  for  the 
encouragement  and  direction  of  a  Christian  in  his  journey  to  heaven  ; 
elevating  his  thoughts  and  desires  to  that  happiness,  and  strengthening 
him  against  all  opposition  in  the  way,  both  that  of  corruption  within, 
and  temptation  and  afflictions  from  without.  The  heads  of  doctrine 
contained  in  it  are  many ;  but  the  main  that  are  most  insisted  on  are 
these  three,  faith,  obedience,  and  patience; — to  establish  in  believing, 
to  direct  in  doing,  and  to  comfort  in  suff"ering;  often  setting  before 
those  to  whom  he  wrote  the  matchless  example  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and 
the  greatness  of  their  engagements  to  follow  him." 

The  general  object  of  the  Epistle  is  stated  in  v.  12,  and  the  whole 


1    TIMOTHY.  693 

may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  exclusive  of  the  salutation,  (i.  1,  2), 
introduction  (3-12),  and  conclusion  (v.  13,  14). 

i.  General  exhortations  to  love  and  holiness  (i.  13-ii.  10). 

ii.  Particular  exhortations  on  specific  duties  (ii.  11-v.  12). 

While  the  Epistle  has  thus  a  practical  design,  it  is  as  evangelical  as 
if  it  had  been  chiefly  doctrinal.  It  points  everywhere  to  Christ;  to  his 
atonement  foretold  by  prophets,  contemplated  by  angels  appointed 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world;  to  his  resurrection,  ascension,  and 
gift  of  the  Spirit;  his  example  as  a  suffering  Saviour,  and  the  awful 
solemnities  of  the  last  judgment.  Like  his  beloved  brother  Paul,  he 
urges  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  as  the  great  motives  to  holiness  and 
patience;  like  him  he  descends  to  the  enforcement  of  every  relative 
duty,  while  giving  the  most  exalted  view  of  our  privileges  as  believers 
in  Christ. 

His  humility,  as  illustrated  by  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  has  been  noticed 
already.  His  honorable  notice  of  Paul,  2  Pet.  iii.,  who  had  publicly 
reproved  him,  and  then  recorded  that  reproof  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  to  whom  Peter  himself  was  now  writing.  Gal.  ii.  11 :  1  Pet. 
i.  1 :  2  Pet.  iii.  1,  is  a  fresh  manifestation  of  the  same  spirit.  He  illus- 
trates in  this  way  his  own  precept,  1  Pet.  v.  5,  and  had  clearly  not 
forgotten  the  lessons  of  the  last  days  of  our  Lord. 

189.  Mark  that  the  incorruptible  word  is  the  appointed  means  of  the 
Christian's  growth  in  holiness,  1  Peter  ii.  3:  Col.  i.  5,  6:  2  Pet.  i.  8; 
iii.  18:  John  xvii.  17:  Psa.  cxix. 

Connect  and  read,  i.  1,  3,  10,  17;  ii.  13,  17,  18;  iii.  1,  7,  8,  18;  iv. 
1,7,12;  V.  1,5,8,10,11,14. 

THE   FIRST    EPISTLE    OF    PAUL    THE    APOSTLE    TO    TIMOTHY. 
MACEDONIA,  A.  D.  64   OE   67. 

190.  The  two  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  the  Epistle  to  Titus  have 
been  called  pastoral  Epistles.  They  abound  in  instruction  relative  to 
the  oversight  of  the  church  and  other  duties  of  the  Christian  ministry. 
They  also  abound  in  instruction  suited  for  the  churches  themselves. 

Timothy  was  an  inhabitant,  perhaps  a  native,  of  Lydia,  Acts  xvi. 
1,  2.  His  father  was  a  Greek,  his  mother  and  grandmother  pious 
Jewesses,  by  whom  he  was  carefully  trained  in  a  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures,  2  Tim.  iii.  14.  He  was  probably  converted  by  Paul  on  his 
first  visit  to  Lydia,  Acts  xiv.  6  (see  1  Tim.  i.  2:  2  Tim.  i.  2:  1  Cor.  iv. 
17);  and  on  his  second  visit  was  chosen  to  be  the  companion  of  the 
apostle  in  his  journeys  and  labors.  He  is  everywhere  spoken  of  in 
terms  of  high  praise,  1  Thes.  iii.  2:  Phil.  ii.  20,  aud  is  a  noble  instance 


694  1  TIMOTHY — TRUTHS. 

of  eminent  gifts  and  grace  in  one  young  in  years  and  feeble  in  health 
(iv.  12;  V.  23). 

It  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  determine  when  this  Epistle 
was  written.  It  was  evidently  addressed  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus,  and 
when  Paul  was  either  in  Macedonia  or  on  his  way  thither  (see  i.  3). 
From  Acts  xx.  1,  we  learn  that  Paul  left  Ephesus  after  the  uproar 
caused  by  Demetrius,  and  went  to  Macedonia ;  and  some  learned 
critics  have  supposed  that  this  Epistle  was  written  at  that  time. 
There  are,  however,  several  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  that  sup- 
position. 

(1.)  Before  Paul  left  Ephesus,  he  had  sent  Timothy  and  Erastus  before  him  into 

Macedonia,  proposing  to  follow  them  (Acts  x.  22),  and  it  is  very  unlikely  that  Timothy 
returned  from  this  long  journey  before  Paul  left  Kphesus. 

(2.)  About  the  period  supposed  Timothy  was  with  Paul  in  Macedonia  (see  2  Cor.  i. 
1);  whereas,  when  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle,  it  appears  that  not  only  was  Timothy  at 
Ephesus,  but  Paul  expected  him  to  remain  there  for  some  time  (see  chap.  iii.  15 ;  iv. 
13).  Timothy  was  also  with  the  apostle  at  Corinth  afterwards,  when  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  xvi.  21),  and  when  he  left  Greece  to  return  to  Syria, 
Acts  XX.  4.  Although  Paul  may  have  remained  some  time  in  Macedonia,  and  have 
written  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  shortly  before  his  departure  from 
that  country,  yet  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  he  could  have  been  joined  there 
by  Timothy  so  soon  if  he  had  given  him  a  charge  to  abide  at  Ephesus.  (See 
chap  i.  1.) 

(3.)  Further,  in  this  Epistle,  Paul  expresses  his  intention  of  coming  to  Ephesus 
shortly  (iii.  15).  But,  at  the  period  now  in  question,  it  appears  from  Acts  xix.  21,  and 
XX.  3,  that  Paul  had  intended,  after  passing  tlirough  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  to 
proceed  to  Jerusalem,  and  to  go,  not  by  the  circuitous  route  of  Troas  and  Ephesus, 
but  direct  from  Greece  to  Syria. 

These  and  other  considerations  have  led  many  to  the  conclusion  thatthis  Epistle 
must  have  been  written  at  a  later  period,  after  the  apostle's  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  while  upon  a  journey  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  undertaken  shortly  before 
his  final  imprisonment.  The  chief  difficulty  in  this  hypothesis  is  the  declaration  of 
Paul  to  the  elders  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  when  he  met  them  at  Miletu.s,  Acts 
XX.  25;  but  that  this  was  an  inference  of  his  own  appears  from  verses  22,  23,  where 
he  says  that  he  does  not  know  what  shall  befall  him,  only  that  he  is  assured  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  that  "bonds  and  afflictions  abide  him."  (See  also  Phil.  i.  25,  compared 
with  chap.  ii.  17,  23,  24.)  Upon  the  whole,  this  question  must  be  considered  as  still 
doubtful.  But  the  diflSculties  attending  the  later  date  appear  less  than  those  con- 
nected with  the  earlier. 

The  Epistle  appears  to  have  two  chief  objects : 

(i.)  To  counteract  the  false  doctrines  of  Jewish  teachers,  who,  whilst  professing 
adiierence  to  the  Law,  taught  doctrines  at  variance  with  its  holy  requirements. 
Their  fallacies,  and  the  contrary  truths  are  forcibly  exhibited  iu  chap,  i;  iv.  V-10; 
vi.  3-5,  20,21.    Compare  Acts  xx.  27-32:  2  Cor.  iv.  1-7. 

(ii.)  To  guide  and  encourage  Timothy  in  the  duties  of  his  office;  directing  him  as 
to  (1,)  public  devotions,  chap.  ii.  1-8;  (2,)  the  duties  and  behavior  of  Christian 
women,  chap.  ii.  9, 12:  compare  1  Cor.  xi.  .V16;  xiv.34-40:  1  Pet.  iii. 1-6;  (3,)  church 


TIMOTHY — TITUS.  695 

oflBcers,  ohap.  iii.  1-13;  (4.)  his  own  teaching,  chap.  iii.  14-iv;  (5,)  his-per.=onal  hoh- 
ness.chap.  i  v.  11-10;  and  (R.)  his  church  administration  in  the  treatment  of  offenders, 
of  widows,  of  good  elders  and  bad,  of  slaves,  of  the  rich;  and  the  duties  of  those 
several  classes  of  persons,  chap.  V.  6;  compare  Titus  i.  10-iii.  10.  With  these  are 
mingled  many  urgent  and  affectionate  appeals,  tender  references  to  Paul's  owu 
conversion,  and  solemn  anticipations  of  the  coming  of  Christ. 

The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  stated  in  the  following  passages  : — i.  3,  4; 
iii.  15;  vi.  20,  21. 

Connect  and  read  together: — i.  1,  3,  5,  IS;  ii.  1,  9;  iii.  1,  8,  14; 
iv.  1,  6,  12;   V.  1,  3,  17,  19,  20,  22,  2S,  24;  vi.  1,  3,  6,  11,  17,  20. 

191.  In  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus — the  pastoral  Epistles — we  have  the 
clearest  revelation  given  in  Scripture  of  the  character  (a),  qualifica- 
tions  (6),  and  duties  (c),  '  '  the  Christian  minister.      Though  the    ^'^^^  dutv  of 
■whole  are  often  described  in  the  same  passage,  they  may  be  thus    Christian 
arranged:  Ministers. 

(a.)  1  Tim.  i  :  2  Tim.  i.  6-8;  ii.  1-8,  14-26:  2  Cor.  iv.  1-7:  Acts  xx.  27-.32. 
(6.)  1  Tim.  iii.  1-7 :  Tit.  i.  5-1 1 :  1  Pet.  v.  1-3. 

(c.)  1  Tim.  iv.  6-vi.  21:  Tit.  1.  13;  ii.  1-iii.  11  (see  Rom.  xvi.  17, 18):  2  Tim.  iii. 
14-iv.  5. 

With  all  these  passages  compare  Paul's  description  of  his  own  experience,  mo- 
tives, and  labors  (see  Cor.);  a  model  of  the  gospel  ministry. 

The  qualifications  of  deacons  are  described  in  1  Tim.  iii.  8-13:  Acts  vi; 2-6;  see 

also  Phil.  i.  1,  where  ministers  and  deacons  are  addressed  with  all  the  .^ 

.   ^  Deacons. 

samts. 

On  the  other  hand,  churches  owe  to  their  ministers  support  (a),  affection,  and 

respect  (b),  and.  within  proper  limits,  obedience  (c).  „  •   , 

Correspond- 
(a.)  1  Tim.  v.  17,  18:  Gal.  v.  6,  7:  1  Cor.  ix.  4-14:  2  Thess.  iii,  8,  9  :     in ij; dunes  of 
Matt  X.  10 :  Luke  x.  7.  churches. 

(6.)  1  Tim.  V.  17 :  1  Thess.  v.  12,  13. 
(c.)  Heb.  xiii.  17;  for  the  limits  seel  Cor.  xi.  1:  Phil.  iii.  17:  Heb.  xiii.7: 1  Pet.  v.3. 

These  Epistles  contain  also  the  fullest  account  of  the  approaching  corruption  of 

Christianity  (a),  and  of  the  extensive  prevalence  of  infidelity  (6),  in     . 

r,     ■  "^  ,,    ii     ,     . .  ./  ^  "         Approachmg 

what  Scripture  calls  the  last  times.  corruption  o{ 

(a.)  1  Tim.  iv.  1-5:  2  Tim.  iii.  1-13:  2  Thess.  ii.  1-12:  2  Pet.  ii.:     Christianity. 

Jude  17,  18. 

(6.)  1  Thess.  V.  22  Pet.  iii.:  Rev.  xiii.  11,  14:  Luke  xiii. 35-38;  xviii.  8. 

To  correct  these  errors,  inspired  writers  direct  us  to  appeal  to  apostolic  doctrine 
and  example,  and  to  the  Scriptures  generally,  1  Tim.  iv.  G-11 :  2  Tim. 
iii.  14-iv.-v:  2  Thes.s.ii.  1.3-17:  2  Pet.  i.  12-21 :  Jude20,21.    This  Scrip-  ow  met. 

tural  plan  of  checking  error  is  highly  instructive. 

THE  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  TO  TITUS.       MACEDONIA,  A.  D.  64  OR  57. 

192.  Of  Titus  nothing  more  is  certainly  known  than  we  linil  m  tlie 
Epistles  of  Paul.  From  incidental  allusions  to  him  we  learn  that  he 
■was  a  Greek  by  birth,  Gal  ii.  3,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christianity 
by  the  instrumentality  of  Paul,  Gul.  i.  4.     He  went  up  with  Paul  and 


696  TITUS — CONTENTS. 

Barnabas  to  Jerupalem,  Gal.  ii.  1,  and  afterwards  accompanied  Paul 
on  his  travels;  and  is  repeatedly  mentioned  by  him  in  terms  of  appro- 
bation and  affection,  2  Cor.  ii.  1,  2, 13  ;  vii.  5,  7 ;  viii.  19-24 ;  xii.  17-21, 

Being  the  son  of  Gentile  parents,  and  therefore  in  different  circum- 
stances from  Timothy,  he  was  not  circumcised.  Circumcision  in  his 
case  would  have  involved,  as  Paul  reasoned,  a  compromise  of  principle, 
Gal.  ii.  5. 

At  the  time  when  this  Epistle  was  written,  Titus  had  been  left  by 
the  apostle  in  the  island  of  Crete,  that  he  might  establish  and  regulate 
the  churches  there  (i.  5).  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  when  this  oc- 
curred ;  no  opjiortunity  for  it  having  been  afforded  by  the  only  visit 
to  Crete,  recorded  in  Acts  xxvii.  7,  8 ;  for  he  was  then  on  his  way  to 
Rome  as  a  prisoner,  his  stay  was  short,  nor  could  he  then  expect  to 
spend  the  ensuing  winter  in  Nicopolis  (see  iii.  12). 

Some  have  supposed  that  Paul  may  have  been  at  Crete  on  his  voyage 
from  Corinth  to  Ephesus,  mentioned  in  Acts  xviii.  18 ;  and  have 
written  this  Epistle  subsequently  from  Ephesus,  having  formed  the 
intention  of  spending  the  winter  at  a  town  named  Nicopolis,  between 
Antioch  and  Tarsus  (see  iii.  12).  Others  have  placed  Paul's  visit  to 
Crete  between  his  leaving  Ephesus  for  Macedonia  and  his  second  visit 
to  Corinth,  mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  2.  But  the  more  general  opinion 
is  that  the  visit  to  Crete  here  referred  to  was  upon  a  journey  which 
Paul  took  after  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  when  he  sailed  to 
Asia,  taking  Crete  in  his  way,  and  leaving  Titus  there ;  and  that  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  from  Macedonia,  when  on  his  way  to  Nicopolis. 

It  is  further  supposed  that  Titus,  according  to.  Paul's  desire,  joined 
the  apostle  at  Nicopolis,  and  afterwards  accompanied  him  on  his  last 
journey  to  Rome,  being  with  him  there  during  part  of  his  second  im- 
prisonment, 2  Tim.  iv.  10;  and  having  then  gone  into  Dalmatia, 
probably  to  preach  the  Gospel,  or  to  visit  churches  already  formed 
there.  What  became  of  him  afterwards  we  are  not  informed.  The 
tradition  is  that  he  returned  to  Crete,  and  died  there  at  the  age  of  94. 

We  know  nothing  of  the  first  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  Crete, 
but  as  there  were  Jews  from  that  island  among  Peter's  audience  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  11),  and  they  were  numerous  there 
(Philo),  it  is  probably  that  the  Christian  faith  was  carried  thither  by 
converts  from  among  them.  It  appears  also,  from  this  Epistle,  that 
Paul  had  labored  there,  and  probably  with  considerable  success ;  but 
that,  by  some  means,  he  had  been  hurried  thence  before  he  could  order 
the  state  of  the  churches  in  a  regular  manner. 

The  commission  intrusted  to  Titus  in  Crete  appears  to  have  been 
peculiarly  diilicult.     Although  nature  had  endowed  this  island  with  all 


TITUS.  697 

that  could  tend  to  render  man  happy,  and  the  inhabitants  had  formerly 
been  renowned  for  the  wisdom  of  their  constitution  and  their  laws, 
long  before  this  time  the  state  of  law  and  of  morals  had  sunk  very 
low.  The  character  of  the  people  was  unsteady,  insincere,  and  quar- 
relsome: they  were  notoriously  given  to  licentiousness  and  intempe- 
rance. Some  of  the  Jews  who  had  settled  among  them  seem  to  have 
been  regarded  by  the  apostle  as  more  dangerous  in  many  respects  than 
the  natives  themselves. 

There  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  this  Epistle  and  the  First  to 
Timothy ;  and  they  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  written  about 
the  same  time.  This  Epistle  is  particularly  remarkable,  as  compressing 
into  a  very  short  compass  a  large  amount  of  instruction,  embracing 
doctrine,  morals  and  discipline.     Its  contents  are  as  follows  : — 

After  an  apostolic  salutation,  declaring  the  object  for  which  Paul 
had  invested  Titus  with  special  authority,  he  describes  the  qualifica- 
tions required  of  those  who  were  to  be  ordained  to  the  ministry ;  and 
•which  were  the  more  necessary  on  account  of  the  dangerous  principles 
of  the  false  teachers  whom  they  had  to  oppose,  and  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  Cretans  (1).  He  next  describes  the  instructions  which  were 
to  be  given  to  various  classes  of  persons,  enjoining  upon  the  aged  and 
the  young  the  virtues  which  ought  severally  to  distinguish  them ;  ex- 
horting Titus  (himself  a  young  man)  to  set  a  pattern,  in  his  own  con- 
duct, of  the  virtues  he  was  to  inculcate ;  teaching  servants  to  be 
obedient  and  faithful ;  for  the  salvation  of  the  Gospel  was  designed 
for  all  orders  and  classes  of  mankind ;  making  them  holy  in  this  life, 
and  preparing  them  for  a  higher  and  better  (2).  Titus  is  then  instructed 
to  enjoin  obedience  to  rulers,  and  a  peaceable  and  gentle  behavior  to 
all  men ;  remembering  their  own  former  sinfulness,  and  their  salvation 
through  the  free  grace  of  God.  The  indispensable  obligation  which 
believers  are  under  to  excel  in  good  works  is  insisted  upon ;  cautions 
are  given  against  engaging  in  frivolous  inquiries  and  unprofitable  dis- 
putations ;  and,  after  some  other  brief  directions  to  Titus,  the  Epistle 
is  closed  with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (3). 

It  is  very  observable  in  this  Epistle,  that  those  of  the  MimUest  r.ink  are  exhorted 
to  adorn  the  Gospel  (ii.lO),  and  tliat  while  our  salvation  is  ascribed  exclusively  to 
grace  (ii.  11),  to  the  "kindness  and  love  of  God  our  Saviour"  (iii.  4),  this  fact  is 
made  the  ground  of  the  most  urgent  exhortations  to  holiness  (il.  14;  iii.  8). 

On   the   duties   Christians  owe  to  civil  government.  Tit.  iii.  1 :  see 
Rom.  xiii.  1-10:   1  Pet.  ii.  13-17:  2  Pet.  ii.  10:  Jude  S. 
59 


698  2  PETER — LAST   WORDS. 


THE   SECOND    EPISTLE    GENERAL    OF   PETER.       A.  D.   64   OR   65. 

193.  The  Epistle  is  addressed  to  all  believers  (i.  1),  and  especially  to 
the  same  persons  as  the  former  (ill.  1).  It  was  written  not  long  before 
the  apostle's  martyrdom  (i.  14),  a  circumstance  that  gives  it  a  solemn 
interest. 

As  in  the  earlier  Epistle,  he  exhorts  to  patience  under  persecution, 
so  here  he  exhorts  to  perseverance  in  truth  amidst  prevailing  error 
and  practical  infidelity.  The  best  preservative  is,  as  he  tells  them, 
progressive  piety  (i.  3-11):  decisive  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture 
doctrine  being  given  also  by  irrefragible  testimony  and  fulfilled  pro- 
phecy (i.  16-21).  In  terms  most  energetic  and  awful  he  warns  false 
teachers,  and  those  who  were  beginning  to  yield  to  their  seductions, 
of  their  guilt  and  danger  (ii.  1-22),  and  assures  them  that  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord,  though  long  delayed,  through  long-suffering,  is  a,s 
certain  as  the  fact  of  the  deluge  (iii.  1-3).  He  then  exhibits  the 
bright  side  of  the  same  truth,  and  bids  Christians  be  diligent  and  holy 
(iii.  14-18).  Appealing  to  Paul's  teaching,  in  confirmation  of  his 
views,  he  marks  how  men  had  wrested  his  teaching  so  as  to  make  it 
countenance  most  pernicious  practices,  an  evil  to  be  remedied  not  by 
neglecting  those  Scriptures,  but  by  increased  teachableness  and  hu- 
mility (v.  15,  16). 

What  set  of  heretics  is  here  condemned  is  not  certainly  known. 
Their  licentious  practices  {ii.  10-15),  their  covetousness,  their  denial 
of  the  Lord  (ii.  1),  their  promises  of  freedom  (ii.  19)  are  clearly  defined, 
and  serve  to  connect  the  advocates  of  such  views  with  those  men- 
tioned (in  nearly  the  same  terms  throughout)  by  Jude  and  by  John, 
Rev.  ii.  14,  etc. 

On  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle-,  and  of  the  other  antilegomena 
(questioned  Epistles),  see  ?  170,  and  Part  i.  |  153,  155. 

How  prone  men  seem  to  be  to  pervert  truth !  The  Thessaloniana 
supposed  that  our  Lord's  coming  was  to  be  immediate;  those  of  whom 
Peter  writes  supposed  it  to  be  indefinitely  delayed.  Amidst  such  ten- 
dencies nothing  less  than  the  Divine  Spirit  could  have  preserved 
apostles  in  a  watchful,  patient  frame,  nor  could  anything  less  than  the 
energy  of  the  same  Spirit  have  taught  poor  fishermen  to  speak  as  they 
do  of  God,  of  sin,  and  of  coming  judgment.  The  sublimity,  spirituality, 
and  harmony  of  these  revelations  are  among  the  most  decisive  evidences 
of  a  Divine  inspiration. 

We  treasure  up  the  last  words  of  great  men.  In  the  immediate  prospect 
of  martyrdom,  holiness  appears  to  Peter  of  the  last  importance,  and 


Paul's  last  words — 2  timothy.  699 

steadfastness  the  greatest  blessing.  His  last  precept  is,  "Grow  in 
grace  and  in  th§  knowledge  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ," 
and  his  last  testimony  is  to  the  Divinity  of  his  Lord,  "  To  Him  be 
glory,  both  now  and  for  ever.  Amen,"  2  Pet.  iii.  18. 

Diligence  and  eminent  piety  enjoined  from  various  considerations, 
i.  5-11:  Heb.  iii.  14;  iv.  11;  vi.  7-18:  Gal.  vi.  d:  Col.  i.  23:  Rev.  m. 
11 :   1  John  iii.  10-24. 

On  the  final  judgment  and  its  issues,  see  iii.  10-13:  Rom.  ii.  16;  iii. 
6,  6;  xiv.  10-12:  1  Cor.  iv.  5 :  2  Cor.  v,  10:  1  Thess.  iii.  13:  2  Thess. 
i.  7-10:  Phil.  i.  10;  ii.  16;  Heb  ix.  27:  2  Tim.  iv.  1:  Jude  24:  Rev. 
XX.  11-15:  Matt.  xiii.  40;  xvi.  27;  xxv.  31-46:  John  v.  22-29:  Acts 
X.  42;  xvii.  30,  31:  Psalm  xcvi.  13:   Ecc.  xii.  14. 

Connect  and  read,  i.  1,  3,  12,  16,  19;  ii.  1,  4:  iii.  1,  5,  8, 11,  14,  17. 

THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    OF    PAUL    THE   APOSTLE    TO    TIMOTHY. 
ROME,  A.  D.  65  OR  66. 

194.  This  Epistle  was  apparently  written  when  Paul  was  a  prisoner 
at  Rome  (see  chap.  i.  8,  16;  iv.  6);  and  probably  during  his  stcond 
captivity,  not  long  before  his  martyrdom.  That  it  was  not  written 
during  his  first  imprisonment  may  be  gathered  in  part  from  the  absence 
of  several  who  were  with  him  then  (see  Phil.  i.  1 :  Col.  i.  1 :  Philem. 
ver.  1:  Heb.  xiii.  23:  compare  also  chap.  iv.  10,  11,  with  Col.  iv.  10, 
14);  and  from  the  difl'erence  in  the  apostle's  expectations,  which  were 
now  fixed  upon  a  speedy  decease  (compare  chap.  iv.  6,  with  Phil.  i.  25 ; 
ii.  24 :  Philem.  ver.  22 :  Heb.  xiii.  23) ;  as  well  fro'm  his  circumstances 
of  increased  restriction  and  greater  solitude  (compare  chap  i.  17,  18, 
with  Acts  xxviii.  30,  31,  and  Phil.  i.  13).  But  more  decisive  evidence 
is  afforded  by  several  incidental  allusions  to  events  which  had  clearly 
occurred  not  long  before  this  letter  was  written.  Mention  is  made  of  a 
cloak  and  books  left  at  Troas  (^v.  13),  which  Paul  had  not  visited  for 
five  years  before  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome;  of  Trophimus,  who 
had  been  left  sick  at  Miletus  (iv.  20),  but  who  had  been  with  the 
apostle  at  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  his  first  apprehension.  Acts  xxi.  29 : 
of  Erastus  as  having  stayed  at  Corinth  (iv.  20),  where  Paul  had  not 
been  since  his  visit  there  five  years  before,  accompanied  by  Timothy, 
Acts  XX.  4.  All  these  circumstances  seem  to  show  that  this  Epistle 
must  have  had  a  later  date,  probably  about  the  year  65  or  66:  two 
years  later  than  his  First  Epistle.  The  interval  between  his  two  im- 
prisonments he  seems  to  have  spent  in  Asia,  Philem.  22:  Phil,  ii,  24; 
i.  25:  Macedonia,  1  Tirn.  i.  3:  wintering  in  Nicopolia,  Tit.  iii.  12. 
Why  he  returned  to  Rome  we  are  not  told,  but  he  was  soon  impri- 
soned as  an  evil-doer,  2  Tim.  ii.  9;  and  among  his  accusers  was  Ale-x.- 


700  Paul's  last  words — 2  timothy. 

under,  the  Judaizing  teacher  of  Ephesus,  "  who  did  him  much  evil," 
iv.  14. 

If  thif?  view  be  correct,  and  this  Epistle  was  the  last  which  the 
apostle  wrote  before  his  martyrdom,  it  is  invested  with  peculiar  in- 
terest, as  containing  the  dying  counsels  of  one  who  was  not  "  behind 
the  chiefest  of  the  apostles." 

One  object  of  writing  this  Epistle,  was  to  request  Timothy  to  come 
to  him  speedily  (iv.  9);  because  his  other  friends  had  left  him  (see  iv. 
10-12).  He  desired  the  presence  of  Timothy  and  Mark,  that  they 
might  both  cheer  him  in  his  trials,  and  aid  him  in  the  work  of  the 
ministry  (see  ver.  11).  The  absence  of  all  allusion  to  Peter  throws 
light  on  the  question  raised  (on  p.  691),  in  reference  to  the  place  of  his 
martyrdom. 

Commencing  with  strong  expressions  of  affectionate  regard,  he  ad- 
dresses to  his  son  Timothy  a  series  of  earnest  exhortations  to  steadfast- 
ness, diligence,  and  patience  in  his  work ;  to  courage  and  constancy 
under  persecutions ;  and  to  the  exercise  of  all  personal  virtues :  en- 
couraging him  by  calling  to  mind  big  early  training  in  piety,  and  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures :  reminding  him  of  some  who  had 
proved  unfaithful  in  the  hour  of  trial :  warning  both  Timothy  and  his 
flock  against  false  teachers,  vain  controversies,  and  false  professors, 
the  increase  of  whom  is  predicted  :  foretelling  the  grievous  times  which 
were  yet  to  come ;  and  enforcing  his  solemn  charge  to  Timothy  to  be 
vigilant,  faithful,  and  zealous  in  the  discharge  of  his  ministry,  by  the 
consideration  that  his  own  course  was  nearly  run,  and  the  time  of  his 
departure  was  ao  hand. 

Throughout  this  letter  to  his  beloved  friend,  Paul  manifests  a  strong 
conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  principles  he  had  embraced,  a  happy 
superiority  to  all  his  past  or  future  sufferings  in  support  of  them, 
and  a  triumphant  assurance  of  his  great  Master's  apjirobation  and 
reward. 

Connect  and  read,  i.  1,  3,  6,  8,  13,  15:  ii.  1,  8,  14,  19,  22:  iii.  1,  10, 
14:  iv.  1,  6,9,  14,  16,  19,  22. 

This  Epistle  contains  a  noble  view  of  the  consolation  which  Chris- 
tians enjoy  in  the  midst  of  suffering,  and  in  the  prospect  of  death,  i. 
9-18:  ii.  9-13:  iv.  6-8,  16-18.  The  holiest  spiritual  affection  to  God 
and  Christ  is  not  only  consistent  with  human  friendships,  but  produc- 
tive of  them,  i.  2-5 :  iv.  9,  21.  Nowhere  are  privilege  and  duty,  grace 
and  holiness  more  closely  combined,  2  Tim.  ii.  19.  In  the  approaching 
corruption  of  Christianity,  Paul  directs  Timothy  to  the  true  conserva- 
tive principle  of  its  purity ;  not  miracles  nor  a  fresh  revelation,  but 


JUDE.  701 

the  doctrine  in  which  Timothy  had  been  instructed,  and  those  Scrip- 
tures which  make  the  man  of  God  perfect,  thoroughly  furnished  unto 
all  good  words,  iii.  14-17:  2  Thess.  ii.:  2  Pet.  i.  15-21;  iii,  1-4,  14-17. 
How  instructive  that  in  the  last  writings  of  both  Peter  and  Paul,  nor 
less  in  the  writings  of  John  (Rev.  xxii.),  and  in  the  prospect  of  the 
heresies  that  were  to  prevail  in  the  church,  we  should  be  directed  to 
the  study  of  tlie  Bible,  and  that  we  are  thus  led  to  expect  no  additional 
disclosure  of  the  Divine  will.  The  Ceoss — our  hope,  our  model,  our 
motive:  The  Crown — its  purity,  certainty,  blessedness:  The  Word 
— its  promise,  precept,  doctrine,  all  complete — are  among  the  last 
words  of  the  sacred  page.  Only  let  these  continue  to  be  set  forth,  and 
the  church  need  not  fear. 

THE   GENERAL    EPISTLE    OF   JUDE.       SYRIA,  A.  D.  75    OR   64. 

195.  Jude,  the  author  of  this  Epistle,  was  called  also  Lebb^us  and 
Thaddseus,  Matt.  x.  3:  Luke  vi.  15.  He  was  the  brother  or  near 
relation  of  our  Lord,  and  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  We  read  little 
more  of  him  in  the  Gospels  than  that  he  inquired  of  our  Lord  how  he 
intended  to  manifest  himself  to  his  disciples  and  not  to  the  world,  J  ohn 
xiv.  22.  His  Ejdstle  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  to  Jewish 
Christians  in  Syria  and  Arabia,  where  he  is  reported  to  have  labored: 
as  Peter's  Second  Epistle  was  written  to  persons  of  the  same  character 
in  Asia.  It  is  highly  probable  that  one  had  seen  the  writings  of  the 
other.  Compare  2  Pet.  ii.  Those  who  think  that  Peter  had  seen 
Jude's  Epistle  give  to  the  latter  the  date  of  64  or  65  A.  D.,  as  does 
Lardner,  or  even  an  earlier  date ;  while  others  conclude  that  it  was 
written  about  75  A.  D.,  or  even  later. 

The  design  of  the  Epistle  is  clearly  to  guard  the  Christian  church 
against  those  false  teachers  who  resolved  all  religion  into  speculative 
belief  and  outward  profession,  and  sought  to  allure  the  disciples  into 
insubordination  and  licentiousness.  The  whole  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts:  the  first  descriptive  of  the  punishment,  5-7:  the  second,  of 
the  character  of  these  seducers,  8-19.  To  guard  the  disciples  against 
being  led  astray  by  them,  the  apostle  refers  to  the  Israelites  who  had 
perished  in  the  wilderness,  to  the  angels  who  had  fallen  from  their 
original  dignity,  and  the  cities  of  the  plain  which  had  been  made  an 
example  of  Divine  vengeance;  and  shows  that  a  similar  fate  awaited 
those  wicked  seducers.  He  reminds  them  that  it  had  been  predicted 
that  such  persons  should  arise  in  the  last  period  of  the~ world;  exhorts 
them  to  steadfastness  and  prayer,  and  to  efforts  for  the  salvation  of 
others ;  and  concludes  with  an  ascription  of  praise  to  Him  who  aloae 
59* 


702  1    JOHN — LESSONS. 

could   preserve  them   from  falling.     See  2  Pet.  ii.3:  2  Thess.  ii.:  2 
Tim.  iii. 

Ungodly  men  have  many  pleas  to  urge  in  arrest  of  judgment.  "  They 
had  experienced  deliverance:"  but  so  had  Israel,  ver.  5.  "They  had 
lived  near  to  God,  and  his  favor  had  exalted  them:"  so  had  the  lost 
angels,  6.  "  They  but  yielded  to  natural  propensity  :"  so  did  Sodom,  7. 
Thus  may  the  Old  Testament  be  used  to  illustrate  the  New,  and  facts 
to  prove  principles. 

Sec.  4. — -Helps  to  1st,  2d,  and  3d  John  and  Revelation. 

THE   first   epistle    OF   JOHN.       TOWARDS    THE    CLOSE  OF  THE 

1st  century,  or  68. 

196.  This  sacred  writing,  though  called  an  Epistle,  has  more  of  the 
character  of  a  discourse  on  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity. 
It  appears  to  have  been  addressed  to  believers  generally,  especially  to 
Gentiles  and  residents  in  Asia  Minor,  among  whom  John  himself  had 
labored  (ii.  7 ;  ii.  12-14,  20-27).  The  writer  has  not  deemed  it  neces- 
sary to  prefix  his  name ;  but  its  remarkable  similarity,  both  in  matter 
and  expressions,  to  the  other  writings  of  the  apostle  John,  confirms  the 
testimony  of  the  early  Christians,  and  affords  satisfactory  evidence 
that  he  was  its  author.  It  was  certainly  written  by  an  eye-witness 
of  the  person  and  labors  of  our  Lord  (i.  1-4  ;  iv.  14).  It  is  commonly 
supposed  to  have  been  written  from  Ephesus,  but  at  what  precise  date 
is  uncertain  ;  a  late  date  is  highly  probable  from  the  errors  which  are 
here  condemned. 

It  was  evidently  one  object  of  this  Epistle  to  counteract  errors 
already  prevalent.  Some  questioned  the  Divine  dignity  of  our  Lord, 
and  denied  him  to  be  the  Son  of  God.  These  the  apostle  calls  de- 
ceivers and  antichrist*  (ii.  22;  iv.  15;  v.  1).  Others  denied  his 
humanity,  thus  contradicting  the  real  fellowship  of  Christ  with  men 
(Heb.  ii.  16;  iv.  15),  and  the  reality  of  his  death  and  propitiation. 
His  incarnation  was,  as  they  held,  but  an  appearance,  and  the  story 
of  his  life,  a  myth.  This  delusion  the  apostle  strongly  denounces 
(iv.  3),  and  declares  that  he  had  himself  felt  with  his  hand  the  body  of 
his  Lord  (i.  1).  A  third  party  seem  to  have  held  that  it  was  enough 
to  worship  God  with  the  spirit,  and  that  the  body  might  have  all  pos- 

sThe  word  Antichrist  occurs  only  in  these  Epistles.  It  means  either  one  who 
claims  to  be  Christ,  or  one  opposed  to  him;  and  such  are  all  who  deny  that  Jesua 
is  Messiah  (or  Christ),  or  that  the  Messiah  has  come  in  the  flesh.  When  the  word 
is  applied  to  the  Great  Apostasy  (2  Thess.  ii.  3-10),  as  it  is  in  modern  discussions, 
it  means  that  that  apostasy  is  supremely  opposed  to  our  Lord  in  his  teaching  and 
office. 


1    JOHN — LESSONS.  703 

sible  indulgence.  This  immoral  creed  the  apostle  refutes  by  showing 
that  every  sin  is  real  transgression  (iii.  4);  that  fellowship  with  God 
purifies  the  Christian,  and  that  by  this  purity  only  can  we  be  recog- 
nized as  His  (iii.  8-10;  ii.  5;  iv.  13;  v.  11). 

The  errors  which  are  thus  rebuked  early  ripened  into  heresy,  and 
their  advocates  were  known  by  diSereait  names  (see  |  191  (3)  ). 
Whether  they  had  made  such  progress  as  to  have  formed  defined  sects 
at  the  time  this  Epistle  was  written  is  doubtful ;  but  its  contents  are 
such  as  refute  these  and  similar  errors,  both  of  ancient  and  modern 
times,  and  in  this  respect  it  possesses  peculiar  value. 

While  the  correction  of  prevalent  error  was  clearly  one  aim  of  this 
Epistle,  it  was  not  the  only,  perhaps  not  the  chief  aim.  Other  topics 
are  introduced  and  discussed,  of  the  deepest  interest,  and  to  these  the 
correction  of  error  seems  regarded  as  subordinate. 

i.  We  are  taught  the  true  nature  of  fellowship  with  God  (i.  3^).  He 
is  Light  (i.  5)  and  Love  ;  and  fellowship  implies  conformity  to  Him  . 
light,  aad  therefore  man  must  be  purified  and  redeemed  (i.  7-ii.  2): 
light,  and  therefore  man  must  be  holy  (ii.  3-7) :  love,  and  therefore  we 
must  love  one  another  (ii.  27).  Let,  however,  Christ  be  denied,  and  all 
these  blessings  are  lost  (ii.  22-24). 

ii.  We  are  taught  the  blessedness  and  duties  of  sonship.  Not  only 
fellowship,  but  adoption  is  our  privilege  in  Christ :  and  again  we  are 
led  to  the  same  results.  God  is  righteous :  as  his  children  we  too 
must  be  righteous  (ii.  29-iii.  3).  Christ  came  to  take  away  sin ;  and 
in  him  is  no  sTn  ;  to  him  we  must  be  conformed  (iii.  4-10).  He  gave 
his  life  for  us,  and  herein  his  love  is  our  model  (11-18).  Having  his 
spirit  we  shall  share  his  other  blessings  (19-24).  Again,  let  Christ  be 
denied,  in  his  human  nature  especially,  and  these  blessings  are  lost 
(iii.  19-iv.  6). 

iii.  He  had  begun  with  the  truth  that  God  is  light;  and  thence 
shown  what  fellowship  with  him  and  sonship  involve ;  now  he  gives 
another  view.     God  is  love  (iv.  7,  8).     Love  is    his  essence,  was  mani- 

a  Note  the  revelation  here  given  of  the  theme  of  apostolic  teaching  (i.l,  2),  and 
its  result  (3).  (1.)  Chri.sfs  eternity  and  union  with  the  Father,  John  i.l;  xvi.28; 
xvii.  6,24.  (2.)  Christ's  manifestation  in  ttie  flesh,  and  to  each  Christian.  John  i.  1-t. 
(3.)  Eternal  life  in  him,  John  x.  28-  1  John  v.  11.  In  its  results,  this  me.'^sage  Ijriiiijs 
fellowship  with  apostles,  with  God,  and  with  our  Lord;  with  apostles,  for  we  share, 
i.  e.  have  "in  common"  with  them  (Acts  iv.  32),  forgiveness,  love,  and  parental  dis*- 
cipline,  Rom.  v.  1:  Rev.  i.  9;  with  God,  for  we  share  his  holiness  (2  Pet.  i. :  2  John 
ii.  29;  V.  18)  and  blessedness;  with  Christ,  for  we  share  his  justification — sin  lias  no 
more  dominion  over  him — his  resurrection,  adoption,  and  glory.  This  idea  of 
"fellowship,"  of  which  pecuniary  contribution  is  one  and  a  lower  form,  being  ex- 
pressed by  the  same  word,  K^iuui/tu^  explains  many  passages. 


704  1    AND   2   JOHN. 

fested  in  the  mission  and  character  of  his  Sou,  and  is  the  necessary 
condition  of  sonship  (v.  21)  Love  to  God  and  one  another,  faith  in 
Christ,  such  confidence  as  casts  out  .fear,  are  all  among  the  results 
which  this  revelation  secures.  Only  let  us  truly  believe  that  God 
gives  eternal  life,  and  that  life  in  his  Son  (v.  11-13),  and  we  become 
holy  and  happy;  we  are  forgiven  and  sanctified.  Reject  this  truth  or 
any  part  of  it,  and  we  are  left  without  hope.  Likf  the  world  we  lie 
in  wickedness  (v.  18). 

Very  beautiful  is  it  to  rnark  how  from  the  holiness  (light)  and  love 
of  God  he  gathers  the  doctrine  of  propitiation,  and  proves  the  necessity 
of  holiness.     Compare  i.  5-ii.  11,  and  iv.  7-13. 

197.  The  general  character  of  this  Epistle  probably  gave  occasion  to 
the  opinion  early  entertained  that  John  was  of  a  peculiarly  affec- 
tionate disposition ;  and  this  opinion  seems  just.  Yet  none  has  spoken 
of  false  doctrine  more  sharply.  The  gentlest  Christian  may  be  a  son 
of  thunder  (Luke  iii.  13-19)  when  Christ's  honor  is  at  stake,  and 
charity  may  be  exercised  in  denouncing  sin  as  well  as  in  loving  the 
brethren. 

Tlie  truth  most  largely  insisted  upon  in  this  Epistle  is  the  necessity  of 
Loliness,  as  the  evidence  and  fruit  of  faith,  i.  6;  ii.  3-11,  29;  iii.  3-15, 
I'.J,  ■J.l,  21;  v.  18:  Rom.  via.  IG;  James  ii.  17-2G  :  Tit.  i.  16;  ii.  11,12: 
Eph.  ii.  10;  John  xv.  2. 

THE   SECOND    EPISTLE    OF   JOHN. 

198.  Of  the  thirteen  verses  of  this  Epistle,  eight  are  in  substance 
found  in  the  fiist,  and  it  is  concluded,  from  the  similarity  of  style  and 
subject,  that  both  were  written  about  the  same  time,  and  in  reference 
to  the  same  topics.  It  is  addressed  to  a  Christian  lady  and  her  chil- 
dren, for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  them  to  continue  in  the  truth, 
and  avoid  giving  any  countenance  to  deceivers.  He  calls  her  Electa, 
possibly  from  her  name,  but  more  probably  (see  ver.  lo)  on  account 
of  the  eminence  of  her  piety.  The  opinion  that  some  church,  or  the 
church  at  large,  is  addressed  under  this  title  can  scarcely  be  main- 
tained. 

An  Epistle  so  addressed  shows  with  what  vigilant  affection  the 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  ought  to  cherish  the  piety  of  those  whom  they 
have  gained,  and  it  shows  no  less  the  importance,  in  the  sight  of  God, 
of  the  station  of  a  Christian  mother,  and  the  earnestness  with  which 
she  should  interest  herself  in  the  religious  welfare  of  her  children. 


3  JOHN— REVELATION.  705 


THE   THIRD    EPISTLE    OF   JOHN. 

199.  That  the  Gains  or  Caius,  to  whom  this  Epistle  is  addressed, 
•was  the  person  mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  23,  and  1  Cor.  i.  14,  though 
not  certain,  is  highly  probable;  as  he  appears  to  have  been  an  eminent 
Christian,  particularly  distinguished  for  his  hospitality  to  Christian 
evangelists  or  missionaries.  The  apostle  expresses  his  affectionate  joy 
at  this  and  other  evidences  of  his  piety ;  cautions  him  against  one 
Diotrephes,  noted  for  his  ambition  and  turbulence  ;  and  recommends 
Demetrius  to  his  friendship;  deferring  other  matters  to  a  personal 
interview. 

"  The  Elder,"  the  name  assumed  by  the  author  of  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding Epistle,  might  probably  be  applied  to  John,  when  all  the  other 
apostles  were  dead,  as  a  title  of  honorable  distinction;  for  he  was  the 
senior  of  the  whole  church ;  or  he  might  modestly,  yet  as  claiming 
authority,  use  it  upon  this  occasion. 

Comparing  these  two  Epistles  with  Philemon,  it  is  evident  that  the 
apostles  wrote  as  apostles  even  in  their  private  letters,  and  that,  what- 
ever the  theme  of  their  communications,  they  imparted  to  each  a  savor 
of  Christ. 

THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN.   PATMOS,  A.  D.  96. 

200.  This  book  is  styled  the  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation  (i.  e.  the  re- 
vealing or  unveiling  of  that  which  had  been  hidden),  as  consisting  of 
matters  chiefly  prophetical,  which  were  revealed  to  John  by  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  This  took  place  when  he  was  in  the  isle  of  Patmos,  in 
the  iEgean  Sea,  whither  he  was  banished,  as  is  generally  supposed,  by 
the  Emperor  Domitian,  A.  D.  94  or  95.  Some,  indeed,  are  of  opinion 
that  this  happened  much  earlier,  during  the  persecution  of  Nero,  A.  D. 
67  or  68 ;  but  the  arguments  adduced  in  support  of  this  opinion  are  by 
no  means  conclusive.  Irenseus,  Eusebius,  and,  in  the  third  century, 
Victorinus,  expressly  refer  the  book  to  the  age  of  Domitian,  a  view 
favored  by  the  testimony  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and 
Jerome,  nor  is  there  any  other  tradition  in  the  early  church.  Internal 
evidence  also  confirms  it,  such  as  the  prevalence  of  persecution,  and 
the  great  declension  which  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the  Ephesian 
church,  which,  as  late  as  A.  D.  62,  was  warmly  commended  by  Paul, 
for  the  fidelity  and  love  of  its  members.  No  book,  it  may  be  added, 
was  earlier  commented  upon,  nor  is  it  surpassed  in  dignity  and  sub- 
limity of  composition. 

This  book  greatly  resembles  those  of  Ezekiel  and  of  Daniel,  both  in 


706  EEViiLATION — OUTLINE. 

form  and  in  substance.  It  appears,  indeed,  to  be  a  continuation  of  the 
prophecies  of  Daniel ;  but  given  with  greater  fulness  of  detail ;  the 
principal  topics  being  the  same,  and  the  termination  exactly  identical. 
It  consists  of  two  princijial  divisions  : — 

Part  i.  (i.-iii.)  relates  to  "the  things  which  are;"  comprising  a  pre- 
paratory vision  exhibiting  the  Divine  perfections  and  the  human 
sympathy  of  the  Redeemer,  and  the  Addresses  or  Epistles  to  the  Seven 
Churches;  each  of  which  consists  of  three  parts :  1.  The  introduction, 
referring  in  each  case  to  some  of  the  attributes  of  Him  who  addresses 
the  church,  taken  from  the  preceding  vision,  in  which  a  progressive 
order  is  observable,  and  an  appropriateness  to  the  general  tenor  of  the 
epistle  which  follows ;  2.  A  description  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
church,  with  suitable  encouragement,  admonition,  or  reproof;  and  3. 
Promises  of  reward  to  those  who  overcome,  which  are  addressed  to  all 
the  churches. 

ii.  The  remainder  of  the  book  (iv.-xxii.)  is  occupied  with  the  pro- 
phecy of  "  the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter."  It  consists  of  a  series 
of  visions,  showing  forth,  by  means  of  symbolical  imagery  and  figura- 
tive language,  the  conflicts  and  sufferings  of  the  people  of  God,  and 
his  judgments  upon  their  enemies;  and  concluding  with  a  representa- 
tion of  the  church  of  Christ,  the  New  Jerusalem,  after  the  final  judgment. 
The  principal  contents  of  this  prophecy  are  as  follows : — 

An  introductory  vision,  representing  the  Divine  glory  (iv.),  the 
sealed  scroll,  and  the  Lamb  who  alone  is  worthy  to  open  it  (v.)  The 
opening  of  the  first  six  seals  (vi.)  The  sealing  of  the  144,000  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel;  the  appearance  and  worship  of  the  innumerable  mul- 
titude from  all  nations ;  and  the  opening  of  the  seventh  seal  (vii. ;  viii.  1). 
The  vision  of  an  angel  offering  incense  at  the  altar ;  followed  by  the 
sounding  of  the  first  six  trumpets  (viii.  2-13 ;  ix.)  The  vision  of  a 
mighty  angel,  with  a  little  scroll  open  in  his  hand;  which,  after  the 
Beven  thunders,  and  the  angel's  proclamation,  John  is  directed  to  take 
and  eat  (x.)  The  measuring  of  the  temple  and  altar ;  theftwo  witnesses  ; 
their  prophesying,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension ;  the  sounding 
of  the  seventh  trumpet  (xi.)  The  vision  of  the  woman  persecuted  by 
the  dragon ;  the  conflict  between  Michael  and  his  angels,  and  the 
dragon  and  his  angels;  preservation  of  the  woman  in  the  wilderness 
(xii.)  The  beast  rising  up  out  of  the  sea,  and  the  second  beast  coming 
up  out  of  the  earth  (xiii.)  The  vision  of  the  Lamb  and  the  144,000  on 
Mount  Sion;  the  proclamations  of  the  three  angels;  the  harvest  and 
the  vintage  (xv.)  The  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials  of  plagues  (xvi.) 
The  angel's  description  of  the  woman  sitting  upon  the  beast  (xvii.) 
Another  angel's  proclamation  of  Babylon's  fall  and  destruction  (xviii.), 


REVELATION — OUTLINE.  707 

followoJ  by  songs  of  praise  and  exaltation  (xviii. ;  xix.  1-10).  "The 
Word  of  God"  attended  by  his  faithful  followers,  by  whom  the  beast 
and  the  fal^^e  prophet,  and  the  confederate  kings,  are  overthrown  and 
destroyed  (xix.  11-21.)  The  binding  of  the  dragon,  and  his  imprison- 
ment for  a  thousand  years,  during  which  the  saints  live  and  reign 
with  Christ;  and  at  the  end  of  which,  Satan  being  again  loosed,  gathers 
the  nations  once  more  to  battle  against  "  the  beloved  city,"  when  he 
and  his  rebellious  hosts  are  finally  overthrown  and  cast  into  the  lake 
of  fire  (xx.  1-10).  Visions  of  the  last  judgment,  the  new  heaven  and 
the  new  earth,  and  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  (xx.  10-xxii.  5):  followed 
by  final  addresses  from  the  angel,  from  Christ,  and  from  the  apostle, 
declaring  the  Divine  origin,  the  absolute  certainty,  and  the  speedy 
accomplisliment  of  these  predictions  (xxii.  6-21). 

More  briefly,  the  whole  has  been  summed  up  thus: — 

We  h&ve,  first,  seven  epistles  to  the  seven  churches  (i.-iii.);  and 
seventhly,  towards  the  close,  the  New  or  heavenly  Jerusalem  (xxi.-xxii.) 

We  have  secondly,  seven  seals  (iv.  1-viii.  1). 

thirdly,   seven  trumpets  sounded  (viii.  2-11). 

fourthly,    three   enemies,  vSatan,  the   beast,    and   the    false 

prophet  warring  against  the  church  (xii.-xiv.) 
fifthly,  seven  vials  are  poured  out  (xv.  xvi.) 
sixthly,  the  three  enemies  of  the  church  are  overthrown 
(xvii.-xx.) 

With  these  central  objects,  seals,  trumpets,  vials,  Satan,  the  beast 
and  the  false  prophet,  and  other  visions,  are  interwoven  as  introduc- 
tory and  concluding  scenes. 

20] .  In  the  interpretation  of  Kevelation  we  meet  with  many  diffi- 
culties. The  general  meaning  of  the  symbols  is,  indeed,  commonly 
clear,  founded,  as  they  often  are,  on  resemblance,  and  used  with  uni- 
formity, but  the  application  of  symbols  to  specific  events  is  by  no 
means  obvious.  A  principle  adopted  by  Dean  Woodhouse  seems 
deserving  of  general  acceptance,  namely,  that  unless  the  language  and 
symbols  of  the  Apocalypse  require  another  mode  of  application,  its 
predictions  are  to  be  applied  to  events  occurring  in  tlie  progressive 
kingdom  of  Christ,  or  the  history  of  the  Christian  church  from  the 
apostolic  age  to  the  end  of  time.  The  Bible  is  the  history  of  the  church, 
and  of  other  nations  only  so  far  as  they  are  connected  with  it.  And 
it  seems  but  reasonable  to  look  in  revelation  for  the  same  general  trutli 
which  we  find  elsewhere.  The  whole  analogy  of  Scripture  is  in  favor 
of  this  view. 


708  REVELATION — MODES   OF   INTERPRETATION. 


ON    THE   PROPHETIC   VISIONS    OF   THE    REVELATION. 

As  no  other  portion  of  sacred  Scripture  is  more  difficult,  so  of  nono 
have  the  expUinations  been  more  various.  The  different  theories  may 
be  arranged  under  three  heads. 

I.  Some  consider  the  greater  part  of  these  prophecies  to  have  had 
their  fulfilment  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church. 

In  this  view,  Grotius,  Hammond,  Wetstein,  Eichhorn,  De  Wette, 
Lee,  Stuart,  and  Hug  concur,  and  of  course  maintain  the  earlier  date 
of  the  book.     This  is  the  preterist  interpretation.* 

Professor  Stuart,  who  advocates  this  view,  divides  the  whole  into 
three  great  catastrophes :  the  first  (chap,  vi.-xi.),  describing  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  persecuting  power, 
by  a  series  of  Divine  judgments  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  deliverance 
of  the  Christians: — second  (chap,  xi.-xix.),  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
persecuting  power,  and  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  Paganism  : — ■ 
and  third  (chap,  xx.-xxii.),  the  last  great  efforts  (still  future)  of  heathen 
antichristian  powers,  issuing  in  their  entire  overthrow ;  followed  by 
the  general  judgment,  the  everlasting  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and 
the  glorified  state  of  the  righteous. 

II.  A  second  class  of  expositors,  comprising  the  greater  number  of 
Protestant  writers,  regard  these  prophecies  as  a  delinoation  of  the  great 
features  in  the  history  of  the  world,  or  of  the  church,  from  the  apostolic 
age  to  the  end  of  time. 

This  interpretation  regards  the  narrative  as  a  continuous  history, 
reaching  on  to  the  end  of  time,  though  some  parts  of  the  book  are 
treated  as  synchronological.  Its  advocates  are  Mede,  Sir  I.  Newton, 
Vitringa,  Bishop  Newton,  Scott,  Forbes,  Frere,  Cuninghame,  Wood- 
house,  Elliott,  Keith,  and  Birks. 

While  agreeing,  however,  in  this  general  view,  they  display  the 
utmost  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  application  of  the  different 
symbols ;  some  extending  them  more  or  less  to  the  events  of  secular 
history,  while  others  restrict  them  entirely  to  the  affairs  of  the  church. 

According  to  the  scheme  of  interpretation  adopted  by  the  late  T.  Scott, 
the  first  six  seals  (chap,  vi.)  predict,  first,  the  early  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  then  the  gradual  undermining  of  the  Pagan  persecuting 
Roman  Empire  by  successive  judgments,  till  it  was  terminated  by  the 
conversion  of  the  emperors  to  Christianity.     In  the  first  four  teumpets 

»  These  outlines  are  taken,  as  are  portions  of  the  intioduetions  to  several  of  the 
Epistles,  from  the  Pocket  Paragraph  Bible,  published  by  the  Religious  Tract 
Socipty 


HEVELATTOK — MODES    OF    INTERPRETATION.  709 

(chap,  viii.),  is  foretold  the  gradual  subversion  of  the  Roman  Empire 
by  the  Goths,  Huns,  Moors,  and  Vandals;  and  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
(chap,  ix.),  the  spread  of  Mohammedanism,  first  under  the  Saracens 
and  then  under  the  Turks.  Chap.  xi.  is  interpreted  as  predicting  the 
corrupt  state  of  the  nominal  Christian  church,  for  a  period  of  1260 
years ;  daring  the  whole  of  which,  however,  there  is  a  competent  number 
of  suffering  witnesses  for  the  truth,  who  protest  against  these  corrup- 
tions, till  at  length  they  are  slain,  and  their  testimony  is  silenced  for  a 
.very  short  time.  These  last  circumstances  are  considered  as  future. 
Chap.  xii.  refers  again,  in  more  detail  than  before,  to  the  revolution  by 
"which  the  Roman  Empire  became  professedly  Christian.  Chap.  xiii. 
predicts  the  rise,  establishment,  and  dominion  of  the  papal  Roman 
Empire,  as  the  ten-horned  beast;  the  Romish  clergy  as  the  two-horned 
beast;  and  the  Pope  as  the  image  of  the  beast.  (These  are  supposed  to 
be  afterwards  more  fully  described  in  chap.fxvii.)  Chap.  xiv.  refers  to 
the  opposition  made  by  true  believers  to  this  antichristian  power.  The 
seven  viALS  (chap,  xvi.)  predict  a  succession  of  judgments  (the  whole, 
or  by  far  the  greater  part,  being  yet  unfulfilled,)  by  which  the  papal 
empire  and  Rome  itself  will  be  utterly  desolated,  as  declared  in 
chap,  xviii. 

The  elaborate  work  of  Mr.  Elliot  {Horce  Apocalypticce)  proceeds  upon 
similar  principles,  though  in  greater  detail,  and  with  many  important 
differences  in  application.  He  supposes  the  first  six  seals  (chap,  vi.) 
to  depict  six  successive  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
between  about  A.  D.  96  and  324 ;  namely,  1st,  an  era  of  conquest  and 
prosperity  : — 2d,  Civil  war  and  bloodshed  :• — -Sd,  Fiscal  oppression  and 
grievous  distress: — 4th,  Wide-spread  desolation  : — 5th,  Persecution  and 
martyrdom  of  Christians: — 6th,  Overthrow  of  paganism  by  Constan- 
tino. The  "sealing  of  the  servants  of  God"  (chap.  vii.  1-8)  denotes 
the  preservation' of  a  faithful  remnant  during  the  long  apostasy.  The 
first  six  TRUMPETS  (chap,  viii.,  ix.)  describe  successive  scourges  upon 
the  Roman  Empire,  by  the  invasions  of  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns, 
Saracens,  and  Turks.  The  "little  book,"  and  the  following  visions 
(chap.  X.  xi.  1-13),  are  a  supplementary  revelation,  having  reference 
chiefly  to  the  era  of  the  Reformation ;  the  measuring  of  the  Temple 
denoting  a  separation  of  the  true  from  the  apostate  church ;  and  the 
two  witnesses  (chap.  xi.  3-13)  signifying  the  twofold  succession  of 
faithful  Churches  in  Eastern  and  Western  Christendom.  In  chap.  xi. 
14-19,  the  prophetic  history  is  resumed  with  the  sounding  of  the 
seventh  trumpet;  but  is  again  interrupted  ijy  a  distinct  series  of  visions 
in  i^hap.  xii.,  xiii ;  that  of  "  the  woman  clothed  with  the  sun"  (chap,  xii.), 

no 


Till  REVELATION — MODES   OF    INTERPRETATION. 

describing  the  struggle  between  the  Christian  church  and  the  pagan 
dragon;  the  first  beast  with  ten  horns  (chap.  xiii.  1-10),  denoting  the 
Roman  power  under  its  papal  head ;  the  second  two-horned  beast  (chap, 
xiii.  11-18),  representing  the  Romish  hierarchy,  with  its  two  orders  of 
clergy;  and  the  "image  of  the  beast"  signifying  the  general  councils 
of  the  papal  church.  After  another  series  of  intermediate  visions  in 
chap,  xiv.,  the  prophetic  history  is  carried  on  in  chap,  xiv.-xvi.,  by 
the  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials,  which  are  applied  to  events  arising 
out  of  the  French  Revolution,  coramencing  in  1789.  The  sixth,  which 
is  interpreted  as  signifying  judgments  upon  the  Turkish  empire,  forms, 
according  to  this  scheme,  the  boundary  line,  separating  the  past  from 
the  future. 

Dr.  Keith  interprets  the  first  six  seals  (chap,  vi.)  as  representing 
the  church  of  Christ,  and  the  various  forms  of  false  faith  by  which  it 
was  to  be  assailed ;  namely,  1st  seal.  Descriptive  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  Christian  religion ;  2d,  Mohammedanism ;  3d,  Popery 
in  the  dark  ages;  4th,  Infidelity  ;  5th,  The  depressed  and  persecuted 
state  of  the  true  church  in  past  ages  ;  6th,  "  Tlie  great  day  of  the  wrath 
of  the  Lord,"  yet  unfulfilled.  The  first  six  trumpp^ts  (chap,  viii.,  ix.), 
he  explains  as  describing  the  series  of  events  which  ended  in  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  visions  in  chap.  x.  he  refers  to 
events  in  Europe,  at  and  after  the  period  of  the  Reformation.  The 
tivo  witnesses  (chap,  xi.)  he  considers  to  be  faithful  churches  of  Christ; 
and  Vneiv prophesying  in  sackcloth  for  1260  years  not  to  have  yet 
ceased.  The  ivoman  clothed  with  the  sun,  etc.  (chap,  xii.),  represents 
the  history  of  Christianity,  and  the  conflict  of  the  church  with  its  pagan 
and  papal  enemies.  The  first  and  second  beasts  (chap,  xiii.)  are  impe- 
rial and  papal  Rome.  The  seven  vials  (chap,  xiv.,  xv.)  are  the  judg- 
ments of  God  on  the  papacy;  the  first y^wc  of  which  were  fulfilled  in 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  wars  which  followed  iC;  the  sixth  vial 
signifying  the  wasting  away  and  dissolution  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
now  in  progress  of  accomplishment. 

JJean  Woodhouse,  adopting  as  a  fundamental  principle,  the  religious 
reference  of  all  the  symbols,  views  the  seals  as  giving  a  general  outline 
of  the  history  of  the  Christian  church;— the _/irsi  three,  reaching  to  the 
middle  ages;  the  fourth  representing  the  papal  tyranny;  the  fifth,  the 
martyrs  of  the  whole  period;  and  the  sixth,  the  triumphs  of  the  Re- 
formed churches,  and  the  approacliing  overthrow  of  all  the  enemies  of 
tiod.  The  TRUMPETS,  he  supposes  to  go  over  tlie  same  ground,  in  move 
detail;  describing  attacks  of  heretics  and  antichristian  corrupters  on 
tlic  Christian  religion;  the j?rsi/o!t»- relating  to  those  to  wliich  it  was 
subjected  in  its  early  ages  from  .Tewisii  and  pagan  enemies,  and  from 


REVELATION — MODES    OF    INTERrRETATION.  711 

false  teachers;  iha fifth  to  the  heresy  of  the  Gnostics,  and  the  sixth  to 
the  Mohammedan  powers.  The  vials,  he  regards  as  designating  suc- 
cessive iniiictions  of  Divine  vengeance  upon  the  enemies  and  persecutors 
of  the  church,  not  yet  fulfilled. 

Another  pchcme  of  interpretation,  proceeding  on  the  same  general 
principle  as  the  preceding,  but  differing  considerably  in  its  application, 
jiroposed  in  a  work  entitled  "  The  Book  of  the  Unveiling,  with  Notes," 
is  as  follows: — That  the  seals  (chap,  vi.)  represent  different  periods  in 
the  history  of  the  church  ;  namely,  1st,  The  earlj^  triumphs  of  the 
Gospel ;  2d,  Severe  persecution ;  3d,  Affliction,  famine,  and  general 
distress,  both  temporal  and  spiritual ;  fulfilled  in  the  invasions  of  the 
Roman  Empire  by  the  Northern  nations,  and  in  the  darkness  and  decay 
of  the  church;  4th,  Awful  corruption,  apostasy,  and  persecution, 
comprising  the  period  from  the  establishment  of  the  papacy  to  the  Refor- 
mation ;  5th,  A  period  of  comparative  repose  and  revival,  commencing 
with  the  Reformation  and  extending  to  the  present  time ;  6th,  Shaking 
among  the  nations,  universal  revolution,  and  great  terror,  still  future, 
but  near  at  hand.  As,  according  to  this  scheme,  the  seventh  seal,  and 
the  seven  trumijcts,  and  seven  vials  are  still  in  futurity,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  explain  them ;  but  the  series  of  visions  in  chap,  xii.-xvi.  16, 
are  considered  to  be  illustrative  of,  and  to  synchronize  with  those  in 
chap,  vi.-ix : — chap.  vi.  being  parallel  with  chap,  xii.,  xiii. ;  chap.  vii. 
with  chap,  xiv.,  xv. ;  chap,  viii.,  ix.  with  chap.  xvi.  1-16;  and  chap. 
xi.  15-19,  with  chap.  xvi.  17-21. 

According  to  another  view  taken  of  the  plan  of  this  Book,  a  more 
general  meaning  is  given  to  many  of  the  symbols;  and  the  subjects 
are  considered  as  not  being  arranged  in  strictly  chronological  order. 
For  example,  the  scenes  presented  at  the  sounding  of  the  first  four 
trumj^iets  (chap.  viii.  7-12),  are  supposed  not  to  refer  exclusively  to  any 
pai'ticubar  places,  times,  or  persons,  but  to  predict  scenes  of  devastation, 
each  rising  above  the  preceding  in  fearful  signs  of  woe;  the  country, 
with  its  fertile  fields,  first  suffering ;  then  the  maritime  districts  with 
the  sea,  then  the  rivers,  with  the  cities  upon  their  banks,  and  lastlj^, 
the  luminaries  of  heaven.  It  is  urged  that  the  presentation,  in  these 
syml)ols,  of  different  departments  of  creation,  the  progress  of  tlie  series 
to  a  climax,  and  the  recurrence,  in  each,  of  tlie  statement,  that  a  third 
])art  of  each  was  affected,  indicate  the  general  nature  of  the  prophecy. 
In  like  manner,  when,  upon  the  pouring  out  of  the  first  four  vials 
(chap.  xvi.  2-9),  the  land,  the  sea,  the  rivers,  and  the  sim,  are  in  suc- 
cession affected  by  the  judgments  of  God,  in  a  still  more  dreadful  and 
extensive  manner,  those  visions  are  regarded  as  liaving  no  restricted 
or  exclusive  ajiplication  ;  but  as  representing  generally,  in  conjunction 


tl'J,  REVE1-AT10N-— MODES    OF    INTERJ'KKI  At'IuX. 

Willi  iliu.--<'  wliii'li  follow  (cliaj).  XVI.  12-21),  the  judgiiieiii.s  ol'  (un),  .-ift 
ooiiiiiig  with  increasing  terribleness  u})on  such  as  jiersist  in  rehellion 
against  hini. 

One  (Jcheme  which  has  been  proposed  [BibLnal  Reclew,  1^47),  pro- 
ceeding upon  these  principles,  is  in  substance  as  follows: — Tiiat  tlie 
first  six  SEALS  (chap,  vi.),  exhibit  successive  judgments  of  God  on  the 
Jewish  nation,  ending  in  its  complete  overthrow,  on  accoitnt  of  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  persecution  of  his  people;  while 
the  visions  in  chap.  vii.  signify  the  preservation  of  the  servants  of  God, 
first  among  the  Jewish  people,  and  then  among  the  Gentiles : — That 
the  TEUMPETS  (chap,  viii.,  ix.),  which  form  the  central  subject  of  the 
next  series  of  visions,  are  general  symbols  of  universal  devastation,  and 
of  severe  and  extensive  calamities  upon  heathen  and  idolatrous  nations 
(see  chap.  ix.  20),  which  were  fulfilled  in  part  by  the  disasters  which 
came  upon  the  Roman  Empire,  and  led  to  its  fall : — That  the  visions 
which  follow  (chap,  x.,  xi.  1-13)  are  designed  to  direct  the  mind  forward 
from  the  judgments  on  the  wicked,  to  the  time  when  God's. promises  to 
his  people  shall  be  accomplished: — That  the  two  visions  of  the  temple 
and  altar,  and  the  two  witnesses,  present  a  general  sketch  of  the  office, 
condition,  and  prospects  of  the  Christian  church, — this  series  of  visions 
being  closed  with  the  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet,  when  the  judg- 
ments of  God  are  completed,  and  the  world  is  subjected  to  his  govern- 
ment, chap.  xi.  14-19: — That  with  chap.  xii.  commences  a  new  scries, 
the  visions  in  chap.  xiii.  representing  two  chief  agencies  employed  by 
Satan  in  his  opposition  to  Christ;  the  first  beast  (ver.  1-10)  denoting 
tyrannical  earthly  power,  opposed  to  the  government  of  God,  and  per- 
secuting his  people;  and  tim  second  beast  {xer.  11-18)  which  supports 
the  first,  representing  the  power  of  false  priesthoods,  founded  on  delu- 
sion, and  exercised  by  means  of  social  privation  and  popular  violence: 
— That,  after  introductory  visions  in  chap,  xiv.,  xv.,  the  seven  vials, 
or  vessels  of  plagues,  in  chap,  xvi.,  exhibit  severe  and  extensive  calami- 
ties on  the  votaries  of  tlie  world,  and  of  power  and  superstition  amongst 
jirofessed  Christians;  and  that  the  woman  sitting  upon  the  beast  (chai>. 
xvii )  and  Babylon  (chap,  xviii.)  are  a  twofold  representation  of  the 
same  object,  signifying  all  antichristian  and  peisecuting  systems, 
usurping  the  name  and  the  place  of  tlie  true  church  of  Christ,  suyiported 
by  worldly  power,  and  governed  by  earthly  principles ;  and  thus  re- 
ferring clearly  to  Rome  and  the  papacy,  but  not  to  them  only. 

III.  Another  class  of  interpreters,  taking  an  entirely  different  view 
from  any  of  those  already  mentioned,  consider  tlie  greater  part,  if  not 
the  whole,  of  tliis  series  of  propliecies  to  belong,  in  its  strictest  and 
fullest  sense,  to  tlie  last  days. 


REVELATION — MODES  OF  INTERPRETATION.      713 

This  mterpetation  is  the  futurist,  and  has  been  advocated  by  Mait- 
laud,  Burgh,  and  others. 

According  to  this  scheme,  sAl  the  prophetical  part  of  the  Apocalypse 
is  viewed  as  a  representation  of  events,  which  are  to  take  place  slioi'tly 
before  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  and  the  consummation  of  all  things  ; 
the  Israel  spoken  of  here  being  the  literal  Israel, — the  "  two  witnesses" 
being  two  individuals,  probably  Moses  and  Elijah, — the  days  in  the 
chronological  periods,  literal  days, — -and  the  antichrist  or  apocalyptic 
heast,  under  his  last  head,  a  personal  infidel  antichrist,  who  is  to  reign 
over  the  whole  extent  of  the  old  Roman  Empire,  and  to  persecute  and 
triumph  over  the  saints  for  just  three  years  and  a  half,  until  Christ's 
coming  to  destroy  him.  Mr.  Baryh  considers  the  "  sealed  book"  (chap. 
v.,  vi.)  to  be  the  book,  or  title-deed  of  Christ's  inheritance  which  has 
been  purchased  (Eph.  i.  14),  but  is  not  yet  recovered  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  usurper ; — the  opening  of  the  seals  being  the  unfolding  of  the 
acts  of  Christ,  when  he  shall  vindicate  his  inheritance,  and  assume  his 
throne, — and  the  whole  of  the  visions  which  follow  being  occupied  with 
the  events  of  that  last  great  crisis. 

202.  If,  in  consequence  of  the  difficulties  of  this  book,  any  are  tempted 
to  treat  lightly  all  the  prophetic  Scriptures,  let  it  be  remembered  that 
ancient  prophecy  was  probably  as  mysterious  to  a  Jew  as  is  Revelation 
to  us.  That  a  son  of  David  should  not  see  corruption,  that  that  son 
should  be  numbered  with  malefactors,  be  put  to  an  ignominious  death, 
and  yet  sit  forever  upon  his  throne,  seemed  profound  mysteries.  All, 
however,  were  fulfilled,  and  they  served  the  meanwhile  to  sustain  the 
hopes  of  those  who  were  waiting  "  for  the  consolation  of  Israel :"  so  of 
this  book. 

203.  Whatever  diiTerence  of  opinion  may  exist  among  interpreters, 
with  respect  to  the  precise  times  and  countries,  events,  and  persons,  to 
which  it  is  supposed  these  visions  refer,  they  are  mostly  agreed,  both 
as  to  its  general  character  and  design,  and  as  to  the  lessons  to  be  de- 
duced from  it — lessons  more  or  less  appropriate  to  every  age  of  the 
church.*  Thus  all  have  learned  from  these  symbolical  representations 
that  Christ  is  exalted  to  the  highest  dignity  in  heaven,  and  exercises 
universal  dominion  on  earth — that  the  state  of  the  church  of  Christ  is, 
for  a  long  time,  to  be  one  of  trouble  and  conflict — that  steadfastness 
and  fidelity  are  our  duty — that  after  the  overthrow  of  its  first  adver- 
saries, the  Jews,  the  great  enemy  would  employ  against  it  other  agents 
— that  worldly  power  and  policy,  the  persecutor  and  the  false  prophet, 
would  be  allied  in  seeking  to  destroy  or  to  corrupt  it — that  the  marks 

•  »  See  Delta  on  Revelation,  Nisbet.  1850. 

60* 


714  REVELATION — MODES    OF    INTERPRETATION. 

of  this  unhallowed  combina,tion  are  pride,  worldly  pomp,  a  persecuting 
spirit,  a  careless  and  Ijixurious  life  (xiii.  7;  xviii.  3-24) — that  while 
exposed  to  the  assaults  of  these  foes,  it  would  ever  be  under  Divine 
protection — that  whatever  was  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  would 
certainly  be  overthrown — that  even  now  there  is  a  constant  and  most 
intimate  connection  between  the  visible  and  invisible  world,  prayer 
and  praise  ascending  continually  to  the  throne  of  God,  and  messengers 
of  wrath  and  mercy  descending  thence — that  the  providence  and  gov- 
ernment of  God  comprehend  all  subjects  and  events,'  and  render  them 
subservient  to  the  best  ends — that  the  church,  after  passing  through  a 
condition  of  abasement,  warfare,  and  tribulation,  will  be  brought  to  a 
state  of  honor,  peace,  and  felicity — that  the  Saviour,  who  redeemed  his 
people  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  ever  regards  them  with  infinite  ten- 
derness and  benignity,  aids  and  defends  them  by  his  almighty  power, 
and  will  receive  them  at  last  to  his  heavenly  kingdom — and,  finally, 
that  the  unholj'-  being  excluded,  all  the  followers  of  Christ,  of  every 
age  and  country,  will  be  united  in  one  glorious  society,  exhibiting 
perfect  holiness,  and  enjoying  everlasting  happiness,  in  the  presence  of 
their  God  and  Saviour.  These  are  some  of  the  most  important  truths 
contained  in  this  book;  they  are  presented  with  peculiar  vividness  and 
power;  and  they  have  contributed  much  to  the  faith  and  love,  the 
fortitude  and  patience,  the  hope  and  joy,  of  all  the  followers  of  the 
Lord. 

204.  Among  the  prophetic  visions  of  the  Apocalypse,  there  is  one 
which  appears  peculiarly  prominent  (xvii.  xviii.) ;  and  which  acquires 
the  greater  importance,  as  well  as  clearness,  from  other  proplietic 
intimations  evidently  referring  to  the  same  subject,  2  Thess.  ii.  3-12: 
1  Tim.  iv.  1-5.  There  is  unusual  agreement  among  the  greater 
number  of  the  best  expositors,  in  explaining  these  combined  pro- 
phecies ;  although  some  consider  them  to  refer  to  events  still 
future.  They  are  regarded  as  predicting  the  rise  and  temporary 
ascendanc}'-  of  a  great  apostate  power,  in  the  midst  of  the  Christian 
church,  which  should  be  distinguished,  by  the  following  character- 
istics:— 

1st.  Eminent  corruption  of  religion,  which  corruption,  b}'-  fraud  as 
well  as  force,  it  spreads  and  maintains  throughout  the  world,  2  Tiiess. 
ii.,  iii.  8-10:  1  Tim.  iv.  1,2:  Rev.  xvii.  2-5;  xviii.  3-5;  xix.  2.  2d. 
Gross  immorality  and  licentiousness,  combined  with  hypocritical  and 
self-righteous  asceticism,  1  Tim.  iv.  2,  3.  3d.  Arrogant  and  blasphe- 
mous pretensions,  usurpation  of  Divine  prerogatives,  opposition  against 
God,  and  persecution  of  his  people,  2  Thess.  ii.  4,  5:  Rev.  xvii.  6-14: 
xviii.  6-20;  xix.  2.     4th.  Great  wealth,  magnificence,  and  luxury,  R^jv. 


REVELATION — MODES    OE    INTEKPKETATION.  715 

xvii.  4;  xviii.  7,  8,  11-19.  5th.  Reliance  upon  the  support  and  aid 
of  worldly  powers,  whose  tyranny  it  sanctions  and  upholds,  Rev.  xvii. 
1,  2,  J5,  17;  xviii.  3,  9. 

Such  is  the  picture  drawn  by  the  hand  of  prophecy,  of  this  rival  and 
enemy  of  God,  seated  in  his  temple;  and  its  counterpart  is  but  too 
clearly  seen  in  the  history  of  a  great  portion  of  Christendom.  Out  of 
the  abundant  proofs  furnished  by  the  records  of  the  church  during  the 
long,  dark  night  through  which  she  has  passed,  and  even  by  the  pre- 
sent state  of  the  world,  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  a  few  leading  traits 
of  character  which  mark  that  system  of  iniquity  in  which  the  fulfilment 
of  these  predictions  is  pre-eminently  seen.  Gross  corruptions  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  and  worship; — compulsory  celibacy  and  uncommanded 
austerities,  combined  with  meretricious  splendor  and  a  counterfeit 
Jewish  ritual; — blasphemous  assumptions  of  Divine  titles  and  honors, 
claims  of  infallibility  and  supreme  authority  over  the  conscience, — 
dispensations  and  absolution  of  sins,  pretended  prophecies  and  miracles, 
— oppression  and  persecution  of  the  people  of  God,  carried  on  with  the 
concurrence  and  aid  of  earthly  rulers; — all  these  have  been  found 
more  or  less  developed  in  those  antichristian  systems  which  have  so 
greatly  prevailed  both  in  Eastern  and  Western  Europe,  to  the  hindrance 
of  the  spread  of  Divine  truth,  and  the  ruinous  delusion  of  myriads, 
who,  being  blinded  by  error,  perish  in  their  sin. 

The  fearful  errors  of  this  apostasy  are  not,  however,  the  closing 
scenes  of  this  book.  The  "wicked"  or  "lawless  one"  "the  Lord  shall 
consume  with  the  spirit  of  his  mouth,"  2  Thess.  ii.  8.  She  that  did 
corrupt  the  earth  shall  be  judged.  Rev.  xix.  2.  And  this  great  event, 
which  will  cause  mourning  to  some  on  earth,  will  occasion  great  joy 
and  thanksgiving  in  heaven.  Rev.  xviii.  9-19;  xix.  1-6.  Again,  and 
again,  and  again,  the  cry  is  heard  there,  "Alleluia;"  and  the  servants 
of  God  on  earth  are  summoned  to  join  in  the  song. 


205.  Our  work  is  done.  The  first  chapters  of  Matthew 
show  us  Christ  in  his  weakness;  of  royal  descent  indeed,  and 
receiving  the  profoundest  homage,  yet  poor  and  persecuted ; 
the  hxst  of  Revelation  show  him  with  memorials  of  his  sulfer- 
ing — for  he  is  a  Lamb  still — but  triumphant,  "  reigning  for 
ever  and  ever."  In  Genesis  we  see  Paradise  lost,  and  man 
driven  forth  from  the  presence  of  God ;  in  Revelation  inorc 


716  REVELATION — MODES   OF   INTERPRETATION. 

than  Paradise  is  regained,  men  are  once  more  in  fellowship 
with  God  (xxii.  3,  4,  5),  a  fellowship  that  shall  know  no  end. 
Malachi  had  ended  with  "  a  curse,"  the  last  words  of  John 
are  of  blessing  (xxii.  21).  So  characteristic  are  the  various 
portions  of  the  Inspired  Volume  throughout :  so  complete  the 
whole. 


INDEX. 


Abimelech,  kings  so  called,  184. 
Abner  more  righteous   than  Joab,  ex- 
plained, 194. 
Abraham,  his  wanderings,  448 ;  promise 
made  to  him, 448, 479;  justified  by  faith. 
383,  657,  668-9;  how  to  share  his  bless- 
ing. 369. 
Acts,  booli  of,  640-41 ;  illustrates  the  deity 
and  offices  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Spirit, 
641-3. 
A.  D..  the  precise  date  of,  626. 
Adam,  effect  of  his  sin,  357.  445. 
Adoption,  two   kinds  of,  289;  privileges 

connected  with.  703-4. 
Adultery,  figurative  meaning  of,  348. 
Advocate,  meaning  of  73. 
Affliction.  iV2;  sanctified.  416-52:  teach- 
ing of  Scripture  on,  with  examples,  418. 
Ajrag.  different  Ivings  so  called,  184. 
Alexander  on  the  tvvo  economies,  133. 
Alexander's  conquests.  603. 
Alexandrian  Platonists,  their  influence. 

6.50. 
Allegory,  kinds  of,  174;   rules  for  inter- 
preting. 313-8 ;  Jewisli  modes  of  allego- 
rizing on  woi'ds  and  lettei's:  rational- 
istic mode,  on  facts  so  as  to  deny  them, 
324;  works   on  allegorical   interpreta- 
tion. 337.    (See  Figures,  Types,  Para- 
bles.) 
Alinnnd.  a  symbol,  meaning  of,  258. 
Alphabetical  psalm,  440.  5.57. 
Anihif;\u)us  words  in  English  version,  71. 
Amnion,  prophecies  on,  534. 
Ainmoniai)  sections,  36. 
Amfis.  book  of,  .539. 

Analogy,  tlie  source  of  most  language  on 
spiritual  truth,  I  US;    use  of,  in  fixing 
meaning  of  words,  219-20. 
Analogy  of  faith,  Tneaning  of,  and  rules 

on,  205-1 1 . 
Ancestors  for  posterity,  182. 
Angel  of  Jehovah,  151,  454. 
Aniuiias,  sin  and  death  of,  642. 
Ansehn.  on  knowledge  and  experience, 

177. 
Antii-lirist.  origin  and  meaning  of,  702. 
Antilegomcna,  22,  96;  Onmbier  on,  S3. 
Antiocii,  diti'erenl  cities  so  culled,  185. 


Antiochus  subdues  Judsea,  604;  foretold 
by  Daniel,  561. 

Apis,  tne  Egyptian  idol,  454,  581. 

Apocrypha,"non-canonioity  of,  102;  histo- 
rical value  of,  103;  when  declared  ca- 
nonical by  Rome,  243 :  Augustine  on,  83. 

Apostles,  their  sufferings  and  travels, 
112.  241-2;  their  candor,  127. 

Arabia,  divisions  of, '292;  prophecies  on, 
534. 

Arabic  language,  27;  versions,  52;  words 
in  modern  maps,  307. 

Aramtean  dialect,  26;  words  in  New  Tes- 
tament, 33. 

Aristeas.  story  of,  46. 

Arnold  on  the  progressive  love  of  Scrip- 
ture. 141;  on  the  practical  reading  of 
Scripture,  408. 

Ascensions  to  heaven  under  different 
dispensations,  446. 

Asia,  meaning  of,  in  New  Testament, 306. 

Asmonceans.  their  history,  604. 

Ass  in  the  east,  passages  explained,  256. 

Astronom)-  aids  chronology.  253. 

Assyrian  empire,  silence  of  Scripture  on, 
145;  its  history,  595;  prophecies  con- 
cerning, 5-14. 

Atlieism  springs  from  the  heart,  676. 

.Athens,  idolatry  in,  241. 

Atonement,  idea  of  how  imparted,  172; 
meaning  of,  229;  importance  of,  359; 
day  of.  471. 

Augustus,  who;  different  kings  so  called, 
184. 

Authenticity  of  the  Scriptures,  what,  83; 
proofs  of  its  claim,  84-7;  evidences  of, 
lofi.  et  seq.  (See  Genuineness,  Eviden- 
ces.) 

Authority,  double  meaning  of,  212. 

Azazel,  meaning  of,  468. 

BiiiYLON,  prophecies  fulfilled,  121;  cap- 
tivity in.  5iii)-8:  delivcran(!e  from,  a 
type  of  redemption.  3-33:  its  condition 
ill  the  dnys  of  Isaiah,  545;  prophecies 
concerning,  534. 

Bacon,  on  seeking  philosophy  in  Scrip- 
ture, 141;  on  interpretation,  313. 

Balaam,  his  character,  202. 

(717) 


718 


INDEX. 


Balm  of  Gilead.  25S. 
Baptism,  its  si<initipntion,  106. 
BarnalMis.  history  of.  134;  liis  eonduct  to- 
wards Mark.  lhr\ 
Baxter's  rule  for  the  removal  of  doal>ts. 

140. 
Beasts,  their  symbolioal  meanings,  348. 
Beei'sheba.  lessons  connected  with,  294-5. 
Belief,  how  controlled,  149. 
Ben.son  on  Scripture  difficulties,  408. 
Bereans,  their  study  of  Scripture  and  its 

results.  1.50.     (ref.  Acts  xvii.) 
Beverage,  eastern,  vinegar,  etc.;  affect- 
ing ilfustratiou  of  our  Lord's  firmness, 
284. 
Bible,  reasons  for  studying  it,  11;  spirit  in 
which   it   should    be  studied.  12.  178; 
meaning  of  the   word,  12;    Scriptural 
names  of,  13;  scope  of,  197;  writers  of, 
circumstances  in  which  it  was  written, 
167;  how  to  be  studied,  404;  its  gi-eat 
purpose;  influence  of,  on  holiness,  130; 
harmonies  of,  133, 136;   peculiarities  of, 
as  a  revelation,  141 ;  general  view  of  its 
books,  425-0;   how  divided,  428;  as  a 
history,  biography,  442;   its   threefold 
revelation,  442;    to  be  studied   by  all; 
opinion  of  early   Christians,  242;    has 
Divine  authority;  the  only  Divine  au- 
thority, 88;  the  book  for  the   young, 
16G.      (See   Testament,   Division,   Evi- 
dence,    Interpretation,    Genuineness, 
Authenticity.  Canon.) 
Bible  or  Testament,  editions  of,  by  Alter, 
39;    Athias,  44;    Bengel,   38;  Beza.  17; 
Birch,  39;   Boothrovd.  44;  CurcellEeas. 
38;  De  Rossi.  44;  Elzevir,  IG:   Erasmus. 
10.  33;  Fell.  38;  Griesbach,39;  Hooght 
(Van  der),  Houbigant,  44;  .Jahn.  44-5; 
Kennicott.  17,  44-.5;  Koppe.  238;  Lach- 
man.  40;  Mattha!i,.39;   Mill,  ;W;  Scholz, 
40:  Stephens.  16;  Tregclles,  etc.,  40. 
Bickerstoth's  View  of  Scripture  Prophe- 
cy, 342. 
Bind  and  loose,  237. 
Birch's  Auetarium.  104. 
Birks   on   the   Chronology  of  the  Acts, 
645;  on  the  harmony  of  different  parts 
of  the  Gospels,  133-5. 
Bishop,  universal,  when  applied  to  the 

Pope,  243. 
Bitumen,  what.  269. 
Blood,  different  meanings  of,  188;  why 

offered  in  .sacrifice,  468. 
Boldness  in  the  faith,  411. 
Bomberg's  Bible,  009. 
liiini  .again.  237. 
Botany   of  Scripture;  list  of  all  plants, 

258-69. 
Bottles,  eastern,  291. 
Boyle  on  Scripture,  11;  on  Scripture  de- 

volo))ment.  155. 
lUidgcs  on  Systematic  Divinity,  352. 
(irown's  Harmony  of  the  Scriptui-e  Pro- 
phecies. 348. 
Uuvial.  eastern.  290. 
I'liirnt-otfcrings.  467. 
Iiiirton's  Hampton  Ijccture.s,  60S. 
Buslio  on  Evidences,  83. 


Business  not  to  interfere  with  lioliness, 
374:  Nehemiah  an  example.  578. 

Butler's  Analogy,  133;  on  Scripture  dif- 
ficulties 4(111;  on  .the  account  ol'  Crea- 
tion. 143;  on  moral  and  positive  pre- 
cepts, 364. 

C.\B.\IA.,  610. 

Cabalists,  608-10. 

Cfesarea,  185. 

Caiaphas.  a  Saddueee.  610. 

Cainan.  his  place  in  genealogies.  248 

Calendar  of  the  Jews,  lessons  taught  by, 

310-11. 
Canaan,  meaning  of,  182;  its   divisions, 

291);  woman  of,  called  a  Greek.  306. 
Canaanites,  their  punishment,  its  lessons, 
478;  some  spared,  482;  the   curse   on 
them  did  not  affect  the  righteous.  182. 
Candor  of  inspired  writers  illu.strated, 

127. 
Canon,  meaning  of;  books  of.  14;  how 
preserved,  lot;  how  settled.  94.  95.  99; 
catalogues  of  the  books,  9S,  100;  Deu- 
tero-canonical,    96;    or   antilegomena, 
22.    (See  Apocrypha.) 
Capellus.  his  services  in  Biblical  Criti- 
cism, 44. 
Capernaum,  its  geographical    position, 

133. 
Captivity,  its  causes  and  results.  566;  pro- 
phecies on,  567;  return  from,  508. 
Cecil  and  Ja}',  models  of  practical  expo- 
sition, 422. 
Cecil  on  the  Connection  of  the  Two  Cove- 
nants, 141 ;  on  the  systematic  study  of 
Scripture,   165;    on    the    richness    of 
Scripture,  236. 
Cedar,  a  symbol  of  the  righteous,  255. 
Celibacy,  when  made  compulsory,  243. 
Ceremonial  law,  its  origin  and  object, 

450-62 
Cerinthians,  650. 

Chaldteans.  prophecies  concerning,  555-7. 
Chaldee,  27 ;  chapters  in.  560-9. 
Chariots,  meaning  of,  in  visions,  574. 
Cheruljim.  349. 

Christ,  a  chief  theme  of  Scripture,  143; 
of  prophecy,  337:  his  work,  how  fore- 
told, 329;  particulars  foretold,  117:  pre- 
parations made  for  liis  coming,  443; 
his  death  and  resurrection.  3.59 ;  p.saliTi.s 
on  his  character,  387 ;  gradual  revela- 
tions of.  151 ;  mysteries  connected  with, 
146:  physical  cause  of  his  death.  134; 
journeyings  on  the  night  of  his  be- 
trayal, 305;  his  Divinity,  the  doctrine 
of  the  early  church,  242;  proved  from 
Old  Testainent,  384  (.see  Angel):  liis 
incarnation  and  dignity.  689;  his  supe- 
riority to  Mo.ses  and  Aaron.  689:  all 
truth"inhim.615;  in  the  Gospels,  617-18; 
his  teaching,  614:  his  atonement.  3.50; 
duration  of  his  ministry,  627;  his  son- 
ship  recognized,  his  death,  his  first 
iiiiiacic,  631;  discourse  .■ind  imbiic  act, 
(;;'.2 
Christians,  peculiar  names  in  New  'I'esta- 
nieiit,  134;  their  c.\celleiicics,  how  set 


INDEX. 


719 


forth  in  Soriptnre,  163 ;  bound  to  spread 
the  Gospel,  :i74. 
Chronicles,  books  of,  489-90;  relations  to 

Kings  and  Samuel,  490. 
Chronology,  peculiar  difficulty  in,  from 
modes  of  writing,  70:    of  reckoning, 
^     251-2;  of  Old  Testament,  247-50;  com- 
parative claim  of  Hebrew,  Septuagint, 
and  Samaritan.  2j0;  utility  of  m  teach- 
ing moral  truth,  243;  different  epochs 
of  245 ;  rules  for  framing  a  system,  251 ; 
difficulties  in,  .391-2;  ancient,  confirms 
the  truth   of  the   Pentateuch.  432;  of 
the  Gospels  (ize-SO;  of  the  Acts  and 
Epistles,  044-6.    (See  As.syria,  Egypt, 
Pentateuch.) 
Chronological  arrangement  of  Scripture, 

l.W,  443-00,  514-17. 
Chiu'ch,  its  character  and  members;  its 
discipline,  043;  described  liistorically 
in  the  Acts,  04u;  duty  to  ministers,  695; 
the  Bible,  a  history  of,  143;  Abraham's 
seed,  331. 
Classic  usage  as  to  New  Testament  words, 

321-2 
Claude's  Essay,  422. 
Climate  of  Judwa,  307-9. 
Coasts,  moaning  of,  3  iO. 
Codex,  Code,  meaning  of,  35;  Cod.  Alex. 
Vati,  etc.,  17,  34,  41;  readings   of  Cod. 
Ale.x.,  47-.58. 
Cognate  languages  of  Scripture,  25;  use 

of  in  interpretation,  220 
Colo.ssians,  Epistle  to.  198.  fi81-3. 
Coming  One,  the,  225,  338,  344. 
Commg  (second)  of  Christ,  344. 
Commandments,  the  ten.  rules  for  inter- 
preting, 303;  moral  and  positive,  364-5. 
Comparison,  how  expressed  m  Heb  ,  181 ; 
of  Scripture  with  Scripture  (see  Paral- 
lels) 
Cornplutensian  New  Testament,  16. 
Concordance,  Hebrew  and  Greek,  230. 
Conjectural   readings  and  emendations, 

64. 
Connection  (historical),  of  the  two  Tes- 
taments, 599-600. 
Constitution,  the  Jewish,  described,  462. 
Context,  use  of  in  fixing  sense,  189-92, 

210;  in  suggesting  lessons.  412-13. 

Contradictions  (apparent),  of  Scripture. 

their  origin,  71,  171,  183,  180,  199,  203, 

251-2,  288,  354;    how   reconciled  (the 

foregoing  pages,  etc.),  392-8. 

Controversy,  difficulty  of  conducting,  439. 

Conversation,  carriage,  charity,  meaning 

of  72-3. 
Corinih,  its  character  and  importance, 

668. 
Corinthians  (the).  Epistles  to,  658-65. 
Corruptions    of   Christianity,   how  met, 

695-70U-1;  whence  originating,  049-63. 
Cosmogonies,   ancient,    compared    with 

Scriptitre,  examples  of  146. 
Counsel  of  God  agrees  with  his  promises, 

307. 
Covenant,  meaning  of  13;  flie  new,  the 

old  un\  oiled  and  completed,  426. 
Covenants,  different,  mentioned  in  Scrip- 


ture, 448;  with  David:  himself  refers 
them  to  the  .Messiah,  485. 

Covetousness  condemned.  101,  287,509. 

Creation,  lessons  in  history  of  445. 

Cretans,  their  cliaracter,  097. 

Cush,  186. 

Customs  explain  texts,  274,  289;  difficul- 
ties in,  391. 

D.iMAScus,  its  character,  293. 

Daniel,  book  of  420.  559;   chronology, 

divisions,  and  spiritual  lessons,  560-2 ; 

Daniel  an    example  to   young   men, 

562. 

Dates  of  English  Bible,  whence  taken, 

247;   discrepancies  of  origin  of  251. 
Daubuz  on  symbolical  language,  348. 
David,  a  man  after  God's  own  lieart,  201; 
his  righteousness   explained.  194;  his 
propheciesof  Christ.  487;  Christ  spoken 
of  under  his  name,  329;  his  character 
and  reign,  491;  his  sin  and  its  chastise- 
ment, 244. 
Davidson's  Biblical  Crit.,  46,  etc. 
Davison  on  Prophecy,  119. 
Day,  Jewish,  how  divided.  287. 
Deacons,  their  qualifications  and  duties, 

095. 
Dead  Sea.  186. 
Dedication,  feast  of  471. 
Deductions  from  Scripture, authority  of, 

357-8. 
Delta  on  Revelation,  713. 
Depravity,  human.  135, 157, 244,  358. 
Deuteronomy,  435. 
Development  in  Scripture,  150-6;  abuse 

of  150. 
Devils,  meaning  of  73;  the  devil,  his  per- 
sonality, 445.    (See  Satan.) 
Difficulties   of  Scripture,  how  far  to  be 
studied,  origin   of  37S;  in  words  and 
scope,  389-97;  in  truths,  revealed,  398; 
utility  of,  402;  not  all   to  be  removed, 
408 
Discrepancies,  apparent,  of  Chronicles 
and    Kings,  488;    of  the   Gosperts,  630. 
(See  Contradictions.) 
Dispensations,  successive,  character  and 

duration  of  each,  151-4. 
Divisions  of  Old  Testament,  13, 78;  of  New 
Testament;  Euthalian  sections,  36; 
into  chapters  and  verses,  77;  occasion- 
it!  inaccuracy  and  rule,  78.  (See  Am- 
monian,  Etisebian.) 
Divisions  among  Christians,  the  sin  and 

cure  of  665. 
Docette,  650. 

Doctrine,  how  illustrated  by  example,  443. 
Doctrines  of  Scripture,  the  foundation  of 
morality,  362:  to  be  held  consistently. 
356;  comparative  valtte of  358-9;  essen- 
tial doctrines  the  same  in  all  ages,  157; 
interwoven   with    precepts,   lb5;    sur- 
names,   179;     pas.Siiges    proving    (see 
Rom.)  how  systems  are  framed,  3.55. 
Dogmatic  theology,  what,  3.55. 
Domestic  usages  among  the  Jews,  276-80. 
Dress,  eastern,  "naknij  "  explained,  278. 
Duties  of  Christians  to  G(k1,  to  man,  to 


720 


INDEX. 


themselves,  073;  duties  of  justice,  ve- 
racity, and  love,  674;  relative  duties, 
675. 

EAciiE,  habits  of,  illustrate  Divine  teach- 
ing, ^.'i.s 
Earths  mentioned  in  Scripture,  269-70. 
Ebiouite.s.  239-40. 

Ecclcsiastcs,  booic  of,  true  key  to,  511-14. 

Ecclesiastical  writers,  their  testimony  on 

the  genuineness  of  Scripture,  18:  of  the 

first  four  centuries  ai-ransed,  107. 

Edoin,  prophecies  on,  534;  fulfilment  of, 

I-IO. 
Economy,  the  old,  689-90. 
Egypt,  history  of   145,  595;   prophecies 
on,  5;U;    its   climate,  308;  plagues  of, 
238,464;  customs  of  431;  tendency  of 
Jews  to  rely  on,  545-54. 
Egyptian   words   in  Pentateuch,  29;    in 
New  Testament, 33;  Egyptian  versions, 
AS. 
Ekron,  prophecies  on,  652. 
Election,  how  taught,  356. 
Ell.  how  punished,  244. 
Elihu's  humility,  439. 
Elijah's  miracles,  115,  582-3. 
Elisha's  miracles,  115,  582-3;  disinterest- 
edness, 28G. 
Eminent  piety  enforced,  698. 
English   versions-  authorized,  what,  86; 
general  aecuraey  of  66;  corrections  of 
67-75;  history  of  79-80;  Wyolifte's.Tyn- 
daie'.s,    Coverdale's,  79,  80;    Genevan, 
Douay,  Rhemish,  etc,  80. 
Englishman's  Hebrew  and  Greek  Con- 
cordances, 230. 
EphcsiaUii,  Epistle  to,  198,  679;  warnings 
suggested  ijy  history  of  the   Ephesian 
chmch.  liKl. 
Epicureans,  :i:59,  608. 
E-pistles,  tiow  to  be  studied,  647-51. 
Era  of  Nabonassar,  645;  various  era.s  or 

epochs,  245-li. 
Error,  its  progress  downwards.  450,  676; 

errtn's  of  the  early  church,  049. 
Esdraelon,  valley  of,  294. 
E,ssenes.  6U7.  611. 
Essential  truths,  what,  179,  359. 
Esther,  book  of  570-7. 
Ethics,  how  taught  in  Scripture,  149. 
Ethiopic  language,  28;  and  versions,  43. 
Etlmogi-.iphy.  use  of,  4.33. 
Etymology,  how  far  a  guide,  218. 
Euseliian  canons,  36. 
Euthalian  sections,  36. 
Evangcli.sts,  meaning  of  name,  617;  can- 
dor of  127. 
Evidences  of  the  truth  of  Scripture  claa- 
sitied.  U'8-9;  external  and  internal.  110; 
moral.  123;  literary,  133;  spiritual,  135; 
want  of  faith  in,  how  removed,  140.  (See 
Authenticity,  Ecclesia.stical,  Genuine- 
ness, Pentateuch.) 
Evil,  how  overruled.  452. 
ENamples  of  .Scripture,  how  to  be  used, 
371:    applied   to   illu.strate    principles, 
442;  intended  to  promote  holiness,374. 
Excuses  of  the  ungodly,  702. 


Exodu.s,  book  of,  435. 

Expiation,  226;   how  taught  under  the 

law.  467-8. 
Ezekiel,  book  of  562-5. 
Ezra,  book  of,  508-70. 

Fables  of  Scripture,  175. 

Pabricii  Codex  Pseud  ,  104. 

Faith,  defined.  190;  various  uses  of  the 
word,  187;  produces  good  work.s,  2u0, 
361;  the  gift  of  God.  150;  man's  respon- 
sibility for,  356;  how  produced.  lOO; 
the  principle  of  obedience  and  suc- 
cess, 126;  examples  of  162, 383:  admits 
increase,  417;  taught  in  Old  Testa- 
ment, 3S3. 

Fall,  history  of,  its  moral  completeness, 
144. 

False  teaeher.s,  three  kinds  of,  702. 

Fanciful  interpretations,  179,  323-5. 

Fasts,  Jewish,  471. 

Felix,  his  character,  162,  241. 

Fellowship  with  Christ.  703. 

Festivals.  Jewish.  310-11,  469-70. 

Figurative  language,  origin  of  168;  cau- 
tions on,  170-71,  2U6;  general  nature 
of  173-89;  rules  for  interpreting,  188- 
96-207.    (See  Allegories,  Prophecy.) 

Flesh,  meaning  of  J  87. 

Food,  eastern,  281-2. 
oreknowledge, 
freedom,  527. 

P'orty,  peculiar  use  of  183. 

Franeke  on  practical  reading  of  Scrip- 
ture. 409. 

Furniture,  ea.stern,  276. 

Furst's  Concordance,  230. 

Galatians,  the,  their  origin  and  charac- 
ter. u.MJ;  Epistle  to,  658;  compared  with 
other  epistles,  198;  various  readings 
of  23;  scope  of  198-9. 

Galileejins,  610. 

Gaza,  prophecy  on,  532. 

Gehenna,  origin  of  the  name,  305. 

Gemara,  60S. 

Genealogies  of  Scripture,  use  of  446. 

Genesis,  book  of  435. 

Gentiles,  effect  of  Jewish  rule,  606;  their 
need  of  the  gospel,  636-9;  liovv  met  by 
the  gospel,  636;  preparation  for  receiv- 
ing them  into  the  church, 532— 1-43. 

Genuineness  explained,  15;  efi'ect  of 
printing  on  question  of  16;  evidences 
of  10-25,  106;  of  Pentateuch.  428-9;  of 
Isaiah,  546;  of  Gospels  and  Epistles, 
618-19. 

Geography,  utility  of  292;  difficulties  ex- 
plained "by,  300;  outline  of,  292-304. 

Geology,  432. 

Gerard's  Institutes.  221. 

Gibbon  on  the  effects  of  the  gospel,  132. 

Gifts  improved  are  increased,  359. 

Gilgal.  lessons  connected  with,  295. 

Gill's  Commentary,  '238. 

Glory,  the,  403. 

Glossaries,  on  Scripture,  224. 

Gnostics,  6h0. 

God,  his  nature,  how  revealed.  150;  a 


INDEX. 


721 


Spirit,  205;  his  character;  his  govern- 
ment, 161 ;  alone  honored  in  .Scripture, 
126;  illustrated  in  Genesis,  445. 

Gospel  adapted  to  man's  wants.  136; 
agreement  between  it  and  experience 
ot  Chrifitians,  137 ;  contrasted  with  lalse 
systems,  157;  its  chief  excellence,  160; 
influence  of,  among  heathen  nations, 
131-2. 

Gospels,  the,  their  canonicity,  95;  au- 
thority, 81-5;  meaning  of.  connection 
of  the  four,  617-18;  chronology.  626-7; 
verba!  agreement,  629;  harmony  of, 
628;  apparent  discrepancies,  630;  topics 
to  be  noticed  in  studying,  633. 

Government.  Christian  duty  to,  697. 

Gradual  disclosure  of  truth  in  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  614. 

Graves  on  the  Pentateuch,  argument  of, 
434. 

Grecian,  306. 

Greece,  most  civilized  and  most  idola- 

.    irons,  131,  241. 

Greek  language,  its  elements,  31 ;  Hellen- 
istic, 30 ;  Lexicons  and  Grammars  with 
special  reference  to  New  Testament, 
33,  214;  Greek  article,  importance  of, 
69 ;  rules  of,  231 ;  books  on.  235-6. 

Greek  Scriptures,  earliest  versions  of; 
the  Septuagint,  21;  history  and  coiri- 
parative  value  of;  chief  editions  ot; 
versions  made  from,  46-7;  MSS.  of,  16, 
41;  quotations  from,  in  Fathers,  IS:  use 
of,  in  interpretation,  224;  history  of  the 
text  of  New  Testament,  38;  textus  re- 
ceptus,  16.  (See  Aristeas,  Origan,  Va- 
rious readings.l 

Greeks,  peculiar  meaning  of,  306. 
_  Grotius  on  Scripture  Evidence  a  test  of 
character,  139-40. 

Groves,  worship  in,  366. 

Growth,  Christian,  tlirough  the  word,  693. 

Habakkuk,  book  of,  557-9. 

Habit,  power  of,  162. 

Habitations,  eastern,  described,  274-7. 

Hagenbach  on  the  spirit  in  which  the 

Scriptures  must  be  studied,  177. 
Haggai,  book  of;  prophecies  concerning 

Christ,  571. 
Hagiographa,  what,  14. 
Hales'  Chronology,  254. 
Hall,  Bishop,  on  virtue,  366;  on  Ruth's 

history,  483. 
Hand-book,  aim  of,  11, 12. 
Hands  placed  on  s.acrifice,  meaning  of, 
■  467. 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  how  framed, 

628. 
Hatred,  in  what  sense  enjoined.  181. 
Head-dress,  279. 
Heathenism,  intlijence  of,  l;^2;  ignorance 

of  man's  guilt,  God's  chara(3ter,   and 

future  life,  636-8. 
Hebraisms  of  Scripture,  180. 
Hebrew  language,  name,  character,  and 

history,  25,  28,  29;  helps  to  the  study 

of,  21.3. 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  earliest  printed  edi- 

61 


tions,  16;  MSS.  of,  17, 18;  critical  edi- 
tions of.  44;  Hebrew  text  modified  by 
passages  in  the  New  Testament,  380; 
difficulties  in,  388-91.  (See  Targums, 
Masora.) 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to,  686. 

Hell,  meaning  of,  72. 

Hellenisms  of  New  Testament,  30,  225. 

Hellenistic  New  Testament.  229 

Hercuianeum,  MSS.  found  at,  35. 

Heresies  in  the  early  church,  650. 

Herod,  persons  so  called,  184;  date  of 
death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  644;  Herod 
the  Great,  605. 

Herodians.  610. 

High  priest,  464. 

History,  how  to  be  studied,  343;  profane, ; 
its  use  in  interpretation,  240;  ecclesi- 
astical, its  use,  241. 

History,  natural,  its  use,  254. 

History  of  the  Bible,  on  what  principle 
written,  141;  regarded  as  allegorical, 
172-3,322;  difficitlties..S92-5. 

Historical  books  of  Scripture,  Jewish,  an 
arrangement  of;  by  wliom  writ  ten.  473; 
on  what  principles,  474;  religious  char- 
acter of  Old  Testament  history,  490-1; 
chronological  order  of,  476-7-,  614-23. 

Hody  on  LXX.,  21. 

Holiness,  idea  of.  how  tanght,  172;  su- 
preme importance,  123-4,359;  promoted 
Dv  the  gospel,  130;  the  fruit  of  faith, 
128. 

Holy  Spirit,  needed  in  reading  the  Bible, 
177;  now  revealed  in  Old  Testament, 
151;  his  personality  and  office,  642-3. 

Homologoumena,  22. 

Horeb  and  Sinai,  1S6. 

Horn,  the  little,  ol  Daniel's  prophecy,  561. 

Home's  Introduction,  46,  etc. 

Horsley  on  the  English  Bible,  179. 

Hosea,  book  of,  541-3;  marriage  of  the 
prophet,  meaning  of,  543. 

Houses,  eastern,  274-5. 

Human  nature.  Scripture  teaching  on, 
141-58;  porfr.aits  ot,  5S;  its  tendencies 
seen  in  Jewish  sects,  613. 

Humility,  idea  of,  new  to  the  Greeks, 
173;  Peter  an  example  of.  693;  Elihu, 
439:  honor  put  upon.  359^10;  how 
taught  by  our  Lord,  359,  632. 

ImoM,  Hebrew  and  Greek,  importance  of 
attending  to,  69. 

Idolatry,  under  the  law,  treason,  463. 

Iduma?a  (See  Edom). 

Immortality  believed  in  by  Old  Testa- 
ment .saints,  383;  doubted"  by  heathen, 
637. 

Importance  of  truths,  how  ascertained, 
35S. 

Incense,  218. 

Inns,  eastern,  290. 

Inspiration,  Scripture  teaching  on,  91; 
theories  of,  92;  what  it  allow.*,  93;  how 
it  modifies  interpretation,  404. 

Insults,  dilfereiil  kinds,  290. 

Interpretation,  rules  of,  179-211;  sane 
tioupd  by  qnolalions  in  NewTest.ament, 


722 


INDEX. 


440;  helps  to,  236;  of  Psalms;   Song  of 

Solomon,  503;  Proverbs,  508;  Eeolesi- 

astes,511;  Joel.537-8:  Zechariah, 572-3. 

(See  particular  books.) 
Intoxication,  meaning  of,  in  figures.  206. 
Introduction  to  books  of  Scripture,  best 

expositors,  428.    (See  ditl'erent  books.) 
Irony,  examples  of,  194. 
Isaiah,  book  of,  54^3. 
Israel  and  Judah,  different  histories  of, 

523-4;    spiritual  meaning  of  "Israel," 

331. 
Isthmian  games,  659. 
Italic,  the  old -version,  47. 
Italics,  me,anin^  of  in  Scripture,  76. 
'Iva,  meaning  of,  390. 

Jacob's  conduct  to  Esau  and  its  results, 
406. 

Jahn's  Archseoloey,  287. 

James,  Epistle  ot;  his  history,  677;  rela- 
tion of  his  Epistle  to  other  Epistles, 
2110. 

Japheth,  prophecy  on,  118. 

Jehoshaphat,  582. 

Jephthah's  vow,  398. 

Jeremiah,  book  of,  553-7;  different  ar- 
rangement of  his  predictions,  55.5-6. 

Jericho,  prophecy  concerning,  478;  its 
history,  295. 

Jeroboam,  his  character,  524. 

Jerusalem,  history  of,  301-6. 

Jethro,  his  different  names,  185. 

Jews,  prophecies  on,  120;  their  history 
and  rites  typical,  173,  331;  God's  pur- 

Sose  in  relation  to,  675. 
,  book  of,  43G;  lessons  taught  by,  439 ; 
prophecies  of  Christ  in,  447;  difficulties 
of.  390;  peculiar  words  in,  30. 

Joel,  book  of,  537-9. 

John,  Gospel  of,  624-6;  Epistles  of,  702-5. 

Jonah,  book  of,  53iJ-7. 

Jones  on  the  canon,  104. 

Jordan.  293. 

Joseph,  his  history  and  character,  416, 452. 

Josephus  on  the  canon,  13;  his  account 
of  Felix,  241;  use  of,  in  interpretation, 
324. 

Joshua,  the  high  priest,  574. 

Josliua,  book  of,  477;  relation  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch, 482;  lessons  taught  in  the  life 
of.  478. 

Jubilee,  year  of,  472. 

Juda?a,  heat,  seasons  of,  307-11. 

Judaizing  teaeher.s,  their  character,  649. 

Jude,  Epistle  of;  connection  with  2  Pet., 
701. 

Judges,  book  of  481;  moral  condition  of 
the  Israelites  under,  482. 

Julian  era,  627. 

Judgment,  the  last,  699;  qualities  needed 
in,' 359;  shadowed  forth  in  Old  Testa- 
ment, 344. 

Justification  by  faith.  Scripture  view  of, 
672;  Paul  and  .James  comp.ared,  197-9; 
blessings  consequent  on,  672. 

Karaites,  608. 

Keith  on  prophecy,  121,  etc. 


Kennicott.  his  labors,  17, 44-.5. 
Kingdom  of  heaven,  or  of  God,  237,  410. 
Kingdoms  received  from  Rome,  291. 
King.s,  books  of,  488-9;  to  be  compared 

with  Chronicles,  490-521,  ,588-9. 
Kings,  comparative   view   of  reigns   of 

those  of  Israel  and  Judah,  524^5. 

Lamentations,  book  of.  557. 

Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  312. 

Lardner,  133, 

Latin  words  in  New  Te.stament,  33. 

Law,  the,  its  true  purpose,  4;i5:  outline 
of  its  provisions,  463-73;  origin  of  ce- 
remonial, 459;  how  to  be  interpreted, 
363. 

Lebanon,  292-.300;  smell  of,  255. 

Leighton's  summary  of  1  Pet.,  692. 

Leiand  on  Revelation,  132. 

Leslie  on  Miracles,  113. 

Letters,  how  to  be  written,  705;  peculiar, 
in  Hebrew  Scriptures,  610. 

Levites,  464-6. 

Leviticus,  book  of  435. 

Lexicons,  authority  of;  Hebrew,  213; 
Greek,  214. 

Liberality,  374;  its  motives  and  measure, 
664. 

Liberty,  spiritual,  in  things  indifferent, 
658,  671. 

Light,  meaning  of,  171-89;  God  is  light, 
703. 

Lightfoot's  Hor®  Heb.,  238. 

Lion,  habits  of,  257, 

Lisco  on  the  Parables,  321 ;  on  the  Pro- 
digal Son  and  the  rich  man,  419-20. 

Locke  on  Theology,  176 ;  on  general  truth, 
355;  his  Comm'on-place  Book,  422;  on 
the  Epistles,  648, 

Lord's  Supper,  commemorative  not  sacri-' 
ficial,  665;  of  two  kinds,  204;  primitive 
practices  in,  377;  how  to  be  observed, 
665. 

Love,  constraining  motive  of  obedience, 
665;  sum  of  tlie  law,  675;  Christian,  its 
supremacy.  665 ;  God  is  love,  703. 

Luke,  Gospel  of,  G23-4. 

Luther,  his  version,  216;  on  studying 
Scripture  history,  375. 

Maccabees,  605. 

M.agoa:,  1S5. 

Malachi,  book  of,  579-80. 

Malice,  74. 

Man,  how  revealed,  141, 162. 

Man  of  sin,  241.  656. 

Manasseh,  his  repentance,  .588. 

Manuscripts,  oldest  known,  247;  age, 
how  fixed,  33-7:  materials  of,  3o;  of 
classic  authors,  18;  number  of,  17,4,3, 
45;  circumstances  f^ivorable  to  accu- 
racy of  Scriptures,  22;  comparative 
value  of,  39,  43;  classification  of  He- 
brew, 45;  of  Greek,  by  Bentley,  Tre- 
gelle.s,  ctc.,40;  uncial  and  cursive,  41-3. 
(See  Codex,  Genuineness,  Greek,  He- 
brew, Masora.) 

Marginal  glosses,  56;  readings,  76. 

Mark,  Gospel  of,  621-2. 


INDEX. 


723 


Marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  201. 

Marriage,  445-8;    ungodly,   mischief  of, 

16U;    its    duties,  604;    meaning  of,  in 

symbols.  3o7. 
Marsh's  Biblical  Criticism,  46, 167. 
Masora,  009;  Masoretic  text,  43,  45. 
Matthew,  Gospel  of,  619-21. 
Meals,  eastern,  280. 
Measures,  Scriptural.  285-6. 
Media,  history  of,  .i9T-9. 
Mediterranean  Sea,  186,293. 
Melchisedec,  20. 
Messiah,  preparations  for  his  coming, 

443. 
Mesopotamia,  282. 
Metals,  272-4. 
Metaphor,  174. 
Metonymy,  174. 
Micah,  hook  of,  548-0. 
Michaelis'  Introduction,  38. 
Mill's  Symbnlogy,  348. 
Minerals,  2C9-70. 
Minister,  218;  Christian   ministers,  their 

qualifications  and  duties,  094. 
Miracles,  evidence  of,  110;  number  of, 

111;  books   on,  110;  of  our  Lord.  633; 

of  Elijah,  502. 
Miraculous    gifts,  their   use,  065.    (See 

Leslie.) 
Mishna,  60S. 
Mizpeh,  185. 
Money,  early,  274-87. 
Montfaucon's  Palajographia  Graaea,  38. 
Months,  Jewish,  tables  of,  310. 
Morality,  Christian,  its  peculiarities,  073; 

founded  on  doctrines,  354. 
Moriah,  Mount,  301. 
Moses,  his  candor,  127;  how  he  honors 

(iod,  126. 
Mothers,  their  influence,  704. 
Mourning,  eastern,  290. 
Myrrh,  268-65. 
Mystery,  74, 191. 

N.4HUM,  book  of,  550-1. 

Naked,  meaning  of,  278. 

Names,  proper,  their  importance,  202, 
218. 

Nathan,  his  eliaracter,  485. 

Nations  taught  their  duties  in  the  Old 
Testament,  491;  heatlien,  how  noticed 
in  Scripture,  143. 

Natural  history,  utility  of,  254;  Botany, 
258-69;  mineralogy  of  Scripture,  269-74; 
particular  examples,  255-8. 

Neander  on  the  Parables,  320-1;  on 
church  history,  376;  his  motto,  177. 

Nebuchadnezzai-.  his  dreams,  591-2. 

Nehemiah,  book  of  677;  a  model  of 
patriotism  and  piety,  677-9. 

Nero,  by  what  name  called  in  Scripture, 
184;  honor  due  to  him,  244;  Paul  be- 
headed by  his  order,  699. 

New  Testament,  books  of  426;  the  ful- 
filment of  the  Old,  38.5-420;  set  I'orlli, 
in  Christ,  613;  to  be  studied  with  com- 
parison, 635-6;  sense  of  doctrine,  358. 
(See  Testament.) 

Newton,  bishop,  on  prophecy,  110. 


Newton.  John,  on  systems  of  theology, 
511;  on  the  practical  reading  of  tlie 

Bible,  585. 
Newton,  Sir  I.,  on  times  of  prophecy, 

346. 
Nicolaitanes,  some  account  of.  6.50. 
Night,  how  divided  among  the  Jews,  288. 
Nile,  180. 
Nineveh,  its  history,  595-0;   predictions 

concerning,  122,  534;  .state,  in  the  days 

of  Nahuni,  650. 
Numbers,  book  of;  scope  and  contents?, 

435. 
Numbers.mis-translationsof,  70-1;  liablo 

to    errors,  71;  peculiarity   in    use    of, 

183. 

0\TFTS.  how  far  allowed,  373. 

Obadiali,  book  of.  56^5-6. 

Obedience,  evangelical,  motives  to,  673. 

Obsolete  words  of  English  Scriptures, 
73-5. 

Ofterings  under  the  law,  466. 

Oil,  value  of;  how  used  as  medicine, 25S; 
at  feast,  282. 

Old  Testament — meaning  of  name,  13; 
various  readings  of,  24;  our  Lord's  tes- 
timony to.  86.  'J3;  a  moral  history,  142; 
still  instructive,  158;  outline  of,  426; 
use  of,  424;  its  importance  and  inferi- 
ority to  the  New  Testament,  427 ;  is  tJio 
New  unveiled,  323;  its  temporal  pro- 
mises how  far  applicable,  368. 

Olives,  Mount  of.  395-7. 

Oracles,  of  (jod,  wiiat.  14. 

Ordain,  various  meanings  of,  72. 

Origen's  Hexapla,  48. 

Palestine,  its  names,  296;  extent  and 
divisions,  297-8;  climate,  3U0;  moun- 
tains. 299-300;  population  in  ancient 
and  modern  times.  oOJ-l. 

Paley  on  the  Evidences,  107;  his  Horae 
Paulinae,  134;  on  devotional  virtue.s, 
163. 

Palm  tree,  an  emblem  of  the  Christian, 
254. 

Pajivrus,  35, 

Parables,  defined,  176;  how  difit'r  from 
figures,  313;  when  used,  314;  how  far 
interpetntion  may  be  pushed.  318; 
scope.  310:  of  Old"  Testament.  319;  of 
New  Testament  classified,  310-22;  of 
Good  Samaritan  and  Prodigal  Son,  310; 
rules  on,  315-20;  books  on,  326;  why 
used  in  our  Lord's  teaching,  615.  (Seo 
Lisco.  Neander,  Allegory.) 

Paradise,  meaning  of,  33. 

Paragraph  Bible.  441;  Paragraphs,  im- 
poi-tance  of  noting,  77, 

Parallel  passages,  miportanoe  of  com- 
paring; verbal  parallels,  201-3;  paral- 
lels of  ideas,  204;  influence  on  text, 
88:  suggest  important  lessons,  411; 
importance  of  studying  illustrated, 
200. 

Parallelism,  use  of  in  interpretation  193; 
fynonymous,  192;  antithetio,  193;  con- 
strucTfve,  441. 


724 


INDEX. 


Parcliment.  34. 

Parenthesis,  195. 

Parents,  their  duties;  examples  of  godly, 

IJG-t. 

Pascal  on  the  study  of  Scripture,  176-7; 
on  Scripture  diffieultie!:',  408. 

Particles,  importance  of,  19.5;  different 
meaning  of,  07. 

Passover,  455-60-70;  when  held,  254;  cus- 
toms at,  289;  type  of  Christ,  312-19. 

P.itif  nee  invoh  ed  m  faith,  690. 

Patriarchs,  their  dispensation,  154;  piety 
of,  449;  their  regard  for  a  future  life, 
384. 

Paul,  his  character,  apostolic  authority, 
663;  last  words,  7Ul;  his  Epistles — 
authority  and  canonieity  ot,  86,  95. 
(.See  Felix.) 

Peace,  the  fruit  of  faith,  072;  how  culti- 
vated. 675. 

Peace  offering,  469. 

Penance  243. 

Penny.  74. 

Pentateuch,  its  titles;  genuineness,  428- 
31:  first  questioned  oy  ifobbes,  431; 
authenticity.  431-5;  various  documents 
used  in  preparing,  434;  peculiar  words 
in,  29. 

Penteco.st,  470. 

Perfection,  meaning  of,  190. 

Persian  words  in  Scripture,  33;  version, 
52;  doctrine  of  evil,  239, 

Peter,  honored  as  the  instrument  of 
earliest  conversions,  204;  his  humility, 
693;  his  last  written  words,  699. 

Petra.  history  of.  307. 

Pharaoh  hardened  by  mercy,  360,  4r.4; 
kings  so  called,  184, 

Pharisees — Pharisaism,  607-S-lO, 

Philemon,  Epistle  to,  683. 

Philippi.ius,  Epistle  to.  684. 

Philistia.  prophecy  against,  534-5. 

Philosophy,  its  influence,  049-59;  evil  in- 
fluence on  the  early  church,  649-50. 

Phoenician  language,  26;  customs,  239. 

Pingre's  tables,  2.J4. 

Plagues  of  Egypt,  405;  their  significance, 
464 

Platonism,  its  influence,  650. 

Playfair's  choronology,  254. 

Plural,  how  used,  181. 

Poetry,  peculiamies  of,  439-41. 

Policy,  worldly,  often  destructive,  524. 

Polyglot,  Complutensian,  16',  London, 
38,  44, 

Popery,  novelties  of  243;  false  interpre- 
tatio'ns  of  196-204,  etc.;  adds  to  Scrip- 
ture, 166;  mischievous  influence  of, 
104. 

Pnner.  Scott,  40,  66. 

Powel's  sutuinary  of  prophecies,  .340. 

Practical  reading  of  Scripture,  sugges- 
tions on,  408—14 :  theology,  what,  355. 

Praitorium,  wliat.  .3110. 

Prayer  of  Christians  asked  for  by 
apostles,  664;  how  offered  under  the 
gospel,  679;  promoted  by  promise, 
36R. 

Prccept.s,  peculiarity  of  Scripture,  124-7, 


231;  based  on  doctrines,  362;  moral 
and  positive,  365;  rules  on,  36G.  (See 
Law.) 

Precious  stones  of  Scripture,  271-2. 

Presumptive  evidence,  108. 

Priests,  meaning  of  217-18;  their  dutie.s, 
support,  etc.,  464-66, 

Promises,  a  revelation  of  God's  counsel, 
367;  universal  and  particular,  absolute 
and  conditional.  309 ;  differ  from  invi- 
tations, 309;  ought  to  guide  to  prayer 
and  holiness,  370. 

Proper  meaning  of  words,  what,  173-4. 

Prophecy,  revives  in  Samuel,  485;  grad- 
ual disclosui-es  of,  486;  moral  lessons 
of,  145,  347;  peculiarities  of  as  to 
time  and  language,  327-31;  the  last  of 
Old  Testament,  580 ;  last  of  the  New, 
716;  nature  of,  as  evidence,  113;  per- 
vades Scripture,  114;  all  subordinate 
to  one  end,  116;  prophecies  concerning 
Christ,  116,  337;  pagan  nations,  118; 
moral  and  evangelical,  145;  double  or 
repe.ated  applications  of,  .333—4,  380; 
rules  of  interpretation,  ;tt.5-7;  sanc- 
tioned by  New  Testament.  386;  two 
systems,  338;  agreement,  345;  differ- 
ence, 3.39;  prophecies  in  historical 
books,  347;  symbols  of  .348;  lime  in, 
310;  books  as"  evidence,  110. 

Proplietical  books  epitomized,  528-30; 
tabular  view  of,  530-4. 

Propitiation,  what,  226. 

Proselytes,  505. 

Proverbs,  book  of  506-11 ;  rules  for  study 
of  508 ;  examples  of  exposition.  508-11, 

Providence, — of  God  illustrated,  4.38, 578; 
lessons  of,  600;  mystery  of,  416;  God 
in  history,  126;  requires  submission, 
416. 

PsaluTS,  name,  Jewish  division  of  494; 
value,  495;  authorship.  494;  arrange- 
ment of  Townsend,  Tholuck,  etc.,  490; 
chronological  arrangement,  497-.5O0; 
their  titles,  501-3;  rules  for  studying, 
503;  a  manual  of  devotion,  153,  487; 
arranged  as  such,  490. 

Ptolemy,  common  name,  184. 

Publicans.  284. 

Purgatory,  on  what  passage  it  is  sup- 
posed to  rest,  197. 

Purification  under  the  law,  spiritual  sig- 
nificance of  409. 

Purim,  feast  of,  471. 

Qualities,  how  expressed  in  Hebrew, 
180. 

Questions  in  reading  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 634, 

Quotations  in  the  fathers.  18;  influence 
of  on  the  text  of  LXX.,  58;  in  New 
Testament,  classified.  378;  nuniVjer  of, 
from  Pentateuch,  379;  variations  in, 
reasons  for,  3sl;  omissions  in,  3.82; 
in  Revelation,  383;  truths  taught  in, 
383. 

Rahab,  her  faith;  an  ancestress  of  the 
Messiah,  478. 


INDEX. 


725 


Rain  under  God's  control,  309;  unusual 
in  harvest,  oil;  early  and  latter,  312. 

Rambaoh's  "  Institutioues  Hermeiieu- 
ticte,  422. 

Rather,  meaning  of,  196. 

Rationali.'iin,  its  evils,  608. 

Rebecca,  lessons  taug.ht  in  her  history, 
406. 

Reconciliation,  meaning  of.  226. 

Redemption,  meaning  of,  227;  its  source 
God's  love.  672. 

Relative  duties,  how  taught  and  enforced, 
615,  664. 

Religion,  objective  and  subjective.  160; 
meaning  of  the  word  in  Scripture,  75; 
a  natural  necessity,  676. 

Repentance,  two  meanmgs  of,  72;  ap- 
plied to  God,  171;  a  gift  and  a  duty, 
.S56:  needed  but  not  efficacious,  illus- 
trated by  examples,  319,  375 ;  by  para- 
bles, 420-1. 

Resurrection,  doctrine  of,  665;  of  Christ, 
its  significance  and  importance.  359; 
an  Old  Testament  type ;  the  first  fruits, 
313. 

Revelation  progressive,  150 ;  unity  of,  156. 

Revelation,  date  and  contents,  705;  its 
chief  tlieme;  three  theories  of  inter- 
pretation. 708-9;  lessons  revealed  in, 
il3;  closing  chapters  of,  compared 
with  otiier  cliapters  of  Scripture.  715. 

Revenue  of  Judsea  in  our  Lord's  day. 
299 :  different  kinds  of,  how  collected, 
282-3. 

Reverence  needed  in  studying  Scripture, 
12,177,408. 

Rhemish  Testament.  80. 

Rice,  how  .sown,  3'.)1. 

Riddles  of  Scripture,  175. 

Ridley,  the  martyr,  on  Scripture  myste- 
ries, 358. 

Righteous,  meaning  of,  194. 

Righteousness  ot  God,  why  justification 
is  .so  called,  670. 

Rock  of  the  church,  204;  rocks  of  Scrip- 
ture, 270-1. 

Roman  empire  foretold,  118,  561. 

Romans,  Epistle  to,  scope,  contents, 
and  argument,  666;  character  of  the 
cluirch,  667;  various  readings,  23; 
scope,  200;  reconciled  with  James, 
396. 

Rossi,  De,  MRS.  of,  17,  44. 

Rules  of  interpretation,  179-207;  and 
utility  of,  208.  (See  prophecy.  Parable, 
etc.) 

Ruth,  lessons  taught  in  her  history.  483; 
book  of,  482;  place  in  history,  510. 

Ryan  on  the  effects  of  religion,  132. 

Sabrath,  when  instituted;  how  to  be  ob- 
served, 445;  law  of,  mixed,  365;  Sab- 
bath-day's joiu'ney,  286. 

Sabbatical  year,  460. 

Sacrifice,  first  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
446;  meaning  of.  under  the  law,  172, 
21S.  40;i;  essential  to  salvation,  159. 

Sadducee.s  then'  numbers,  tenet.s,  and 
innnorallly,  6117-I0. 

61* 


Salutation,  eastern,  290. 

Salvation  by  law  proved  hopeless,  424; 
meaning  of,  187-94-228;  man's  need  of, 
672;  by  fire.  197. 

Samaria,  the  crown  of  pride,  307 

Samaritan  language.  27;  Pentateuch,  27, 
50;  chronology,  247. 

Samaritans,  their  origin  and  views,  525, 
612. 

Samuel,  books  of,  484-7. 

Sandals,  customs  connected  with,  279. 

Sanhedrim,  how  composed,  611. 

Satan,  his  character  and  personality,  445; 
his  agency,  and  our  duty.  357. 

Satisfaction,  doctrine  of,  228. 

Schmidt's  Concordance,  2.30. 

Schoetgenius  Horse  Heb.,  249. 

Scholiasts.  Greek,  use  of  224. 

Scholz.  New  Testament, 39. 

Schools  erf  the  prophets,  582. 

Science,  agreement  of  Scripture  with, 
148;  exceptions,  149;  not  to  be  sought 
in  Scripture,  146. 

Scope,  importance  of  marking;  how 
learned,  197;  ettect  of,  in  fixing  sense, 
198;  in  correcting  discrepancies,  199; 
in  teaching  lessons,  410. 

Scribes,  611. 

Scripture,  study  of,  11, 177-8.  (See  Bible, 
Old  Testament,  Written  Revelation.) 

Sea,  meaning  of,  3C6. 

Sealing,  291. 

Seasons  in  Judsea,  310. 

Sects,  enumerated,  603-12;  Jewish,  illus- 
trate human  nature,  613. 

Self  deception,  illustrated,  162. 

Sense  of  .Scripture.  166. 

Septuagint.    (See  Greek  version.) 

Sepulchres.  291. 

Servants,  their  duties,  448;  may  adorn 
the  gospel.  604. 

Seven;  seventy,  183. 

Shall,  doable  meaning  of,  73. 

Sheep,  tails  of  whv  offered,  habits  of,  257. 

Sheplierds  in  Egypt,  240,  432. 

Shew-bread.  463. 

Shiloh,  295-6. 

Silence  of  Scripture,  147. 

Simon  the  Just,  603. 

Simoom,  308. 

Sin  punished,  as  dishonoring  God,  126; 
how  described  and  illustrated,  161-2; 
the  first,  its  destructiveness,  144,  446; 
results.  357,  451;  how  punished  in  na- 
tions. 524-5;  referred  to  in  Job,  437. 

Sinai,  185,  299. 

Sodom,  guilt  of,  244. 

Sohar  of  R.  Simeon,  238. 

Solomon,  his  character  and  reign,  492-3, 
his  sin  and  its  results,  244;  prophecies 
concerning,  485. 

Son,  the  word,  how  used.  lSl-3. 

Song  of  Solomon,  canonicity  and  spiri- 
tual, 503-6;  significance,  abuse  in  in- 
lerpreting,  505. 

Songs  of  degrees,  19S,  502. 

Spirit.  Holy,  how  revealed,  151,  547;  hi.s 
teaching  needed,  177;  given  at  Pente- 
cost, 315;  his  personality  and  work,  642. 


726 


INDEX. 


Spiritual  truth  revealed  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, 168. 

Spiritual  illumination,  limit  of,  178. 

Spurious,  meaning  of,  16. 

Stoics,  i'W,  608. 

Substitution,  229. 

Sutis,  608. 

Synagogues,  origin  of,  464. 

Synecdoche,  174. 

Systematic  divinity,  how  framed,  ."iia-lQ; 
differs  from  interpretation,  614;  evil 
of  repudiating,  517;  canons  on  forming, 
521;  examples  of,  664,  672. 

Tabernacle,  the,  463;  feast  of  Taberna- 
cles, 470;  custom  at,  291. 

TaVjles  of  weights,  etc.,  285-6. 

Talbot's  Bible,  422. 

Talmud,  what,  6(i9. 

Targums,  various,  19;  utility;  214,  238; 
origin  of,  608. 

Tarshish.  20.3. 

Taxation,  283-4. 

Taylor's  Hebrew  and  English  Concor- 
dances, 2.30. 

Temple,  the,  a  type  of  Christ  and  of  the 
church,  331 ;  history  of,  connected  with 
that  of  the  Jews,  493:  different  names 
of,  72;  brief  history  of,  302-3. 

Ten,  usage  as  to,  183. 

Tenses,  translation  of,  70. 

Tents,  eastern.  274-5. 

Testament,  New,  613;  connection  of 
books  of,  426;  peculiarities  of,  425-7, 
614;  chief  source  of  doctrine,  356.  (See 
Old.) 

Textus  receptus.  16. 

Thauk-otfenngs,  468. 

Then,  therefore,  195. 

Theodotion,  version  of,  21. 

Theologj'.  what,  211;  dogmatic  and 
practical,  355.  (See  SysteiJiatic  Di- 
vinity.) 

Therapeutte,  60S. 

Thessaloiiians,  Epistles  to,  6.53-6. 

Thessaloiiica.  its  character,  653. 

Tholuck  on  relijiious  insiglit,  177;  and 
grammatical  analysis,  179. 

Thomson  on  relative  importance  of 
truth,  359. 

Tiberias,  city  of  .306. 

Time  in  prophecy,  34.5-6. 

Timothy,  date  and  contents  of  Epistles 
to.  693-5. 

Titus,  date,  scope,  and  contents  of, 
695-7. 

Towns  of  Piilestine,  277. 

Tradition,  questions  of,  608. 

Translation    of  Scripture,  early,  19,  45, 
etc. 
Authorized  version,  79. 
Armenian  version,  20,  49. 
Anglo-Saxon,  49. 
Dutch,  216. 
French.  216. 
Georgian,  49. 
German,  216. 
Gothic,  49. 
Italian,  217. 


Italic,  old,  47. 
Ijatin.  modern,  215. 
Sahidic,  20 
Slavonic,  49. 
Spanish,  216 

(See  al.so  Arabic.  English.  Egyptian, 
Ethiopic,   Persian,  Greek,  Script., 
Syriac,  Vulgate.) 
Translations,  utility  of.  for  interpretation, 

217. 
Transubstantiation,  156,  243. 
Tregelles,  principle  of  classifying,  MSS., 

40. 
Trespass-offerings,  468. 
Trinity,  what^  how  revealed  in   Old  Tes- 
tament, 150. 
Trommius  Concordance,  230 
Tropes,  173-5.    (See  Figurative.) 
Truth,  summaries  of  15S-79,  .355, 516. 
Types,    172-5,    315-16,    322-5,    464;     di- 
visible    into     (1.)     Pcrsrnial,  —  Adam, 
Aaron.    Joshua.    .'Solomon,     etc.;    (2.) 
Historical, — The   Brazen  Serpent:   (3.) 
Meliyiotis  Institutes. — Tabernacle,  Mer- 
cy-seat, Sacrifice,  Passover,  etc     See 
on  The  general  principle,  315,  106,  109, 
332. 

Unbelief,  a  great  sin.  356;  illustra- 
ted in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man, 
420-21. 

Uneharitableness,  sin  of,  439. 

Uncial  M.SS.,  41. 

Untranslated  words  of  Scripture,  75. 

Various  re.\.dings,  number  of,  23,  24;  ori- 
gin of,  53-61 ;  rules  for  ascertaining  the 
value  of  60-66;  difficulties  created  by 
389-93.    (See  Conjectural.) 

Verbs  of  action,  how  used  in  Scripture, 
183. 

Versions  (see  Tr.an.«lation). 

Vinegar,  what,  282. 

Virtues  have  their  counterfeits,  450. 

Visiting  the  sins  of  the  fathers  on  the 
children.  361-97. 

Voltaire's  abuse  of  Ecclesiastes,  513;  ob- 
jections to  Scriptures,  75-154 

Vulgate,  history  of,  20,  48;  errors  in  text, 
48;  utility  of,  215. 

Warburton     on     Scripture    diflticultie.s, 

408- 

Warfare,  the  Christian,  681. 

Weights.  284. 

Wells,  their  value,  309. 

Wemyss'  Key  to  the  symbolical  language 
of  Scripture,  .348. 

Wetstein's  New  Testament,  238. 

Whirlwinds,  eflfects  of,  308. 

White  stone,  291. 

Will,  double  meaning  of  73. 

VVi.~dom.— is  with  the  meek,  178;  of  our 
Lord.  129,  614-15:  man's  to  be  distrust- 
ed. 407;  worldly,  folly  of  in  Jeroboam, 
581:  tested  by  affiicuon.  413;  in  Prov. 
and  Eeclcs.,  513. 

Word  of  God,  significance  of  title,  14, 
15. 


INDEX. 


727 


Words,  common  meaning  of,  179;  to  be 

preferred,  210;  lessons  taught  by,  410; 
use  of  etymology  in  explaining,  21S. 

World,  290;  elements  of;  course  of.  191. 

Wor.^hip,  acceptable,  first  recorded  act 
of,  44G;  public,  among  the  Jews,  463;  a 
duty,  673. 

Written  revelation,  advantage  of,  81;  cau- 
tion respecting  the  use  of,  81. 

Year,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  287;  sab- 
batical, of  Jubilee,  471-2. 


Zeal,  instance  of,  312-13;  inculcated  on 
all.  674. 

Zealots,  who,  610. 

Zech.iriah,  the  son  of  Karaehiah.  394. 

Zechariah,  Vjook  of,  57:^-.'i;  style  of,  29; 
his  name  confounded  with  tliat  of  Jere- 
miah, 572;  Psalms  ascribed  to,  575; 
meaning  of  his  predictions,  573. 

Zedekiah,  remarkable  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy on,  253. 

Zephaniah,  book  of,  551-3 ;  stvle  of,  29. 

Zerubbabel,  an  ancestor  of  Christ,  593. 


THE   END. 


Date  Due                        i 

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